Potable Water Treatment

By:
Eng.Miral
 Surface water and groundwater can be the source of drinking
water for an individual homeowner or for large municipality.

 To serve as a supply for municipal potable (drinkable) water,

the source must be plentiful, secure, and economical.

 Plentiful : it mean that the supply is adequate to meet the

city’s water demands, including the daily, weekly, or seasonal
fluctuations, without danger of shortages.
 Secure: it mean that the source is not readily subject to willful
or accidental contamination, is not subject to arbitrary
decrease for political or economic reasons, and such
conditions are likely to remain in effect for years to come.

 Economical: it mean that the supply can be treated to

acceptable quality and distributed at reasonable cost to all the
customers of the water utility or company.

 the flow of water from the environment (from any source

e.g., a lake, a river, an aquifer) to users in a city, and the flow
of wastewater from users back into the environment is shown
in figure 5.1.
 Two types of treatment plants are shown in the diagram,
although some of the unit operations the use are similar, the
two plants have very different goals.

 The first type of plant is potable water treatment and the

second type is wastewater treatment.

 water treatment plants (or drinking water treatment

plants): use any of the different processes that take the
environmental quality water and bring it up to potable
(drinkable) water standards.
 Wastewater (or sewage) treatment plants: may use any of
the different processes that treat municipal wastewater to
bring it up to acceptable quality for safe discharge back into
the environment (e.g., a lake , a river, or the ocean).

 The specific design of potable water treatment plants

throughout the country depend heavily on:

1. Knowing where you are–that is, knowing the source water

characteristics.

2. Knowing where you want to go–that is, the potable water

standards that you are trying to meet.
 Standards for potable water treatment are much the same
throughout the country, although a few states may have
stricter standards for specific contaminants.

 For Example: Florida maintains a lower standard for sodium

to help prevent high blood pressure among the state’s elderly
( a large percentage of the total population).

 The characteristics of source waters can vary widely; surface

water are much different from groundwater.
 Surface water sources:
 Tend to be more variable (both in quality and quantity) than
groundwater sources
 Tend to have more suspended solids, more organics, more
dissolved oxygen, and more bacteria than groundwater
sources .
 They are more easily contaminated by an accidental spill or
by polluted runoff than groundwater sources .
 More easily cleaned in compare with groundwater cources.
 Often have high color associated with naturally active
organic material (such as leaves and other debris) as well as
high turbidity (organic and inorganic suspended solids).

 Some surface waters have low concentrations of total

dissolved solids(TDS), such as in mountain streams or
lakes, while brackish or salty water may have very high
concentrations of TDS.
 River water characteristics may exhibit pronounced
seasonal variations, such as wet season and dry season
flows or increased sediment load following precipitation
and runoff events, and often carry more nutrients and
pesticides during farming season.

 Lakes and reservoirs may exhibit algal blooms in the

summer and stratification in the winter.
 Surface water resources have a high potential to form
disinfection by products due to the elevated organic
concentration.

 Removal of organic compounds prior to chlorination, may

be necessary to minimize formation of disinfection by-
product.

 Treatment objectives focus on removal of turbidity and

disinfection .
 Underground water source:
 Tend to have more dissolved solids, especially calcium and
magnesium ( primary ions contributing to hardness) if they
located within a limestone aquifer than surface water.
 Once contaminated, may take years or decades to
remediate.
 Often contain dissolved gases like carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide, and have nearly zero dissolved oxygen.
 Often exhibit great spatial variability in composition from one
place in country to another.

 Groundwater characteristics may vary considerably with

depth, owning to the possibility of different aquifer
formations.

 Some groundwater sources require minimal treatment perhaps

only disinfection, in order to comply with drinking standards.
 Other groundwater sources require removal of iron,
manganese, hydrogen sulfide, hardness (calcium and
magnesium), natural organic that are major to disinfection
by- products, and/or dissolved solids.

 Agricultural activity may contaminate shallow aquifers with

pesticides and/ or nitrate.
 The evolution of drinking water treatment objectives
throughout the developed world has followed a similar
pattern.

 Effort in developed countries in the early 20th century were

directed at preventing acute health effects, in particular
transmission of waterborne diseases, including various
bacterial, viral, and protozoan infections.
 The widespread adoption of chlorination of public water
supplies has been very effective in the control of cholera,
typhoid fever and other diseases associated with tainted
water.
 In the mid-20th century, the aesthetic qualities of the
finished water were addressed, with a goal to produce water
that has excellent taste, odor, and appearance.
 In the last 30-40 years, treatment objectives have focused
on chronic health effects, principally those related to an
increased incidence of cancer, associated with ingestion of
low concentrations of suspected carcinogenic compounds
( including disinfection by products) present in potable water.

 The initial focus of water treatment on the prevention of

waterborne disease was justified based on the prevalence of
illnesses cased by contaminated water supplies in the mid
to late 19th century.
 It is now commonly accepted that cholera was the disease
of the 19th century.

 The pioneering work of Dr.John Snow to identify the cause

of cholera outbreak in London in 1849 is widely cited as the
first discovery of disease transmission by public water
supplies, Dr.Snow concluded that the cases centered around
a contaminated well, so the cholera outbreak ended.
 Although public water supplies in well-developed countries
are now widely accepted as being free of infectious agents,
much of the population of the undeveloped world still relies
on water supplies are not adequately treated to prevent
waterborne disease.

 Good progress has been made in the last 20 years.

 In 1990s, it was reported that the worldwide, about 3
million children younger than five died from complication
of diarrhea each year.

 In 2013, worldwide deaths from diarrhea for children under

five were about 760,000 per year according to the World
Health Organization (WHO 2013).
 From 1970 through 1995, a total of 740 outbreaks of
infectious disease associated with contaminated water
supplies were reported.

 Concurrent with the development of standards to address

chronic health effects, it is discovered that the use of
chlorine for disinfection of water often results in the
formation of chlorinated organic compounds that are case
cancers.
 These compounds, referred to collectively as disinfection by
product, are formed by reaction naturally occurring organic
matter with chlorine.

 Federal potable water standards have been established by the

US EPA work to the safe drinking water act of 1974. Two
sets of limits were listed by EPA : MCLGs and MCLs.
 MCLG: (maximum contaminant level goal) , it mean the
“level of contaminant in drinking water below which there
is no known or expected risk to health” (mg/L) ( US EPA
2013)
 MCL: (maximum contaminant level) (mg/L). It mean the “
highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking
water”.
 MCLs are enforceable standards.
 MCLG for a known carcinogen is set at zero
 The presence of lead and Copper are normally the results
of corrosion of old plumbing .

 National secondary standards for potable water are

summarized in table 5.2 .
 Public water utilities aim to meet secondary standards ( non
enforceable to address potential issues of taste, odor, and
the appearance of water.

 The sanders in table 5.1 & 5.2 were based on the use of
uncontaminated natural waters as a drinking water sources.
 Water treatment plant is a combination of several unit operations
put together to achieve specific objectives.

 It is important to remember that the whole plant is operated as

one process, so all components must work together. Each design
is site- specific and depends on the row water characteristics.

 Figure 5.2 presents two typical treatment trains for a surface

water.
 Water flows through a bar rack to remove large objects (
e.g., sticks or branches)

 and then through a finer screen to remove large particles

( e.g., piece of soil or pebbles).

 The tiny particles remaining in the water include inorganic

(clay and silt particles) and organic (algal biomass)
components.
 These colloidal particles are very small in diameter and
only slightly denser than water

 They often carry a negative charge on their surface.

 The settling velocity of such particles is extremely low.

settling is enhanced for larger diameter or denser particles,
so the unit operation of coagulation and flocculation are
needed.
 The presence of negative charges on almost all of the
particles results in electrostatic repulsive forces between
the small particles and prevents agglomeration (formation
of larger particles from smaller ones)

 Without chemical treatment to alter the particle

characteristic, gravity sedimentation would not work very
well.
 A coagulation chemical, commonly alum
[ AL2(SO4)3 ∙ 14H2O] is added during a rapid-mix
process to destabilize the charge on the particles surface and
promote particles interactions.

 After coagulation, agglomeration of the destabilized particles

if further promoted by gentle mixing (flocculation) in the
second tank. The collisions of particles result in particle
“ growth” and the large particles are now able to settle faster.
 Subsequent sedimentation is now more effective in
removing most suspended solids.

 Filtration (often through a sand filter) is used as final

finishing step to remove all remaining turbidity.

 The filtered water flows through a chlorine disinfection

process to disinfect the water from any microorganism
that made it though a filter.
 After filtration, some surface water may still contain natural
organic matter that is dissolved and thus not removable by
the previous operation.

 Dissolved organics often are precursors to Trihalomethane

( THM).

 when chlorine combines with other materials in water, it

forms chloroform and related chemicals called
trihalomethanes .
 After the disinfection process, any residual chlorine reacts
with organics to form THMs , often in the excess of MCLs.
That fact is one reason why monochloramine often is used
to maintain the chlorine residual needed in water destruction
systems.
 Used in drinking water treatment are microfiltration (MF),
Ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis
(RO).

 Membranes : filter out tiny particles and even large

dissolved organic molecules and remove them from the
water.
 MF and UF are often used to remove TSS, bacteria, and
pathogens.

 NF and RO are used to remove even smaller particles as

well as certain ions and dissolved organic matter prior to
disinfection.

 Thus membrane can help to prevent the formation of THMs

in the finished water.
 RO membranes have been used to desalt brackish
groundwater for more than 40 years.

 NF membranes have been used to remove hardness for

more than 20 years.

 UF membranes processes have become much more popular

in the last two decades, and are now widely used throughout
the world.
 In cases where the raw water is relatively clean ( as indicated
low turbidity), UF membranes make it possible to avoid
building a large sedimentation tank.
 Groundwater often has a different set of characteristics from
surface water, and thus required different unit operations to
produce potable water.

 Many groundwater contain substantial concentration og

calcium and magnesium. These ions cause hardness which
create particular problems for consumers.
 It is often desirable for the water utility to soften the water
before distributing it. This is done chemically, using lime
soda ash.
 Groundwater must be aerated to remove any objectionable
gases.
 Alternative process have been developed that also can
remove hardness from water such process include ion
exchange and membrane processes such as (NF) and (RO) .
 Figure 5.3 presents two typical treatment trains for a
groundwater.
 Rapid Mix

 The Rapid- mixing operation strives to rapidly and

completely mix a chemical (e.g., alum) with water

 This operation uses mechanical mixers (moter driven

paddles) that impart energy into water .
 The water flows continuously through a tank as the chemical

is continuously injected and mixed.

 The tanks often have baffles to prevent vortices from

forming.

 The detention time (also known as the hydraulic residence

time (HRT)) in the tank is less than one minute, and is

defined as:

θ= HRT= V/Q (5.1)

 Where:

θ = detention time, min

HRT = hydraulic residence time, min

V = volume of the tank, ft3or m3

Q = flow rate, ft3/ min or m3/min

 Another parameter used in the design and operation of rapid mix

tanks is the velocity gradient. Which is an indicator of the degree
of mixing
 it is related to the power being imported into the tank, the

volume of the tank, and the viscosity of the water.

G = 1,000 (P/μV)1/2

Where:

G = velocity gradient, sec-1

P = power imported to the water,kW

μ = absolute (dynamic) viscosity of water, cp

V = volume of the tank, ft3or m3

 Rapid mix tanks are open top tanks and can be square or

circular; the mixers are usually top mounted with long shaft

that extend into the water.

 The detention time and velocity gradient are inversely

related . That is, as θ goes up, G goes down.

 The absolute viscosity ( not the kinematic viscosity) of

water varies inversely with temperature, going from 1.55

centipoise (cp) at 40 F° to 0.98 cp at 70 F° to 076 cp at 90

F° ( 1cp = 0.001 pa.s = 0.001 N.s/m2 .

You are designing a rapid- mix tank at the water treatment

plant that is treating 5.0 million gallons per day (MGD). You

want a square tank with a water depth = 1.5 times with a

width of the tank the detention time is to be 40 seconds with

a velocity gradient of 800 sec-1. the water temperature is 60

F°, at which the viscosity is 1.13 cp. Calculate the tank

dimensions in (ft) and the power required in (hp).

Solution:
The tank volume is
V = Qθ
Convert gal /day to ft3/s (5.0(10) 6 x 0.1337) / (24x60x6) = 7.74
ft3 /s)
V = 40 x 7.74= 310 ft3

for square tank with a water depth = 1.5 times with a width
square tank means L= W so ,
V= W2 x 1.5 W = 1.5 W3

W = (310/ 1.5) 1/3 = 5.912 ft so

L = 5.912 ft
D = 1.5x 5.912 = 8.868 ft
To calculated power needed :

G = 1,000 (P/μV)1/2

Convert volume from ft 3 to m 3

V = (310 x 0.02832 ) = 8.779

p = (G/1000) 2 x μV
= (800/1000)2 x 1.13 x 8.779
= 6.35 kW

1 kW = 1.341 hp so,
P = 6.35 x 1.341
= 8.5 hp
 Coagulation / Flocculation
 Coagulation
 The purpose of coagulation is to allow a chemical to react with
water and change the characteristics of tiny particles that
otherwise would not settle in the reasonable time.

 For small gravel or large sand particles (which are dense

compared with water), gravitational settling velocities are fast.
But as particles get smaller, even if they are dense, their
settling velocities decrease such that the time required to
separate them from water by gravitational settling increase
beyond reason.
 Both aluminum sulfate (alum) ( Al2(SO4) and iron chloride
(FeCl3) have been used as coagulants.

 These coagulants are very effective at agglomerating these

tiny particles into small “floc” particles (relatively large
agglomerated particles made up of solids, coagulants, and
water trapped in open spaces).
 These floc particles generally have a specific gravity close to
that of water and so still settle slowly ,unless we can make
them even bigger- this is the purpose of the Flocculation.
 Flocculation
It is the next step toward separating colloidal particles from
water .after small the small floc is formed in the rapid small
tank, the water flows into the flocculation basin where it’s
slowly stirred and detained from the time needed to form
larger floc particles that will settle.
 The slow stirring is important because if the tips of the paddles
move through the water faster than about 1 m/s, the large floc
that is forming will be broken up.

 The hydraulic residence time (HRT) in these tanks varies

between 10 minutes to an hour, and it is calculated identically
to the detention time defined by equation 5.1

 The difference is that the longer HRT requires that a

flocculation tank be much larger than a rapid mix- tank.

 Often, these large flocculation basins are subdivided with
baffles to ensure that the water does not “short- circuit” the
system, and flows through the entire volume.

 Figure 5.4 shows a rapid-mix tank and flocculation basin as a

part of one unit.
 Sedimentation
 After flocculation, the water must spend some time in a very
quiescent flow regime for the floc to settle; this process is
called sedimentation
 If the particle settles to the bottom of the tank before the water
reaches the outlet end of the tank, then the particle will be
collected and removed from the water. If not, then the particle
is not collected, and flows out with the water.
 The settling velocity is a function of the particle size and
density, the water viscosity, and the flow regime.
 Rapid sand Filtration
 Sedimentation tanks are not 100% efficient. There are always
some particles remaining in the overflow water from such
tanks, Filtration is used to remove remaining turbidity.

 Water is allowed to flow by garvity through a 2- to 3-ft layer

of sand, which removes the remaining floc and any other
unsettled particles.
 The sand is supported on a 1- to 2-ft bed of gravel (to keep the
sand from falling out the bottom of the filter)

 The gravel is supported on a steel grate and coarse screen.

 As the water flows downward through the layer of filter,

particles are caught throughout the depth of the filter.
 This flirting in depth ensures good removal of particles and
allows the filter to run for longer period of time before getting
clogged than if we simply used the filter of cloth.

 Sometimes, a 1- to 2- ft layer of charcoal lies atop the sand,

which leads the name of multimedia the charcoal is coarser
but lighter than sand.

 The purpose of the coarseness is to filter out larger particles

and prevent them from quickly clogging the sand.
 The purpose of lightness is so the charcoal will stay on top of
sand during the backwash process.

 The filter eventually gets plugged up and must be cleaned.

Cleaning of the multimedia bed is done by using some of
product water to pump backwash and upward through the filter
at high speed to expand the bed.

 To allow the plant to keep running during backwash events, and

for redundancy in the plant, several filters are operated in
parallel.
 The size of these filters can range from surface areas of 2,50-
1,000 ft2 and depths of 10-20 feet.

 Backwash occur as needed when the filtering rate slow down

enough, but typically they happen about once per day.
 Disinfection
 The purpose of disinfection is to kill pathogenic
microorganisms; it is not sterilization (which kill all
microorganisms ).

 In water treatment we talk about primary and secondary

disinfection

 Primary disinfection is the initial contact of chlorine or some

other strong disinfectant wither the water.
 Secondary disinfection refers to maintaining a residual
concentration of disinfectant in the distribution system.
 Ozone and other chemicals are sometimes used.
 Primary disinfection is achieved most commonly by
chlorination (adding chlorine to water and allowing time for
it to work).
 Secondary disinfection often is accomplished using
monochlooramine, which helps to prevent the formation of
disinfection by product.
 Aeration for removal of hydrogen sulfide from
groundwater
 Some compounds that are present in the groundwater are
volatile (either true gases or high vaper pressure liquids)
 These compounds may be transferred from the water to
atmosphere by aeration (or air stripping)
 These strategy is employed for removal of certain industrial
contaminants (for example, trichloroethylene, carbon
tetrachloride, or gasoline-type hydrocarbons )
 For such air stripping applications, a packed tower is often necessary
to achieve good removal.

 Air is blown into the bottom of the tower. As air and water pass each
other, the volatile compounds are transferred out f the water and into
the air and are discharged from the top of the tower with the air. The
cleaned water flows out of the bottom.

 If needed APC are install on the air exhaust stream to assure that this
solution of a groundwater pollution problem is not achieved at the
expense of contamination of the air.
 A far more common application of air stripping in potable water
treatment is for removal of naturally occurring of dissolved gases
from groundwater, principally hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

 hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a common contaminant in many

groundwater .It is produces an unpleasant taste and odor with a
characteristic smell eggs.

 Disinfection, typically with chlorine , is practiced after aeration

because H2S will consume chlorine.
 Lime-soda softening of groundwater
 Polyvalent metal ions (mainly clcium and magnesium) contribute
to hardness into water. These ions are not regulated by either the
primary or secondary drinking water standard.

 Removal of these ions is commonly practiced in order to minimize

customer complaints (mainly scaling problems in the water
distribution system, water heaters, bathtubs, and shower stalls)

 Scale is the deposition of an insoluble salt of calcium or

magnesium.
 Hardness contributes to excessive consumption of detergents during
laundry operations.
 Typical local goals for hardness of finished water range from 60 to
120 mg/L expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
 Classification of water based on hardness is presented in table 5.5
 Softening is a process of removing from the water ions that cause
hardness primarily calcium and magnesium.
 In lime soda softening, the chemical lime(calcium
hydroxide(Ca(OH)2))) and soda (soda ash) (sodium
carbonate(Na2CO3) ) are used in a series of reactions (depending on
the water composition) to remove these ions.
 Table 5.5 Characterization of water Hardness *
Description Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3

Soft <60

Moderately hard 60 to 120

Hard 120 to 180

very hard >180

* USGS classification system

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