INDEX

TOPICS

 Certificates………………………………………………………………………………………
 Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………........

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction of the project …………………………………………………………………………………

1.2 Project overview……………………………………………………………………………………………...

1.3 Thesis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.1 Introduction with block diagram……………………………………………………………………………

2.2 Regulated power supply……………………………………………………………………………………...

2.3 LED indicator…………………..…..……………………………….………………………………………...

2.4 Function generator…………………….…………..……………………………………………….…………

2.5 Copper coil…….………………………………………………………………………………………………

2.6 MOSFET’s…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

CHAPTER 3: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Express PCB…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3.2 PIC C Compiler……………………………………………………………………………………………….

3.3 Proteus software………………………………………………………………………………………………

3.4 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and dumping……………………………………..

1
CHAPTER 4: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 6: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES

2
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:

Automation has created a bigger hype in the electronics. The major reason for this type is
automation provides greater advantages like accuracy, energy conversation, reliability and more over
the automated systems do not require any human attention. Any one of the requirements stated above
demands for the design of an automated device.

Wireless energy transfer or wireless power is the transmission of electrical energy from a
power source to an electrical load without a conductive physical connection. Wireless transmission is
useful in cases where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. The
problem of wireless power transmission differs from that of wireless telecommunications, such as
radio. In the latter, the proportion of energy received becomes critical only if it is too low for the
signal to be distinguished from the background noise. With wireless power, efficiency is the more
significant parameter. A large part of the energy sent out by the generating plant must arrive at the
receiver or receivers to make the system economical. The most common form of wireless power
transmission is carried out using direct induction followed by resonant magnetic induction.

The project consists of two self resonating copper coils of same resonating frequency of about
100KHZ. One copper wire is connected to the power source (transmitter), while the other copper wire
is connected to the device (Receiver).The electric power from the power source causes the copper coil
connected to it to start oscillating at a particular (KHz) frequency. Subsequently, the space around the
copper coil gets filled with nonmagnetic radiations. This generated magnetic field further transfers the
power to the other copper coil connected to the receiver. Since this coil is also of the same frequency,
it starts oscillating at the same frequency as the first coil. This is known as 'coupled resonance' and is
the principle of Tesla.

This project results in a device where the electricity is transmitted wirelessly through copper
coils for a distance range of about 5 cm. The system uses pulse generator of 100 KHZ at the
transmitter circuit. Therefore, the current flows from the coil on the transmitter side to the receiver
side coil wirelessly connected with rectifier and regulator.

3
 In this project we are using transformer, RPS, Pulse Generator, a pair of copper coils,
rectifier, filter and a load

Features:

1. Copper Coil System

2. Usage of pulse generator

3. Highly Sensitive

1.2 Project Overview:

The project “Wireless Power Transmission with battery charging” using copper coils,
function generator as PIC 16F72, switch, MOSFET’s, and regulated power supply is an exclusive
project that can generate power wirelessly using copper coils.
1.3 Thesis Overview:

The thesis explains the implementation of “Wireless Power Transmission

with battery charging”. The organization of the thesis is explained here with:

Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the project
overview a brief introduction “Wireless Power Transmission with battery charging” and its
applications are discussed.

Chapter 2 Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block diagram of the project and
explains the purpose of each block. In the same chapter the explanation of power supplies, copper
coils, function generator as PIC16F72, MOSFET’s, switch and regulated power supply are
considered.

Chapter 3 Presents the project description along with copper coils; PIC 16F72 as function generator,
MOSFET’s, switch and regulated power supply are interfacing.

Chapter 4 Presents the software description. It explains the implementation of the project using PIC
C Compiler software.

Chapter 5 Presents the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the project.

Chapter 6 Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the project.
4
 CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.1 Introduction:

In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1:

FIG 2.1: Block diagram Wireless Power Transmission with battery charging

The main blocks of this project are:

1. Regulated power supply (RPS)

2. LED Indicator

3. Copper coils

4. MOSFET
5
2.2 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

2.2.1 Introduction:

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical
or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The
term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and
rarely to others.

A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or

secondary sources of energy such as

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic devices.
Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the devices they
supply, such as computers and household electronics.
 Batteries.

 Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.

 Solar power.

 Generators or alternators.

2.3.2 Block Diagram:

6
 Fig 2.3.2 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as
load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.

Fig 2.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

7
The components mainly used in above figure are

 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called
transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

Transformers:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A varying current in the first
or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to
the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar magnet.

If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the
current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.

If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or in, the
moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is induced in the
second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called
MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.
8
 The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the SECONDARY
WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.

Fig 2.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will have half
the primary voltage.

Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns,
then the turn’s ratio is 10:1.

If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10 smaller = 24
volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the power
taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24 volt secondary, then the
primary must supply 24 watts.

To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound on a
metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this core, the core
is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets insulated from each other.
Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.

9
 Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing current
and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there would be no
induction.

Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary. This
is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down into the mains supply,
or in the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE MATCHING.

We can use the transformers as step up or step down.

Step Up transformer:

In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to

secondary winding. Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it
releases more voltage at the output side.

Step down transformer:

Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it accepts
less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Battery power supply:

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional line-
operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of multiple
electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows Hi-Watt 9V battery

10
 Fig 2.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell battery. Dry-cell
batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate
alternately until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have one
of the following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-zinc battery,
the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide is reduced at the
carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.

The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it consists of
lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this type
of battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During discharge,
the lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When the battery is
charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickel-cadmium battery has
become more popular in recent years. This battery cell is completely sealed and rechargeable. The
electrolyte is not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage constant over the span of
the batteries long service life. During the charging process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its higher
oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium batteries have many benefits.
They can be stored both charged and uncharged. They have a long service life, high current
availabilities, constant voltage, and the ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of
1.5V.

Fig 2.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

RECTIFICATION:

11
 The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is called
as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.

Rectifiers:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct

current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of
power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes,
vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as
an inverter.

When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost
all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting
AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor
rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used.

Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig: 3.3.7, which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the
figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two
ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load
12
resistance RL and hence the current flows through R L in the same direction as in the previous half
cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Input Output

Fig 2.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:

Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our project
we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig: 3.3.8.

Features:

 Good for automation insertion

 Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

 Ideal for printed circuit board

 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded

 Glass passivated device

 Polarity symbols molded on body

 Mounting position: Any

13
  Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig 2.3.8: DB107

Filtration:

The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using
filters is called as filtration.

Filters:

Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing functions,

specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:

The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one

which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static voltage)
across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not
connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called
the Dielectric. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with
electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative
charge This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow
until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At
this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below. The construction of
capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures 2.3.9 and 2.3.10 respectively.

14
Fig 2.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor Fig 2.3.10:Electrolytic Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:

Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10 -12 F

Operation of Capacitor:

Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a storage

tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an electronic
capacitor works.

First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used to
connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to
flow.

15
 If the current flow is alternating between zero and a maximum,
our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the current waves to pass
through.

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short burst

will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes and stops further
flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the ball
valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current quickly
fills the tank so that all flow stops.

A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will not
pass d.c.

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is to

"smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of current are
passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

Regulation:

16
 The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is called as
regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator (also called a ‘regulator’) with only three terminals appears to be a
simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage
into a constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety of outputs
like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive
input. For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a pair of ‘voltage-
divider’ resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.

It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a
12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand
over-current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off
before any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its
input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 2.3.11 shows voltage regulator.

Fig 2.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

17
 Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well
as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is
determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to
dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components.
Basic unit is ohms.

Theory of operation:

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

V = IR

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Power dissipation:

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following:

18
Fig 2.3.12: Resistor Fig 2.3.13: Color Bands In Resistor
2.3. LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LED’s are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LED’s emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. The
internal structure and parts of a led are shown in figures 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 respectively.

Fig 2.4.1: Inside a LED Fig 2.4.2: Parts of a LED

Working:

19
 The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light bulb.
Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting semiconductor material is
what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode.

When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. LED’s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more
expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in
applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting
(particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LED’s has allowed new text and
video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced
communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig: 2.4.3.

Fig 2.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

 High-levels of brightness and intensity

 High-efficiency

20
  Low-voltage and current requirements

 Low radiated heat

 High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)

 No UV Rays

 Long source life

 Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects.

 Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human
visual system.

ARDUINO NANO BOARD

The Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board based on

the ATmega328P (Arduino Nano 3.x). It has more or less the same functionality of the
Arduino Duemilanove, but in a different package. It lacks only a DC power jack, and
works with a Mini-B USB cable instead of a standard one.

The Nano board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for
the Arduino platform; for an extensive list of current, past or outdated boards see the Arduino index of
boards.

21
 Arduino Board

ATMEGA 328P FEATURES

Microcontroller ATmega328
Architecture AVR
Operating Voltage 5V
Flash Memory 32 KB of which 2 KB used by bootloader
SRAM 2 KB
Clock Speed 16 MHz
Analog IN Pins 8
EEPROM 1 KB

22
DC Current per I/O
40 mA (I/O Pins)
Pins
Input Voltage 7-12 V
Digital I/O Pins 22 (6 of which are PWM)
PWM Output 6
Power Consumption 19 mA
PCB Size 18 x 45 mm
Weight 7g
Product Code A000005

DESCRIPTION

Power

The Arduino Nano can be powered via the Mini-B USB connection, 6-20V
unregulated external power supply (pin 30), or 5V regulated external power supply (pin
27). The power source is automatically selected to the highest voltage source.

23
 Memory

The ATmega328P has 32 KB, (also with 2 KB used for the bootloader. The
ATmega328P has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM.

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Nano can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized
functions:

 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the FTDI USB-to-TTL Serial
chip.

 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt

on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt()
function for details.

 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite()
function.

 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI

communication, which, although provided by the underlying hardware, is not currently
included in the Arduino language.

 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is
HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Nano has 8 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e.
1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it
possible to change the upper end of their range using the analogReference() function.

24
 Analog pins 6 and 7 cannot be used as digital pins. Additionally, some pins have
specialized functionality:

 I2C: A4 (SDA) and A5 (SCL). Support I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire
library (documentation on the Wiring website).

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a
reset button to shields which block the one on the board.

Communication

The Arduino Nano has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328P provide UART TTL (5V)
serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An FTDI
FT232RL on the board channels this serial communication over USB and the FTDI
drivers (included with the Arduino software) provide a virtual com port to software on
the computer. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple
textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the
board will flash when data is being transmitted via the FTDI chip and USB connection
to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A SoftwareSerial
library allows for serial communication on any of the Nano's digital pins. The
ATmega328P also support I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus. To use the SPI communication,
please see ATmega328P datasheet.

25
Programming

The Arduino Nano can be programmed with the Arduino software ( download ).
Select "Arduino Duemilanove or Nano w/ ATmega328P" from the Tools > Board menu
(according to the microcontroller on your board). The ATmega328P on the Arduino
Nano comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it
without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original
STK500 protocol. You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller
through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header using Arduino ISP or similar.

Automatic (Software) Reset

Rather then requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino Nano is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a
connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the FT232RL is
connected to the reset line of the ATmega328P via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When this
line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The
Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the
upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the bootloader can have a
shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the
upload. This setup has other implications. When the Nano is connected to either a
computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it
from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running
on the Nano. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an
upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a
connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration
or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with which it
communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending this data.

26
 Block Diagram

PIN DIAGRAM

Pin Diagram

PIN DESCRIPTION
27
VCC

Digital supply voltage.

GND

Ground.

 Arduino Nano Pinout contains 14 digital pins, 8 analog Pins, 2 Reset Pins & 6 Power Pins.

 Each of these Digital & Analog Pins are assigned with multiple functions but their main
function is to be configured as input or output.

 They are acted as input pins when they are interfaced with sensors, but if you are driving some
load then use them as output.

 Functions like pinMode() and digitalWrite() are used to control the operations of digital pins
while analogRead() is used to control analog pins.

 The analog pins come with a total resolution of 10bits which measure the value from zero to
5V.

 Arduino Nano comes with a crystal oscillator of frequency 16 MHz. It is used to produce a
clock of precise frequency using constant voltage.

 There is one limitation using Arduino Nano i.e. it doesn’t come with DC power jack, means
you can not supply external power source through a battery.

 This board doesn’t use standard USB for connection with a computer, instead, it comes with
Mini USB support.

 Tiny size and breadboard friendly nature make this device an ideal choice for most of the
applications where a size of the electronic components are of great concern.

 Flash memory is 16KB or 32KB that all depends on the Atmega board i.e Atmega168 comes
with 16KB of flash memory while Atmega328 comes with a flash memory of 32KB. Flash
memory is used for storing code. The 2KB of memory out of total flash memory is used for a
bootloader.

28
 The SRAM can vary from 1KB or 2KB and EEPROM is 512 bytes or 1KB for Atmega168
and Atmega328 respectively.

 This board is quite similar to other Arduino boards available in the market, but the small size
makes this board stand out from others.

 It is programmed using Arduino IDE which is an Integrated Development Environment that

runs both offline and online.

 No prior arrangements are required to run the board. All you need is board, mini USB cable
and Arduino IDE software installed on the computer. USB cable is used to transfer the
program from computer to the board.

 No separate burner is required to compile and burn the program as this board comes with a
built-in boot-loader.

 Each pin on the Nano board comes with a specific function associated with it.

 We can see the analog pins that can be used as an analog to digital converter where A4 and A5
pins can also be used for I2C communication. Similarly, there are 14 digital pins, out of which
6 pins are used for generating PWM.

 Vin. It is input power supply voltage to the board when using an external power source of 7 to
12 V.
5V. It is a regulated power supply voltage of the board that is used to power the controller and
other components placed on the board.
 3.3V. This is a minimum voltage generated by the voltage regulator on the board.
 GND. These are the ground pins on the board. There are multiple ground pins on the board
that can be interfaced accordingly when more than one ground pin is required.
 Reset. Reset pin is added on the board that resets the board. It is very helpful when running
program goes too complex and hangs up the board. LOW value to the reset pin will reset the
controller.
 Analog Pins. There are 8 analog pins on the board marked as A0 – A7. These pins are used to
measure the analog voltage ranging between 0 t 5V.
 Rx, Tx. These pins are used for serial communication where Tx represents the transmission of
data while Rx represents the data receiver.
 13. This pin is used to turn on the built-in LED.
 AREF. This pin is used as a reference voltage for the input voltage.

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  PWM. Six pins 3,5,6,9,10, 11 can be used for providing 8-pit PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) output. It is a method used for getting analog results with digital sources.
 SPI. Four pins 10(SS),11(MOSI),12(MISO),13(SCK) are used for SPI (Serial Peripheral
Interface). SPI is an interface bus and mainly used to transfer data between microcontrollers
and other peripherals like sensors, registers, and SD card.
 External Interrupts. Pin 2 and 3 are used as external interrupts which are used in case of
emergency when we need to stop the main program and call important instructions at that
point. The main program resumes once interrupt instruction is called and executed.
 I2C. I2C communication is developed using A4 and A5 pins where A4 represents the serial
data line (SDA) which carries the data and A5 represents the serial clock line (SCL) which is a
clock signal, generated by the master device, used for data synchronization between the
devices on an I2C bus.

COMMUNICATION AND PROGRAMMING

 The Nano device comes with an ability to set up a communication with other controllers and
computers. The serial communication is carried out by the digital pins like pin 0 (Rx) and pin 1
(Tx) where Rx is used for receiving data and Tx is used for the transmission of data. The serial
monitor is added on the Arduino Software which is used to transmit textual data to or from the
board. FTDI drivers are also included in the software which behave as a virtual com port to the
software.

 The Tx and Rx pins come with an LED which blinks as the data is transmitted between FTDI
and USB connection to the computer.

 Arduino Software Serial Library is used for carrying out a serial communication between the
board and the computer.

 Apart from serial communication the Nano board also support I2C and SPI communication.
The Wire Library inside the Arduino Software is accessed to use the I2C bus.

 The Arduino Nano is programmed by Arduino Software called IDE which is a common
software used for almost all types of board available. Simply download the software and select
the board you are using. There are two options to program the controller i.e either by the
bootloader that is added in the software which sets you free from the use of external burner to

30
 compile and burn the program into the controller and another option is by using ICSP (In-circuit
serial programming header).

 Arduino board software is equally compatible with Windows, Linux or MAC, however,
Windows are preferred to use.

RESET

There are two ways to reset the board i.e. electronically or programmatically. In
order to reset the board electronically, you need to connect the reset pin of the board with any of
digital pins on the controller. Don’t forget to add 1K or 2K Ohm resistor while setting up this
connection. Now, use the digital pin as an output and keep it HIGH before the reset. Once the reset is
required, set this digital pin to LOW. This method is very useful because using it sends a hardware
reset signal to the controller once the digital pin is set to LOW. You can use the following program to
reset the controller electronically.

Another method we can use to reset the board is by software only without using any hardware
pin. Nano board comes with a built-in function known as resetFunc(). The board will reset
automatically as we define this function and then call it. Without using any hardware pin you can
upload the following program to reset the board programmatically.

However, this method comes with some limitations. Once the board is connected to the
computer, the board will be reset each time the connection is laid out between the board and the
computer. So, it is preferred to reset the controller electronically using a digital pin.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARDUINO UNO AND NANO

 Both Arduino Uno and Arduino Nano come with same functionality with little difference in
terms of PCB layout, size and form factor.

 Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on Atmega328 and comes with 14 digital I/O
pins out of which 6 are PWM. There are 6 analog pins incorporated on the board. This board
comes with everything required to support the microcontroller like USB connection, Power jack,
16MHz oscillator, reset button and ICSP header. You don’t require extra peripheral with the board
to make it work for automation.

 It is a complete ready to use device that requires no prior technical skills to get a hands-on
experience with it. You can power it by using DC power jack, battery or simply plug it to the
computer using a USB cable to get started.

 Arduino Nano is small and compact as compared to Arduino Uno. It lacks the DC power jack
and comes with Mini USB support instead of regular USB. Also, Nano board comes with two
extra analog pins i.e. 8 pins as compared to 6 analog pins in Uno board. Nano board is breadboard
friendly while Uno board lacks this property.

 However, both devices run at 5V, come with a current rating of 40mA, and 16MHz of the
clock frequency.

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 q

APPLICATIONS

Arduino Nano is a very useful device that comes with a wide range of applications and covers
less space as compared to other Arduino board. Breadboard friendly nature makes it stand out from
other board. Following are the main applications of the board.

 Arduino Metal Detector

 Medical Instruments

 Industrial Automation

 Android Applications

 GSM Based Projects

 Automation and Robotics

 Home Automation and Defense Systems

 Virtual Reality Applications

CHAPTER 4
33
 SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION

The Arduino Integrated Development Environment - or Arduino Software (IDE) - contains

a text editor for writing code, a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common
functions and a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino and Genuino hardware to upload
programs and communicate with them.

WRITING SKETCHES

Programs written using Arduino Software (IDE) are called sketches. These sketches are
written in the text editor and are saved with the file extension .ino. The editor has features for
cutting/pasting and for searching/replacing text. The message area gives feedback while saving
and exporting and also displays errors. The console displays text output by the Arduino Software
(IDE), including complete error messages and other information. The bottom righthand corner of
the window displays the configured board and serial port. The toolbar buttons allow you to verify
and upload programs, create, open, and save sketches, and open the serial monitor.

NB: Versions of the Arduino Software (IDE) prior to 1.0 saved sketches with the extension .pde.
It is possible to open these files with version 1.0, you will be prompted to save the sketch with the
.ino extension on save.

Verify
Checks your code for errors compiling it.

Upload
Compiles your code and uploads it to the configured board. See uploading below for details.

Note: If you are using an external programmer with your board, you can hold down the
"shift" key on your computer when using this icon. The text will change to "Upload using
Programmer"

New Creates a new sketch.

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 Open Presents a menu of all the sketches in your sketchbook. Clicking one will open it
within the current window overwriting its content.

Note: due to a bug in Java, this menu doesn't scroll; if you need to open a sketch late in the
list, use the File | Sketchbookmenu instead.

Save Saves your sketch.

Serial Monitor Opens the serial monitor.

Additional commands are found within the five menus: File, Edit, Sketch, Tools, Help. The
menus are context sensitive, which means only those items relevant to the work currently being
carried out are available.

File

 New Creates a new instance of the editor, with the bare minimum structure of a sketch
already in place.
 Open Allows to load a sketch file browsing through the computer drives and folders.

 Open Recent Provides a short list of the most recent sketches, ready to be opened.

 Sketchbook Shows the current sketches within the sketchbook folder structure; clicking on
any name opens the corresponding sketch in a new editor instance.

 Examples Any example provided by the Arduino Software (IDE) or library shows up in
this menu item. All the examples are structured in a tree that allows easy access by topic or
library.

 Close Closes the instance of the Arduino Software from which it is clicked.

 Save Saves the sketch with the current name. If the file hasn't been named before, a name
will be provided in a "Save as.." window.

 Saveas... Allows to save the current sketch with a different name.

 PageSetup It shows the Page Setup window for printing.

35
 Print
Sends the current sketch to the printer according to the settings defined in Page Setup.

 Preferences
Opens the Preferences window where some settings of the IDE may be customized, as the
language of the IDE interface.

 Quit
Closes all IDE windows. The same sketches open when Quit was chosen will be automatically
reopened the next time you start the IDE.

EDIT

 Undo/Redo
Goes back of one or more steps you did while editing; when you go back, you may go forward
with Redo.
 Cut
Removes the selected text from the editor and places it into the clipboard.

 Copy
Duplicates the selected text in the editor and places it into the clipboard.

 Copy for Forum Copies the code of your sketch to the clipboard in a form suitable for
posting to the forum, complete with syntax coloring.

 Copy as HTML Copies the code of your sketch to the clipboard as HTML, suitable for
embedding in web pages.

 Paste
Puts the contents of the clipboard at the cursor position, in the editor.

 Select All Selects and highlights the whole content of the editor.

 Comment/Uncomment
Puts or removes the // comment marker at the beginning of each selected line.

36
 Increase/Decrease Indent :Adds or subtracts a space at the beginning of each selected line,
moving the text one space on the right or eliminating a space at the beginning.

 Find
Opens the Find and Replace window where you can specify text to search inside the current
sketch according to several options.

 Find Next: Highlights the next occurrence - if any - of the string specified as the search
item in the Find window, relative to the cursor position.

 Find Previous : Highlights the previous occurrence - if any - of the string specified as the
search item in the Find window relative to the cursor position.

SKETCH

 Verify/Compile
Checks your sketch for errors compiling it; it will report memory usage for code and variables in
the console area.
 Upload
Compiles and loads the binary file onto the configured board through the configured Port.

 Upload Using Programmer

This will overwrite the bootloader on the board; you will need to use Tools > Burn Bootloader to
restore it and be able to Upload to USB serial port again. However, it allows you to use the full
capacity of the Flash memory for your sketch. Please note that this command will NOT burn the
fuses. To do so a Tools -> Burn Bootloader command must be executed.

 Export Compiled Binary

Saves a .hex file that may be kept as archive or sent to the board using other tools.
 Show Sketch Folder
Opens the current sketch folder.

 Include Library
Adds a library to your sketch by inserting #include statements at the start of your code. For more

37
 details, seelibraries below. Additionally, from this menu item you can access the Library Manager
and import new libraries from .zip files.

 Add File...
Adds a source file to the sketch (it will be copied from its current location). The new file appears
in a new tab in the sketch window. Files can be removed from the sketch using the tab menu
accessible clicking on the small triangle icon below the serial monitor one on the right side o the
toolbar.

TOOLS

 Auto Format
This formats your code nicely: i.e. indents it so that opening and closing curly braces line up, and
that the statements inside curly braces are indented more.
 Archive Sketch
Archives a copy of the current sketch in .zip format. The archive is placed in the same directory as
the sketch.

 Fix Encoding & Reload

Fixes possible discrepancies between the editor char map encoding and other operating systems
char maps.

 Serial Monitor
Opens the serial monitor window and initiates the exchange of data with any connected board on
the currently selected Port. This usually resets the board, if the board supports Reset over serial
port opening.

 Board
Select the board that you're using. See below for descriptions of the various boards.

 Port
This menu contains all the serial devices (real or virtual) on your machine. It should automatically
refresh every time you open the top-level tools menu.

 Programmer
For selecting a harware programmer when programming a board or chip and not using the
38
 onboard USB-serial connection. Normally you won't need this, but if you're burning a
bootloader to a new microcontroller, you will use this.

 Burn Bootloader
The items in this menu allow you to burn a bootloader onto the microcontroller on an Arduino
board. This is not required for normal use of an Arduino or Genuino board but is useful if you
purchase a new ATmega microcontroller (which normally come without a bootloader). Ensure
that you've selected the correct board from the Boards menu before burning the bootloader on the
target board. This command also set the right fuses.

HELP

Here you find easy access to a number of documents that come with the Arduino Software (IDE).
You have access to Getting Started, Reference, this guide to the IDE and other documents locally,
without an internet connection. The documents are a local copy of the online ones and may link
back to our online website.

 Find in Reference
This is the only interactive function of the Help menu: it directly selects the relevant page in the
local copy of the Reference for the function or command under the cursor.

SKETCHBOOK

The Arduino Software (IDE) uses the concept of a sketchbook: a standard place to store your
programs (or sketches). The sketches in your sketchbook can be opened from the File >
Sketchbook menu or from the Open button on the toolbar. The first time you run the Arduino
software, it will automatically create a directory for your sketchbook. You can view or change the
location of the sketchbook location from with the Preferences dialog.

Beginning with version 1.0, files are saved with a .ino file extension. Previous versions use
the .pde extension. You may still open .pde named files in version 1.0 and later, the software will
automatically rename the extension to .ino.
39
Tabs, Multiple Files, and Compilation

Allows you to manage sketches with more than one file (each of which appears in its own tab).
These can be normal Arduino code files (no visible extension), C files (.c extension), C++ files
(.cpp), or header files (.h).

UPLOADING

Before uploading your sketch, you need to select the correct items from the Tools >
Board and Tools > Port menus. Theboards are described below. On the Mac, the serial port is
probably something like /dev/tty.usbmodem241 (for an Uno or Mega2560 or Leonardo)
or /dev/tty.usbserial-1B1 (for a Duemilanove or earlier USB board),
or/dev/tty.USA19QW1b1P1.1 (for a serial board connected with a Keyspan USB-to-Serial
adapter). On Windows, it's probably COM1 or COM2 (for a serial board)
or COM4, COM5, COM7, or higher (for a USB board) - to find out, you look for USB serial
device in the ports section of the Windows Device Manager. On Linux, it should
be /dev/ttyACMx ,/dev/ttyUSBx or similar. Once you've selected the correct serial port and board,
press the upload button in the toolbar or select the Upload item from the Sketch menu. Current
Arduino boards will reset automatically and begin the upload. With older boards (pre-Diecimila)
that lack auto-reset, you'll need to press the reset button on the board just before starting the
upload. On most boards, you'll see the RX and TX LEDs blink as the sketch is uploaded. The
Arduino Software (IDE) will display a message when the upload is complete, or show an error.

When you upload a sketch, you're using the Arduino bootloader, a small program that has been
loaded on to the microcontroller on your board. It allows you to upload code without using any
additional hardware. The bootloader is active for a few seconds when the board resets; then it
starts whichever sketch was most recently uploaded to the microcontroller. The bootloader will
blink the on-board (pin 13) LED when it starts (i.e. when the board resets).

LIBRARIES

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Libraries provide extra functionality for use in sketches, e.g. working with hardware or
manipulating data. To use a library in a sketch, select it from the Sketch > Import Library menu.
This will insert one or more #include statements at the top of the sketch and compile the library
with your sketch. Because libraries are uploaded to the board with your sketch, they increase the
amount of space it takes up. If a sketch no longer needs a library, simply delete
its #includestatements from the top of your code.

There is a list of libraries in the reference. Some libraries are included with the Arduino software.
Others can be downloaded from a variety of sources or through the Library Manager. Starting
with version 1.0.5 of the IDE, you do can import a library from a zip file and use it in an open
sketch. See these instructions for installing a third-party library.

To write your own library.

THIRD-PARTY HARDWARE

Support for third-party hardware can be added to the hardware directory of your sketchbook
directory. Platforms installed there may include board definitions (which appear in the board
menu), core libraries, bootloaders, and programmer definitions. To install, create
the hardware directory, then unzip the third-party platform into its own sub-directory. (Don't use
"arduino" as the sub-directory name or you'll override the built-in Arduino platform.) To
uninstall, simply delete its directory.

For details on creating packages for third-party hardware, see the Arduino IDE 1.5 3rd party
Hardware specification.

SERIAL MONITOR

Displays serial data being sent from the Arduino or Genuino board (USB or serial board). To send
data to the board, enter text and click on the "send" button or press enter. Choose the baud rate
from the drop-down that matches the rate passed to Serial.begin in your sketch. Note that on
Windows, Mac or Linux, the Arduino or Genuino board will reset (rerun your sketch execution to
the beginning) when you connect with the serial monitor.
41
You can also talk to the board from Processing, Flash, MaxMSP, etc (see the interfacing page for
details).

PREFERENCES

Some preferences can be set in the preferences dialog (found under the Arduino menu on the
Mac, or File on Windows and Linux). The rest can be found in the preferences file, whose
location is shown in the preference dialog.

LANGUAGE SUPPORT

Since version 1.0.1 , the Arduino Software (IDE) has been translated into 30+ different languages.
By default, the IDE loads in the language selected by your operating system. (Note: on Windows
and possibly Linux, this is determined by the locale setting which controls currency and date
formats, not by the language the operating system is displayed in.)

42
 If you would like to change the language manually, start the Arduino Software (IDE) and open
the Preferences window. Next to the Editor Language there is a dropdown menu of currently
supported languages. Select your preferred language from the menu, and restart the software to
use the selected language. If your operating system language is not supported, the Arduino
Software (IDE) will default to English.

You can return the software to its default setting of selecting its language based on your operating
system by selectingSystem Default from the Editor Language drop-down. This setting will take
effect when you restart the Arduino Software (IDE). Similarly, after changing your operating
system's settings, you must restart the Arduino Software (IDE) to update it to the new default
language.

BOARDS

The board selection has two effects: it sets the parameters (e.g. CPU speed and baud rate) used
when compiling and uploading sketches; and sets and the file and fuse settings used by the burn
bootloader command. Some of the board definitions differ only in the latter, so even if you've
been uploading successfully with a particular selection you'll want to check it before burning the
bootloader. You can find a comparison table between the various boards here.

Arduino Software (IDE) includes the built in support for the boards in the following list, all based
on the AVR Core. TheBoards Manager included in the standard installation allows to add support
for the growing number of new boards based on different cores like Arduino Due, Arduino Zero,
Edison, Galileo and so on.

 Arduino Yùn
An ATmega32u4 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 12 Analog In, 20 Digital I/O and 7 PWM.
 Arduino/Genuino Uno
An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino Diecimila or Duemilanove w/ ATmega168

An ATmega168 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset.

43
 Arduino Nano w/ ATmega328
An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset. Has eight analog inputs.

 Arduino/Genuino Mega 2560

An ATmega2560 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 16 Analog In, 54 Digital I/O and 15 PWM.

 Arduino Mega
An ATmega1280 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 16 Analog In, 54 Digital I/O and 15 PWM.

 Arduino Mega ADK

An ATmega2560 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 16 Analog In, 54 Digital I/O and 15 PWM.

 Arduino Leonardo
An ATmega32u4 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 12 Analog In, 20 Digital I/O and 7 PWM.

 Arduino/Genuino Micro
An ATmega32u4 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 12 Analog In, 20 Digital I/O and 7 PWM.

 Arduino Esplora
An ATmega32u4 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset.

 Arduino Mini w/ ATmega328

An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset, 8 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino Ethernet
Equivalent to Arduino UNO with an Ethernet shield: An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with
auto-reset, 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino Fio
An ATmega328 running at 8 MHz with auto-reset. Equivalent to Arduino Pro or Pro Mini (3.3V,
8 MHz) w/ATmega328, 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino BT w/ ATmega328
ATmega328 running at 16 MHz. The bootloader burned (4 KB) includes codes to initialize the
on-board bluetooth module, 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM..

44
 LilyPad Arduino USB
An ATmega32u4 running at 8 MHz with auto-reset, 4 Analog In, 9 Digital I/O and 4 PWM.

 LilyPad Arduino
An ATmega168 or ATmega132 running at 8 MHz with auto-reset, 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O
and 6 PWM.

 Arduino Pro or Pro Mini (5V, 16 MHz) w/ ATmega328

An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset. Equivalent to Arduino Duemilanove or Nano
w/ ATmega328; 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino NG or older w/ ATmega168

An ATmega168 running at 16 MHz without auto-reset. Compilation and upload is equivalent to
Arduino Diecimila or Duemilanove w/ ATmega168, but the bootloader burned has a slower
timeout (and blinks the pin 13 LED three times on reset); 6 Analog In, 14 Digital I/O and 6 PWM.

 Arduino Robot Control

An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset.

 Arduino Robot MOTOR

An ATmega328 running at 16 MHz with auto-reset.

 Arduino Gemma
An ATtiny85 running at 8 MHz with auto-reset, 1 Analog In, 3 Digital I/O and 2 PWM.

THE COMPILATION PROCESS

The arduino code is actually just plain old c without all the header part (the includes and all). when
you press the 'compile' button, the IDE saves the current file as arduino.c in the 'lib/build' directory
then it calls a makefile contained in the 'lib' directory.

This makefile copies arduino.c as prog.c into 'lib/tmp' adding 'wiringlite.inc' as the beginning of it.
this operation makes the arduino/wiring code into a proper c file (called prog.c).

45
After this, it copies all the files in the 'core' directory into 'lib/tmp'. these files are the
implementation of the various arduino/wiring commands adding to these files adds commands to
the language

The core files are supported by pascal stang's procyon avr-lib that is contained in the 'lib/avrlib'
directory. At this point the code contained in lib/tmp is ready to be compiled with the c compiler
contained in 'tools'. If the make operation is succesfull then you'll have prog.hex ready to be
downloaded into the processor.

SOLAR PANEL

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. They are called "solar" panels
because most of the time, the most powerful source of light available is the Sun, called Sol by
astronomers. Some scientists call them photovoltaic which means, basically, "light-electricity."

Fig. Solar Panel

Solar panel consist of solar power cells convert sunlight into electricity, using the energy of speeding
photons to create an electrical current within a solar panel.

Photons are created in the center of the sun by the fusion of atoms. It takes a photon about a million
years to work its way to the surface of the sun, but once free it is hurled through space so fast that it
reaches earth in just eight minutes - after traveling 93 million miles.

46
This tremendous energy from the sun is abundant, and has been powering the earth for billions of
years - feeding plants, redistributing and refreshing water supplies and ultimately creating other
forms of energy (such as fossil fuels) that largely power our civilization today.

Over the past several decades, scientists have been learning to harness this ancient energy source
with more efficiency to do the work of non-renewable fuels - without pollution, noise or radiation,
and not subject to economic whims that drive costs higher each year.

solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged, connected
assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic
system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each panel is
rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 320
watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given the same rated output - an 8%
efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt panel. Because a single
solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, most installations contain multiple panels. A
photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery
and or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic
effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin –film cells based on
cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the
top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.
Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early
solar panels are first used in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to
provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may
contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be
connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial
usage photovoltaic panels use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof
connections to the rest of the system.

47
BATTERY

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries are another way to produce electricity. They are
smaller and more safe. Batteries have one end that is positive and one end that is negative. For
batteries to work, you need to make sure you put them in the right way. Batteries have become a
common power source for many household and industrial applications.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed
to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed
to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power
for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Lead Acid Battery

Lead battery is most commonly used in PV systems due to low cost and easily available everywhere
in the world. These batteries are available in both sealed and wet cell batteries. Lead acid batteries
have high reliability due to their capability to withstand overcharge, over discharge & shock. The
batteries have excellent charge acceptance, low self-discharge and large electrolyte volume. Lead
acid batteries Are tested using Computer Aided Design. These applications of these batteries are
used in UPS Systems and Inverter and have the skill to perform under dangerous conditions.

48
 A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of
a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the
other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions)
migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations
are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at
the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte.
Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to
flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes

Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and disadvantages.

 Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to

electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily
restored to the battery by electrical means.
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed
by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation
by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical reaction. Secondary batteries
are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and
internal corrosion.

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are intended to
be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current
drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in
alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available.

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active materials in
the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric
current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the
appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.
49
VOLTAGE SENSOR

The Voltage Sensor is a device that converts voltage measured between two points of an
electrical circuit into a physical signal proportional to the voltage.

Voltage sensor circuit is a combination of various electronic component by using which the accurate
voltage value can be achieved. The major component utilize in voltage sensor are potentiometer &
ADC.

Potentiometer

A potentiometer informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that

forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as
a variable resistor or rheostat.

A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric
potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name.

Analog To Digital Converter(ADC)

In many applications data collected from sensor required to convert in digital form. The
conversion of data from analog to digital form is done using an ADC.

The output signal generated from the voltage sensor is analog form. Hence, ADC is being used
to convert analog value of voltage sensor into digital value.

Potentiometer(Variable resistor) is a dynamic resistor whose value can be varied with the help
of adjustable knob. With the help of the variable resistor we can increase or decrease the sensitivity of
the voltage sensor which is being interface with ADC.

Principle Of Use

50
 For voltage measurements, a current proportional to the measured voltage must be passed
through an external resistor R, which is selected by the user and installed in series with the primary
circuit of the transducer.
Advantages

 Excellent accuracy
 Very good linearity
 Low thermal drift
 High immunity to external interference
 Low disturbance in common mode.

Applications

 AC variable speed drives and servo motor drives

 Static converters for DC motor drives
 Battery supplied applications
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)
 Power supplies for welding applications.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various devices
and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The
reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special &
even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD each
character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command and Data.

The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the
cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD.
The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

51
 Fig. 16x2 LCD

Introduction

The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachi's HD44780 controller
or other which are compatible with HD44580.

Pin Description

Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two pins are
extra in both for back-light LED connections). Pin description is shown in the table below.

Pin Configuration table for a 16X2 LCD character display:-

Pin Symbol Function
Number
1 Vss Ground Terminal
2 Vcc Positive Supply
3 Vdd Contrast adjustment
4 RS Register Select; 0→Instruction Register, 1→Data Register
5 R/W Read/write Signal; 1→Read, 0→ Write
6 E Enable; Falling edge
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2 Bi-directional data bus, data transfer is performed once, thru DB0
10 DB3 to DB7, in the case of interface data length is 8-bits; and twice,
11 DB4 through DB4 to DB7 in the case of interface data length is 4-bits.
12 DB5 Upper four bits first then lower four bits.

13 DB6
14 DB7
15 LED-(K) Back light LED cathode terminal
16 LED+(A) Back Light LED anode terminal
Table Pin Description Of LCD
52
Data/Signals/Execution of LCD

Coming to data, signals and execution.

LCD accepts two types of signals, one is data, and another is control. These signals are
recognized by the LCD module from status of the RS pin. Now data can be read also from the LCD
display, by pulling the R/W pin high. As soon as the E pin is pulsed, LCD display reads data at the
falling edge of the pulse and executes it, same for the case of transmission.

LCD display takes a time of 39-43µS to place a character or execute a command. Except for
clearing display and to seek cursor to home position it takes 1.53ms to 1.64ms. Any attempt to send
any data before this interval may lead to failure to read data or execution of the current data in some
devices. Some devices compensate the speed by storing the incoming data to some temporary
registers.
Instruction Register (IR) and Data Register (DR)

There are two 8-bit registers in HD44780 controller Instruction and Data register. Instruction
register corresponds to the register where you send commands to LCD e.g LCD shift command, LCD
clear, LCD address etc. and Data register is used for storing data which is to be displayed on LCD.
when send the enable signal of the LCD is asserted, the data on the pins is latched in to the data
register and data is then moved automatically to the DDRAM and hence is displayed on the LCD.
Data Register is not only used for sending data to DDRAM but also for CGRAM, the address where
you want to send the data, is decided by the instruction you send to LCD. We will discuss more on
LCD instruction set further in this tutorial.

Commands and Instruction set

Only the instruction register (IR) and the data register (DR) of the LCD can be controlled by
the MCU. Before starting the internal operation of the LCD, control information is temporarily stored
into these registers to allow interfacing with various MCUs, which operate at different speeds, or
various peripheral control devices. The internal operation of the LCD is determined by signals sent
from the MCU. These signals, which include register selection signal (RS), read/write signal (R/W),
and the data bus (DB0 to DB7), make up the LCD instructions (Table 3). There are four categories of
instructions that:

53
 Designate LCD functions, such as display format, data length, etc.
 Set internal RAM addresses

 Perform data transfer with internal RAM

 Perform miscellaneous functions

54
 Table Showing various LCD Command Description

Although looking at the table you can make your own commands and test them. Below is a brief list
of useful commands which are used frequently while working on the LCD.

List Of Command

No. Instruction Hex Decimal

1 Function Set: 8-bit, 1 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x30 48

2 Function Set: 8-bit, 2 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x38 56
3 Function Set: 4-bit, 1 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x20 32
4 Function Set: 4-bit, 2 Line, 5x7 Dots 0x28 40
5 Entry Mode 0x06 6
Display off Cursor off
6 (clearing display without clearing DDRAM 0x08 8
content)
7 Display on Cursor on 0x0E 14
8 Display on Cursor off 0x0C 12
9 Display on Cursor blinking 0x0F 15
10 Shift entire display left 0x18 24
12 Shift entire display right 0x1C 30
13 Move cursor left by one character 0x10 16
14 Move cursor right by one character 0x14 20
15 Clear Display (also clear DDRAM content) 0x01 1
Set DDRAM address or coursor position on
16 0x80+add* 128+add*
display
Set CGRAM address or set pointer to
17 0x40+add** 64+add**
CGRAM location
Table : Frequently Used Commands And Instructions For Lcd

* DDRAM address given in LCD basics section see Figure 2,3,4

** CGRAM address from 0x00 to 0x3F, 0x00 to 0x07 for char1 and so on.

55
Liquid crystal displays interfacing with Controller

The LCD standard requires 3 control lines and 8 I/O lines for the data bus.

• 8 data pins D7:D0

Bi-directional data/command pins.
Alphanumeric characters are sent in ASCII format.

• RS: Register Select

RS = 0 -> Command Register is selected
RS = 1 -> Data Register is selected

• R/W: Read or Write

0 -> Write, 1 -> Read

• E: Enable (Latch data)

Used to latch the data present on the data pins.
A high-to-low edge is needed to latch the data.

555 TIMER IC

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION:

The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the
SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only
commercial timer ic available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a relatively
cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable applications. Since
this device was first made commercially available, a myrad of novel and unique circuits have been
developed and presented in several trade, professional, and hobby publications. The past ten years
some manufacturers stopped making these timers because of competition or other reasons. Yet other
companies, like NTE (a subdivision of Philips) picked up where some left off.

56
 This primer is about this fantastic timer which is after 30 years still very popular and used in
many schematics. Although these days the CMOS version of this IC, like the Motorola MC1455, is
mostly used, the regular type is still available, however there have been many improvements and
variations in the circuitry. But all types are pin-for-pin plug compatible.

This timer uses a maze of transistors, diodes and resistors and for this complex reason I will use a
more simplified (but accurate) block diagram to explain the internal organizations of the 555.

The 555 timer integrated circuit (IC) has become a mainstay in electronics design. A 555 timer
will produce a pulse when a trigger signal is applied to it. The pulse length is determined by charging
then discharging a capacitor connected to a 555 timer. A 555 timer can be used to debounce switches,
modulate signals, create accurate clock signals, create pulse width modulated (PWM) signals, etc. A
555 timer can be obtained from various manufacturers including Fairchild Semiconductor and
National Semiconductor.

A 555 timer is a semiconductor device that controls various modes of on/off states in electrical
systems. The 555 timer is one of the most widely used types of integrated circuits. The 555 in figures
above, come in two packages, either the round metal-can called the 'T' package or the more familiar 8-
pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-years ago the metal-can type was pretty much the standard (SE/NE
types). The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a quad
version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case.

57
:

3.3.2 PIN DESCRIPTION:

Pin 1 (Ground):
Connects to the 0v power supply Ground connection for chip
Pin 2 (Trigger):
Detects 1/3 of rail voltage to make output HIGH Pin 2 has control over pin 6. If
pin 2 is LOW, and pin 6 LOW, output goes and stays HIGH. If pin 6 HIGH, and
pin 2 goes LOW, output goes LOW while pin 2 LOW. This pin has a very high
impedance (about 10M) and will trigger with about 1uA. 555 timer triggers when
this pin transitions from voltage at Vcc to 33% v voltage at Vcc. Output pin goes
high when triggered
Pin 3 (Output):

(Pins 3 and 7 are "in phase.") Goes HIGH (about 2v less than rail) and LOW (about 0.5v less than 0v)
and will deliver up to 200mA.

Pin 4 (Reset):

Internally connected HIGH via 100k Must be taken below 0.8v to reset the chip Resets 555 timer
when low

Pin 5 (Control):

Used to change Threshold and Trigger set point voltages and is rarely used A voltage applied to this
pin will vary the timing of the RC network (quite considerably).
58
Pin 6 (Threshold):

Used to detect when the capacitor has charged The Output pin goes low w when capacitor has charged
to 66.6% of Vcc. Detects 2/3 of rail voltage to make output LOW only if pin 2 is HIGH. This pin has
a very high impedance (about 10M) and will trigger with about 0.2uA.

Pin 7 (Discharge):

Goes LOW when pin 6 detects 2/3 rail voltage but pin 2 must be HIGH. If pin 2 is HIGH, pin 6 can be
HIGH or LOW and pin 7 remains LOW. Goes OPEN (HIGH) and stays HIGH when pin 2 detects 1/3
rail voltage (even as a LOW pulse) when pin 6 is LOW. (Pins 7 and 3 are "in phase.") Pin 7 is equal
to pin 3 but pin 7 does not go high - it goes OPEN. But it goes LOW and will sink about 200mA.

Pin 8 (Supply):

Connects to the positive power supply (Vs). This can be any voltage between
4.5V and 15V DC, but is commonly 5V DC when working with digital ICs.

INTERNAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

59
Inside the 555 timer, there are equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors, and 2 diodes, depending
of the manufacturer. The equivalent circuit, in block diagram, providing the functions of control,
triggering, level sensing or comparison, discharge, and power output

Some of the more attractive features of the 555 timer are:

1) Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18 volt,

2) Supply current 3 to 6 mA

3) Rise/Fall time of 100 nSec.

The Threshold current determine the maximum value of Ra + Rb. For 15 volt operation the maximum
total resistance for R (Ra +Rb) is 20 Mega-ohm.

Inside the 555 you can see three resistors, labelled R. These resistors are equal in value and form a
voltage divider, providing reference voltages at 1/3 and 2/3 of the power supply voltage, VCC.

3.3.3 OPERATION:

The reference voltages are connected to one input of each of two comparators, which in turn control
the logic state of a bistable, or flip flop stage.

Pin 2 of the 555 is the trigger input. When the voltage connected to pin 2 is less than 1/3 of the power
supply voltage, the output of the lower comparator forces the logic state of the flip flop to LOW. The
output stage has an inverting action. In other words, when the output of the flip flop is LOW, the
output of the 555 goes HIGH

Now think about what happens when the power supply is first connected to the astable circuit.
Initially, timing capacitor C is discharged. The voltage at pin 2 is 0 V and the output of the 555 is
driven HIGH. C starts to charge through resistors R1 and R2. Note that C is also connected to pin 6,
the threshold input of the 555.

When the voltage across C goes past 1/3 of the power supply voltage, the output of the lower
comparator snaps a new level. This doesn't change the logic state of the flip flop: its output remains
LOW.
60
The inputs to the second comparator are the voltage at pin 6, the threshold input, and 2/3 V CC from the
internal voltage divider.

When the voltage across C goes past 2/3 of the power supply voltage, the output of the second
comparator snaps to a new level, the flip flop changes state, its output becomes HIGH and the output
of the 555 goes from HIGH to LOW.

Inside the 555, the flip flop is connected to an NPN transistor, the collector of which is connected to
pin 7, the discharge pin of the 555. When the output of the flip flop goes HIGH, the transistor is
switched ON, providing a low resistance path from the discharge pin to 0 V. The timing capacitor, C,
starts to empty through R2 and the voltage across it decreases.

Note that the capacitor charges through R1 and R2, but discharges only through R2.

When the voltage across C decreases below 1/3 of the power supply voltage, the lower comparator
snaps to a new level, the flip flop changes state and the output of the 555 goes HIGH once again.

The graph below shows how the voltage across the timing capacitor, VC , changes with the output
voltage of the 555, Vout:

The initial ouptut pulse is longer than subsequent pulses because C is completely discharged when the
power supply is first connected. Subsequent HIGH and low times correspond to half-charge/discharge
times, either from 1/3 to 2/3 of the power supply voltage, or from 2/3 to 1/3 of the power supply
voltage.

The HIGH time is given by:

Remember, C charges through both R1 and R2.

The LOW time is given by:

61
C discharges only through R2.

The period, t, of the 555 astable is given by:

The frequency, f, is given by:

Try 1÷0.69 on your calculator to confirm that it does equal 1.44.

The design formula for the 555 astable follows from the behaviour of RC networks and from the two
switching thresholds of the voltage divider inside the device.

In a 555 monostable, only the upper threshold is used to determine the period, so the formula
corresponds to a 2/3 charge time:

3.3.4 555 Timer Modes of Operation:

The 555 has three operating modes:

 Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.
 Astable: free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp
flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation and so on. Selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a
temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of
a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it
and even provide calibration means.
62
  Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

1. Monostable

Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the pulse width in monostable mode

See also: RC circuit

In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a "one-shot" pulse generator. The pulse begins when
the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a third of the voltage supply. The
width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a
capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor equals 2/3

63
of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the
specific application by adjusting the values of R and C.[5]

The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage,
is given by

where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads.

While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is that the time span between
the two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time constant. [6]

2. Bistable

Schematic of a 555 in bistable mode

In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset inputs (pins 2 and 4
respectively on a 555) are held high via Pull-up resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is simply
grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions
the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and
transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors are required in a bistable
configuration. Pin 5 (control) is connected to ground via a small-value capacitor (usually 0.01 to 0.1
uF); pin 7 (discharge) is left floating.

64
3. Astable

Standard 555 astable circuit

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified
frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor
(R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins
that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R 1 and R2, and discharged only
through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle,
therefore discharging the capacitor.

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R 1, R2 and C:

The high time from each pulse is given by:

and the low time from each pulse is given by:

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in farads.

65
The power capability of R1 must be greater than .

Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R1 must be avoided so that the output stays saturated
near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Otherwise the output low time
will be greater than calculated above.

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R 2 towards the
capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval depends only on
R1 and C.

3.3.5 Specifications

These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different specifications
depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.).

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum) 200 mA

Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW

Power consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V

Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

3.3.6 APPLICATIONS:

 Precision Timing
 Sequential Timing
 Time Delay Generation
66
  Pulse Generation
 Pulse Detector
 Pulse Width and Position Modulation

2.5 Copper coils

An electromagnetic coil (or simply a "coil") is formed when a conductor (usually an insulated
solid copper wire) is wound around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. One loop of
wire is usually referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an electronic
circuit, electrical connection terminals called taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are often coated
with varnish or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional insulation and secure them in
place. A completed coil assembly with taps is often called a winding. A transformer is an
electromagnetic device that has a primary winding and a secondary winding that transfers energy
from one electrical circuit to another by inductive coupling without moving parts. The term tickler
coil usually refers to a feedback coil, which is often the third coil placed in relation to a primary coil
and secondary coil.

A coil tap is a wiring feature found on some electrical transformers, inductors and coil
pickups, all of which are sets of wire coils. The coil tap(s) are points in a wire coil where a conductive
patch has been exposed (usually on a loop of wire that extends out of the main coil body). As self
induction is larger for larger coil diameter the current in a thick wire tries to flow on the inside. The
ideal use of copper is achieved by foils. Sometimes this means that a spiral is a better alternative.
Multilayer coils have the problem of interlayer capacitance, so when multiple layers are needed the

67
shape needs to be radically changed to a short coil with many layers so that the voltage between
consecutive layers is smaller.

IGBT

Introduction

The insulated-gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor device

primarily used as an electronic switch and in newer devices is noted for combining high efficiency
and fast switching. It switches electric power in many modern appliances: Variable-Frequency Drives
(VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners and even stereo systems
with switching amplifiers. Since it is designed to turn on and off rapidly, amplifiers that use it often
synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width modulation and low-pass filters. In switching
applications modern devices boast pulse repetition rates well into the ultrasonic range—frequencies
which are at least ten times the highest audio frequency handled by the device when used as an
analog audio amplifier.

The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of the MOSFETs with the high-
current and low-saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors by combining an isolated gate
FET for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single device. The IGBT is
used in medium- to high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies, traction motor
control and induction heating. Large IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and
can have very high current handling capabilities in the order of hundreds of amperes with blocking
voltages of 6000 V, equating to hundreds of kilowatts.

68
 The IGBT is a fairly recent invention. The first-generation devices of the 1980s and early
1990s were relatively slow in switching, and prone to failure through such modes as latch up (in
which the device won't turn off as long as current is flowing) and secondary breakdown (in which a
localized hotspot in the device goes into thermal runaway and burns the device out at high currents).
Second-generation devices were much improved, and the current third-generation ones are even
better, with speed rivaling MOSFETs, and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of overloads.

The extremely high pulse ratings of second- and third-generation devices also make them
useful for generating large power pulses in areas like particle and plasma physics, where they are
starting to supersede older devices like thyratrons and triggered spark gaps.

Their high pulse ratings, and low prices on the surplus market, also make them attractive to
the high-voltage hobbyist for controlling large amounts of power to drive devices such as solid-state
Tesla coils and coil guns

69
History

The IGBT is a semiconductor device with four alternating layers (P-N-P-N) that are controlled
by a metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) gate structure without regenerative action. This mode of
operation was first proposed by Yamagami in his Japanese patent S47-21739, which was filed in
1968. This mode of operation was first experimentally discovered by B. Jayant Baliga in vertical
device structures with a V-groove gate region and reported in the literature in 1979. The device
structure was referred to as a ‘V-groove MOSFET device with the drain region replaced by a p-type
Anode Region’ in this paper and subsequently as the insulated-gate rectifier (IGR), the insulated-gate
transistor (IGT), the conductivity-modulated field-effect transistor (COMFET) and "bipolar-mode
MOSFET".

Plummer found the same IGBT mode of operation in the four layer device (SCR) and he first
filed a patent application for the device structure in 1978. USP No.4199774 was issued in 1980 and
B1 Re33209 was reissued in 1995 for the IGBT mode operation in the four layer device (SCR).

Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley invented a similar device for which they filed a patent
application in 1980, and which they referred to as "power MOSFET with an anode region". This
patent has been called "the seminal patent of the insulated gate bipolar transistor." The patent
claimed "no thyristor action occurs under any device operating conditions." This substantially means
that the device exhibits non-latch-up IGBT operation over the entire device operation range.

Practical devices capable of operating over an extended current range were first reported by
Baliga et al. in 1982. A similar paper was also submitted by J.P. Russel et al. to IEEE Electron Device
Letter in 1982. The applications for the device were initially regarded by the power electronics
community to be severely restricted by its slow switching speed and latch-up of the parasitic
thyristor structure inherent within the device. However, it was demonstrated by Baliga and also by
A.M. Goodman et al. in 1983 that the switching speed could be adjusted over a broad range by using
electron irradiation.

This was followed by demonstration of operation of the device at elevated temperatures by

Baliga in 1985. Successful efforts to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor and the scaling of

70
the voltage rating of the devices at GE allowed the introduction of commercial devices in 1983,
which could be utilized for a wide variety of applications.

Complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action and the resultant non-latch-up IGBT
operation for the entire device operation range was achieved by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984. The
non-latch-up design concept was filed for US patents. To test the lack of latchup, the prototype
1200V IGBTs were directly connected without any loads across a 600V constant voltage source and
were switched on for 25 microseconds. The entire 600V was dropped across the device and a large
short circuit current flowed. The devices successfully withstood this severe condition. This was the
first demonstration of so-called "short-circuit-withstanding-capability" in IGBTs. Non-latch-up IGBT
operation was ensured, for the first time, for the entire device operation range. [16] In this sense, the
non-latch-up IGBT proposed by Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley was realized by A. Nakagawa et
al. in 1984. Products of non-latch-up IGBTs were first commercialized by Toshiba in 1985.

Once the non-latch-up capability was achieved in IGBTs, it was found that IGBTs exhibited
very rugged and a very large safe operating area. It was demonstrated that the product of the
operating current density and the collector voltage exceeded the theoretical limit of bipolar
transistors, 2x105W/cm2, and reached 5x105W/cm2.

The insulating material is typically made of solid polymers which have issues with
degradation. There are developments that use an ion gel to improve manufacturing and reduce the
voltage required.

Device structure

An IGBT cell is constructed similarly to a n-channel vertical construction power MOSFET

except the n+ drain is replaced with a p+ collector layer, thus forming a vertical PNP bipolar junction
transistor.

This additional p+ region creates a cascade connection of a PNP bipolar junction transistor
with the surface n-channel MOSFET.

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IGBTS SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS

One of the main important performance features of any semiconductor switching device is its switching
characteristics. Understanding the device switching characteristics greatly improves its utilization in the
various applications. The main performance switching characteristics of power semiconductor switching
devices are the turn-on and turn-off switching transients in addition to the safe operating area (SOA) of the
device.

Since most loads are inductive in nature, which subjects devices to higher stresses, the turn-on and turn-off
transients of the IGBT are obtained with an inductive load test circuit. The load inductance is assumed to be
high enough so as to hold the load current constant during switching transitions. The freewheeling clamp
diode is required to maintain current flow in the inductor when the device under test (DUT) is turned off.

Comparison with power MOSFETs

An IGBT has a significantly lower forward voltage drop compared to a conventional MOSFET in
higher blocking voltage rated devices. As the blocking voltage rating of both MOSFET and IGBT
devices increases, the depth of the n- drift region must increase and the doping must decrease,
resulting in roughly square relationship decrease in forward conduction vs. blocking voltage
capability of the device. By injecting minority carriers (holes) from the collector p+ region into the n-

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drift region during forward conduction, the resistance of the n- drift region is considerably reduced.
However, this resultant reduction in on-state forward voltage comes with several penalties:

 The additional PN junction blocks reverse current flow. This means that unlike a MOSFET, IGBTs
cannot conduct in the reverse direction. In bridge circuits where reverse current flow is needed an
additional diode (called a freewheeling diode) is placed in parallel with the IGBT to conduct current in the
opposite direction. The penalty isn't as severe more first assumed though, because at the higher voltages
where IGBT usage dominates, discrete diodes are of significantly higher performance than the body diode
of a MOSFET.
 The reverse bias rating of the N-drift region to collector P+ diode is usually only of tens of volts, so if
the circuit application applies a reverse voltage to the IGBT, an additional series diode must be used.

 The minority carriers injected into the N-drift region take time to enter and exit or recombine at turn
on and turn off. This result in longer switching time and hence higher switching loss compared to a power
MOSFET.

 The on-state forward voltage drop in IGBTs behaves very differently to that in power MOSFETS. The
MOSFET voltage drop can be modeled as a resistance, with the voltage drop proportional to current. By
contrast, the IGBT has a diode like voltage drop (typically of the order of 2V) increasing only with the log
of the current. Additionally, MOSFET resistance is typically lower for smaller blocking voltages, meaning
that the choice between IGBTs and power MOSFETS depends on both the blocking voltage and current
involved in a particular application, as well as the different switching characteristics mentioned above.

In general, high voltage, high current and low switching frequencies favor IGBTs while low
voltage, low current and high switching frequencies are the domain of the MOSFET.

Basic Structure

The basic schematic of a typical N-channel IGBT based upon the DMOS process is shown in Figure 1.
This is one of several structures possible for this device. It is evident that the silicon cross-section of an IGBT is
almost identical to that of a vertical Power MOSFET except for the P+ injecting layer. It shares similar MOS
gate structure and P wells with N+ source regions. The N+ layer at the top is the source or emitter and the P+
layer at the bottom is the drain or collector. It is also feasible to make P-channel IGBTs and for which the
doping profile in each layer will be reversed. IGBT has a parasitic thyristor comprising the four-layer NPNP
structure. Turn-on of this thyristor is undesirable

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 Some IGBTs, manufactured without the N+ buffer layer, are called non-punch through (NPT) IGBTs
whereas those with this layer are called punch-through (PT) IGBTs. The presence of this buffer layer can
significantly improve the performance of the device if the doping level and thickness of this layer are chosen
appropriately. Despite physical similarities, the operation of an IGBT is closer to that of a power BJT than a
power MOSFET. It is due to the P+ drain layer (injecting layer) which is responsible for them in ority carrier
injection into the N--drift region and the resulting conductivity modulation

Based on the structure, a simple equivalent circuit model of an IGBT can be drawn as shown in Figure
2. It contains MOSFET, JFET, NPN and PNP transistors. The collector of the PNP is connected to the base of the
NPN and the collector of the NPN is connected to the base of the PNP through the JFET. The NPN and PNP
transistors represent the parasitic thyristor which constitutes a regenerative feedback loop. The resistor RB
represents the shorting of the base-emitter of the NPN transistor to ensure that the thyristor does not latch
up, which will lead to the IGBT latch up. The JFET represents the constriction of current between any two
neighboring IGBT cells. It supports most of the voltage and allows the MOSFET to be a low voltage type and
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consequently have a low RDS (on) value. A circuit symbol for the IGBT is shown in Figure 3. It has three
terminals called Collector (C), Gate (G) and Emitter (E).

IXYS has developed both NPT and PT IGBTs. The physical constructions for both of them are shown in
Figure 4. As mentioned earlier, the PT structure has an extra buffer layer which performs two main functions:
(i) avoids failure by punch-through action because the depletion region expansion at applied high voltage is
restricted by this layer,(ii) reduces the tail current during turn-off and shortens the fall time of the IGBT
because the holes are injected by the P+ collector partially recombine in this layer. The NPT

IGBTs, which have equal forward and reverse breakdown voltage, are suitable for AC applications. The PT
IGBTs, which have less reverse breakdown voltage than the forward Breakdown voltage, are applicable for DC
circuits where devices are not required to support voltage in the reverse direction.

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Operation Modes

Forward-Blocking and Conduction Modes

When a positive voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminal with gate shorted to
emitter shown in Figure 1, the device enters into forward blocking mode with junctions J1 and J3 are forward-
biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased. A depletion layer extends on both-sides of junction J2 partly into P-
base and N-drift region. An IGBT in the forward-blocking state can be transferred to the forward conducting
state by removing the gate-emitter shorting and applying a positive voltage of sufficient level to invert the Si
below gate in the P base region.

This forms a conducting channel which connects the N+ emitter to the N--drift region. Through this
channel, electrons are transported from the N+ emitter to the N--drift. This flow of electrons into the N--drift
lowers the potential of the N--drift region whereby the P+ collector/ N--drift becomes forward-biased. Under
this forward-biased condition, a high-density of minority carrier holes is injected into the N--drift from the P+
collector. When the injected carrier concentration is very much larger the background concentration, a
condition defined as a plasma of holes builds up in the N--drift region. This plasma of holes attracts electrons
from the emitter contact to maintain local charge neutrality.

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 In this manner, approximately equal excess concentrations of holes and electrons are gathered in the
N--drift region. This excess electron and hole concentrations drastically enhance the conductivity of N--drift
region. This mechanism in rise in conductivity is referred to as the conductivity modulation of the N--drift
region

Reverse-Blocking Mode

When a negative voltage is applied across the collector-to-emitter terminal shown

in Figure 1, the junction J1 becomes reverse-biased and its depletion layer extends into the N--drift region.
The break down voltage during the reverse-blocking is determined by an open-base BJT formed by the P+
collector/ N--drift/P-base regions. The device is prone to punch-through if the N--drift region is very lightly-
doped. The desired reverse voltage capability can be obtained by optimizing the resistivity and thickness of
the N—drift region. The width of the N--drift region that determines the reverse voltage capability and the
forward voltage drop which increases with increasing width can be determined by

Where,

LP = Minority carrier diffusion length

Vm = Maximum blocking voltage

= o ε Permittivity of free space

ε s=Dielectric constant of Si

q = Electronic charge

ND = Doping concentration of N-drift region

Note: Reverse blocking IGBT is rare and in most applications, an anti-parallel diode
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(FRED) is used.

Output Characteristics

The plot for forward output characteristics of an NPT-IGBT is shown in Figure 5. It has family of curves,
each of which corresponds to a different gate-to-emitter voltage (VGE).The collector current (IC) is measured
as a function of collector-emitter voltage (VCE) with the gate-emitter voltage (VGE) constant

The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are:

1. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has superior on-state current
density. So smaller chip size is possible and the cost can be reduced.

2. Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS gate structure. It can be easily controlled
as compared to current controlled devices (thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current applications

3. Wide SOA. It has superior current conduction capability compared with the bipolar transistor. It also has
excellent forward and reverse blocking capabilities.

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IGBT Applications

 Gasoline Powered Vehicles

 Adjustable Speed Drives for Motor Control
 Transportation Sector
 Consumer Sector
 Industrial Sector
 Textile and Rolling Mills
 High Speed Drilling and Milling
 Medical Sector
 Ultrasound Machines

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Switching speed is inferior to that of a Power MOSFET and superior to that of a BJT. The collector current
tailing due to the minority carrier causes the turnoff speed to be slow.

2. There is a possibility of latch up due to the internal PNPN thyristor structure

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 CHAPTER 3: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

This project is implemented using following software’s:

 Express PCB – for designing circuit
 PIC C compiler - for compilation part
 Proteus 7 (Embedded C) – for simulation part

3.1 Express PCB:

Breadboards are great for prototyping equipment as it allows great flexibility to

modify a design when needed; however the final product of a project, ideally should have a neat
PCB, few cables, and survive a shake test. Not only is a proper PCB neater but it is also more durable
as there are no cables which can yank loose.

Express PCB is a software tool to design PCBs specifically for manufacture by the
company Express PCB (no other PCB maker accepts Express PCB files). It is very easy to use, but it
does have several limitations.

It can be likened to more of a toy then a professional CAD program.

It has a poor part library (which we can work around)

It cannot import or export files in different formats

It cannot be used to make prepare boards for DIY production

Express PCB has been used to design many PCBs (some layered and with surface-mount
parts. Print out PCB patterns and use the toner transfer method with an Etch Resistant Pen to make
boards. However, Express PCB does not have a nice print layout. Here is the procedure to design in
Express PCB and clean up the patterns so they print nicely.

3.1.1 Preparing Express PCB for First Use:

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 Express PCB comes with a less then exciting list of parts. So before any project is started
head over to Audio logic and grab the additional parts by morsel, ppl, and tangent, and extract them
into your Express PCB directory. At this point start the program and get ready to setup the
workspace to suit your style.

Click View -> Options. In this menu, setup the units for “mm” or “in” depending on how
you think, and click “see through the top copper layer” at the bottom. The standard color scheme of
red and green is generally used but it is not as pleasing as red and blue.

3.1.2 The Interface:

When a project is first started you will be greeted with a yellow outline. This yellow outline
is the dimension of the PCB. Typically after positioning of parts and traces, move them to their final
position and then crop the PCB to the correct size. However, in designing a board with a certain size
constraint, crop the PCB to the correct size before starting.

Fig: 4.1 show the toolbar in which the each button has the following functions:

Fig 4.1: Tool bar necessary for the interface

 The select tool: It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you to move and manipulate
parts. When this tool is selected the top toolbar will show buttons to move traces to the top /
bottom copper layer, and rotate buttons.
 The zoom to selection tool: does just that.

 The place pad: button allows you to place small soldier pads which are useful for board
connections or if a part is not in the part library but the part dimensions are available. When
this tool is selected the top toolbar will give you a large selection of round holes, square holes
and surface mount pads.

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  The place component: tool allows you to select a component from the top toolbar and then
by clicking in the workspace places that component in the orientation chosen using the
buttons next to the component list. The components can always be rotated afterwards with
the select tool if the orientation is wrong.

 The place trace: tool allows you to place a solid trace on the board of varying thicknesses.
The top toolbar allows you to select the top or bottom layer to place the trace on.

 The Insert Corner in trace: button does exactly what it says. When this tool is selected,
clicking on a trace will insert a corner which can be moved to route around components and
other traces.

 The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete key will achieve the same
result.

3.1.3 Design Considerations:

Before starting a project there are several ways to design a PCB and one must be
chosen to suit the project’s needs.

Single sided, or double sided?

When making a PCB you have the option of making a single sided board, or a double
sided board. Single sided boards are cheaper to produce and easier to etch, but much harder to
design for large projects. If a lot of parts are being used in a small space it may be difficult to make
a single sided board without jumper over traces with a cable. While there’s technically nothing
wrong with this, it should be avoided if the signal travelling over the traces is sensitive (e.g. audio
signals).

A double sided board is more expensive to produce professionally, more difficult to

etch on a DIY board, but makes the layout of components a lot smaller and easier. It should be
noted that if a trace is running on the top layer, check with the components to make sure you can
get to its pins with a soldering iron.

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 Large capacitors, relays, and similar parts which don’t have axial leads can NOT have traces on top
unless boards are plated professionally.

When using a double sided board you must consider which traces should be on what
side of the board. Generally, put power traces on the top of the board, jumping only to the bottom
if a part cannot be soldiered onto the top plane (like a relay), and vice- versa.

Some projects like power supplies or amps can benefit from having a solid plane to
use for ground. In power supplies this can reduce noise, and in amps it minimizes the distance
between parts and their ground connections, and keeps the ground signal as simple as possible.
However, care must be taken with stubborn chips such as the TPA6120 amplifier from TI. The
TPA6120 datasheet specifies not to run a ground plane under the pins or signal traces of this chip

as the capacitance generated could effect performance negatively.

3.2 PIC Compiler:

PIC compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and
compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be
dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. PIC compiler also supports C language code.
It’s important that you know C language for microcontroller which is commonly
known as Embedded C. As we are going to use PIC Compiler, hence we also call it PIC C. The PCB,
PCM, and PCH are separate compilers. PCB is for 12-bit opcodes, PCM is for 14-bitopcodes, and
PCH is for 16-bit opcode PIC microcontrollers. Due to many similarities, all three compilers are
covered in this reference manual. Features and limitations that apply to only specific microcontrollers
are indicated within. These compilers are specifically designed to meet the unique needs of the PIC
microcontroller. This allows developers to quickly design applications software in a more readable,
high-level language. When compared to a more traditional C compiler, PCB, PCM, and PCH have
some limitations. As an example of the limitations, function recursion is not allowed.
This is due to the fact that the PIC has no stack to push variables onto, and also
because of the way the compilers optimize the code. The compilers can efficiently implement normal
C constructs, input/output operations, and bit twiddling operations. All normal C data types are
supported along with pointers to constant arrays, fixed point decimal, and arrays of bits.

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 PIC C is not much different from a normal C program. If you know assembly, writing
a C program is not a crisis. In PIC, we will have a main function, in which all your application
specific work will be defined. In case of embedded C, you do not have any operating system running
in there. So you have to make sure that your program or main file should never exit. This can be done
with the help of simple while (1) or for (;;) loop as they are going to run infinitely.

We have to add header file for controller you are using, otherwise you will not be able
to access registers related to peripherals.

#include <16F72.h> // header file for PIC 16F72//

3.3 Proteus:

Proteus is software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted
into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is done by the
Proteus. Proteus is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it other than the one
which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way that it
accepts the hex file from the pic compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller which is to
be programmed. As the Proteus programmer requires power supply to be operated, this power
supply is given from the power supply circuit designed and connected to the microcontroller in
proteus. The program which is to be dumped in to the microcontroller is edited in proteus and is
compiled and executed to check any errors and hence after the successful compilation of the
program the program is dumped in to the microcontroller using a dumper.

3.4 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and dumping :

3.4.1 Compilation and simulation steps:

For PIC microcontroller, PIC C compiler is used for compilation. The compilation
steps are as follows:

 Open PIC C compiler.

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 You will be prompted to choose a name for the new project, so create a separate folder
where all the files of your project will be stored, choose a name and click save.

Fig 4.1: Picture of opening a new file using PIC C compiler

 Click Project, New, and something the box named 'Text1' is where your code should be
written later.
 Now you have to click 'File, Save as' and choose a file name for your source code ending with
the letter '.c'. You can name as 'project.c' for example and click save. Then you have to add
this file to your project work.

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 Fig 4.2: Picture of compiling a new file using PIC C compiler

Fig 4.3: Picture of compiling a project.c file using PIC C compiler

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 You can then start to write the source code in the window titled 'project.c' then before testing
your source code; you have to compile your source code, and correct eventual syntax errors.

Fig 4.4: Picture of checking errors and warnings using PIC C compiler

 By clicking on compile option .hex file is generated automatically.

 This is how we compile a program for checking errors and hence the compiled program is
saved in the file where we initiated the program.

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 Fig 4.5: Picture of .hex file existing using PIC C compiler

After compilation, next step is simulation. Here first circuit is designed in Express PCB
using Proteus 7 software and then simulation takes place followed by dumping. The simulation steps
are as follows:
 Open Proteus 7 and click on IS1S6.
 Now it displays PCB where circuit is designed using microcontroller. To design circuit
components are required. So click on component option.
10. Now click on letter ’p’, then under that select PIC16F72 ,other components related to the project
and click OK. The PIC 16F72 will be called your “'Target device”, which is the final destination of
your source code.

4.4.2 Dumping steps:

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 The steps involved in dumping the program edited in proteus 7 to microcontroller are
shown below:
1. Initially before connecting the program dumper to the microcontroller kit the window is
appeared as shown below.

Fig 4.6: Picture of program dumper window

2. Select Tools option and click on Check Communication for establishing a connection as shown
in below window

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Fig 4.7: Picture of checking communications before dumping program into microcontroller

3. After connecting the dumper properly to the microcontroller kit the window is appeared as shown
below.

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Fig 4.8: Picture after connecting the dumper to microcontroller

4. Again by selecting the Tools option and clicking on Check Communication the microcontroller
gets recognized by the dumper and hence the window is as shown below.

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 Fig 4.9: Picture of dumper recognition to microcontroller

5. Import the program which is ‘.hex’ file from the saved location by selecting File option and clicking
on ‘Import Hex’ as shown in below window.

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 Fig 4.10: Picture of program importing into the microcontroller

6. After clicking on ‘Import Hex’ option we need to browse the location of our program and click the
‘prog.hex’ and click on ‘open’ for dumping the program into the microcontroller .

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 Fig 4.11: Picture of program browsing which is to be dumped

7. After the successful dumping of program the window is as shown below.

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Fig 4.12: Picture after program dumped into the microcontroller

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 CHAPTER 4: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this chapter, schematic diagram and interfacing of MOSFET’s, PIC16F72, regulated power
supply, interfacing with each module is considered.

Fig 4.1: schematic diagram of Wireless Power transmission with battery charging

The above schematic diagram of Wireless Power transmission with battery charging
Explains the interfacing section of each component

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Working Procedure:

Our experiment had six basic parts: the pulse generator, sending coil, receiving coil, rectifier,
regulator, and load. The copper coil, illustrated by object A, is a single loop of insulated copper wire.
The sending coil and receiving coil are illustrated by objects B and C respectively. These coils of
copper tubing are made to be exactly the same so they resonate at the same frequency. The pick-up
is object D and is connected in series to a load.

The resonant frequency of our coils, at which we get the most power, varies with the distance
between the coils. Due to this we chose to use a frequency generator so that we could adjust the
frequency as needed. Several oscillators were built to generate certain frequencies, but due to the
varying nature of our resonant frequency, the frequency generator like PIC 16F72 as pulse generator
was used. A frequency generator PIC16F72 microcontroller outputs a signal of the same frequency
as the resonant frequency of our copper coils, because we can output maximum power at this
frequency.

The signal generated is put into our driving loop of 10 gauge wire. The loop is just smaller
than our primary coil (approximately 55.5 cm in diameter). The AC current in the driving loop causes
the loop of wire to behave like a dipole. The driving loop is positioned parallel to the primary coil, as
close as possible. The flux generated by the driving loop through the primary coil causes the coil to
resonate. It is important to realize that the driving loop does not make the secondary loop resonate
directly. The evanescent waves emitted by the primary coil causes the secondary coil to resonate,
because the coils are of the same shape, size, and mass (or close to identical). Both the primary coil
and the secondary coil are made of copper tubing that is 1/4 inch inner diameter (3/8 inch outer
97
diameter). The coils use 60 feet of tubing each, and have about 10 turns (57.5 cm in diameter). At
this point the two coils are parallel to each other and resonating, using only enough power to make
the driving loop “drive” the first coil. The distance between the primary and secondary coils
determines the magnitude of power that is transmitted. The power exponentially decays as the coils
are moved further apart. When the secondary coil vibrates at its resonant frequency, a stronger
magnetic field is generated. The receiving loop of 10 gauge wire is situated parallel to the secondary
coil, as close as possible. The magnetic flux from the secondary coil induces a current in the receiving
loop, which drives a resistive load.

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 CHAPTER 5: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:

1. This system helps in transmission of power wirelessly

2. Efficient and low cost design.

3. Low power consumption.
4. Easy to operate.
5. Efficient design
6. Low power consumption.
7. Easy to install.
8. Fast response.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited distance.
2. No feedback.

Applications:

1. In industries, streets, etc which can be practically implemented in real time.

2. Industrial applications, batteries, vehicles, mining.

3. Houses etc.,

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 CHAPTER 6: RESULTS

6.1 Result:

The project “WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION” was designed such that wireless
energy transfer or wireless power is the transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an
electrical load without a conductive physical connection. Wireless transmission is useful in cases
where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.

6.2 Conclusion:

Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best
working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s with the help of growing technology, the
project has been successfully implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed and
tested.

6.3 Future Scope:

Our project “Wireless Power Transmission” is mainly intended to Wireless energy

transfer or wireless power is the transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an electrical
load without a conductive physical connection. Wireless transmission is useful in cases where
interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.

This project results in a device where the electricity is transmitted wirelessly through copper
coils for a distance. The system uses function or pulse generator as PIC16F72 microcontroller at the
transmitter circuit. Therefore, the current flows from the coil on the transmitter side to the receiver
side coil wirelessly connected with rectifier and regulator.

In this project we are using transformer, RPS, Pulse Generator PIC16F72 microcontroller, a
pair of copper coils, rectifier, filter and a load

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 This system is incapable of giving feed back of the devices being operated. This can be
eliminated by using LCD display technology, which displays the voltage measured on the LCD
display unit also gives the feedback through LED indicators. GSM module also can be used to get the
feedback of the electrical devices by sending the SMS in a particular specified format.

REFERENCES

The sites which were used while doing this project:

1. www.wikipedia.com

2. www.allaboutcircuits.com

3. www.microchip.com

4. www.howstuffworks.com

Books referred:

1. Raj kamal –Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi –Embedded Systems.

3. PCB Design Tutorial –David.L.Jones.

4. PIC Microcontroller Manual – Microchip.

5. Embedded C –Michael.J.Pont.

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