Input Unit (sensor)-

The input receives the quantity whose value is to be measured and is converted into its
proportional incremental electrical signal such as voltage, current, resistance change, inductance or
even capacitance.
Procesing unit -
The output of the transducer is provided to the input of the signal processing unit. This unit
amplifies the weak transducer output and is filtered and modified to a form that is acceptable by
the output unit.
Display or storage-
The output from the signal processing unit is fed to the input of the output unit. The output unit
measures the signal and indicates the value to the reader. The indication may be either through: an
indicating instrument, a CRO, digital computer, and so on
• Sensors and Transducers Classification
• Sensors based on the power requirement
• Sensors-based on Contact and Non-Contact type
• Based on the Physical Parameter being measured
• Classification of Transducers
• Active and Passive Transducers
• Analog and Digital Transducers
• Primary and Secondary Transducers
• According to Transduction Principle
• Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Capacitive Pressure Transducer

Figure shows a transducer that makes use of the variation in capacitance

resulting from a change in spacing between the plates. This particular
transducer is designed to measure pressure
 Variable reluctance inductive transducer

The device consists of a coil that is wound on a core made up of ferromagnetic material.
The displacement is given to the core through a target that makes an upward and
downward movement according to the displacement produced. It does not touch the core
of the coil and a smaller air gap is made between them.
Differential output transducer

The Differential Output Transducer consists of a coil which is divided into

two parts, as shown in Figs.
The transducers can be designed to provide two outputs, one of which
represents inductance (self or mutual) and the other the decrease in
inductance (self or mutual). The succeeding stages of the instrumentation
system measure the difference between these outputs. This is known as
Linear variable differential transducer (LVDT)

The most widely used inductive Transducer translate the linear motion into
electrical signals is linear variable differential transformer. Here the change in the
displacement corresponds to change in inductance, which gives differential
voltage output.
An LVDT consists of three symmetrically spaced coils wound onto an insulated bobbin.

The magnetic core can move within the bobbin and provides a path for the magnetic flux linkage
between the primary and the secondary coils.

The motion (from a mechanical input) changes the characteristics of the flux path and the changes
can be detected in the circuit.

The primary coil is excited by an a.c. signal and voltages are induced in the two secondary coils. The
induced voltages depend on the position of the core inside the bobbin.

The circuit is shown in part (b) of the figure. The secondary coils are wired in a series-opposing circuit
so that when the core is centered between them the voltages induced are opposite but equal.

When the core is centered between the two secondary coils, the induced voltages v {1} and v {2} are
equal but out of phase by 180 degrees, and they cancel to give a zero output voltage.

When the core moves from the center position, an output voltage v {0} =v {1}-v {2} is developed, and
as long as the displacement is within the working range of the LVDT, the voltage and displacement
will be linearly related.
 Selection criteria of transducer
•Operating range : The range of transducer should be appropriate for measurement to get a good resolution.

•Operating Principle : The transducers are selected on the basis of operating principle it may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive, optical etc.

•Accuracy : The accuracy should be as high as possible or as per the measurement.

•Range : The transducer can give good result within its specified range, so select transducer as per the operating
range.

•Sensitivity : The transducer should be more sensitive to produce the output or sensitivity should be as per
requirement.

•Environmental compatibility : The transducer should maintain input and output characteristic for the selected
environmental condition.

•Loading effect: The transducer’s input impedance should be high and output impedance should be low to avoid
loading effect.

•Errors : The error produced by the transducer should be low as possible

Thermistor, RTD (PT-100)

Thermistor is a transducer whose resistance changes as the temperature is changed. It is used for the
measurement of temperature. It is a kind of resistor whose resistivity depends on the surrounding
temperature.

A PT100 is a Platinum RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) with a resistance of 100Ω at 0°C
which changes with temperature. It is suitable for applications in the temperature range of -200°C to
600°C but are more commonly used in the range -50°C to +250°C.
Construction of RTD (PT-100)

The platinum wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating material such
as mica or ceramic. This assembly is fired at a high temperature to assure the
annealing of the winding. This assembly is then placed at the tip of the probe as
shown in Fig
This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid whose temperature is to be
measured. This gas or liquid however should not be corrosive or conductive.
3. The resistance of the platinum wire changes with a change in temperature of the gas
or liquid. The maximum temperature measurable in continuous operation is 1000° K
i.e.727° C.
4. This type of sensor has a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity as they are
made from metals. These are also known as "resistance temperature detectors or RTD".
The other metals used are nickel and copper.
STRAIN GAUGE
Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the
application of force or strain. They can be used for
measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure, displacement,
acceleration etc.

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the
strain. The more is the applied force, more is the strain and more is the
increase in length of the wire. If L 1 is the initial length of the wire and
L2 is the final length after application of the force, the strain is given as: ε =
(L2-L1)/L1 Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its
diameter decreasesNow, we know that resistance of the conductor is the
inverse function of the length. As the length of the conductor increases its
resistance decreases.
Material used for Strain gauge
Earlier wire types of strain gauges were used commonly, which are now being replaced by the metal
foil types of gauges as shown in the figure below. The metals can be easily cut into the zigzag foils
for the formation of the strain gauges. One of the most popular materials used for the strain gauges
is the copper-nickel-manganese alloy, which is known by the trade name ‘Advance.’ Some
semiconductor materials can also be used for making the strain gauges.
A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium titanate produce
an emf when they are placed under stress. This property is used in the Working Principle of
Piezoelectric Transducer, where a crystal is placed between a solid base and the force-
summing member, as shown in Fig

An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies
pressure to the top of a crystal. This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of applied pressure.