Cosmology,

lect. 9

Thermal History
Cosmology,
lect. 9
Ryden
Chapter 8, 9

Thermal History
 FRW

Thermodynamics
 FRW Dynamic
4 G  3p  
a    2 a a To find solutions a(t) for the
3  c  3 expansion history of the
Universe, for a particular
FRW Universe ,
8 G kc 2
 2
a 
2
a  2  a
2 one needs to know how the
density ρ(t) and pressure p(t)
3 R0 3 evolve as function of a(t)

FRW equations are implicitly equivalent to a third Einstein equation,

the
energy equation,

 p  a
  3    2  0
 c a
 FRW Dynamics:
Adiabatic Cosmic Expansion
Important observation:
the energy equation,

 p  a
  3    2  0
 c a
is equivalent to stating that the change in internal energy

U  c 2V
of a specific co-expanding volume V(t) of the Universe, is due to work
by pressure:

dU  p dV
Friedmann-Robertson-Walker-Lemaitre expansion of the Universe is

Adiabatic Expansion
 FRW Dynamics:
Thermal Evolution
Adiabatic Expansion of the Universe:

• Implication for Thermal History

• Temperature Evolution of cosmic components

For a medium with adiabatic index γ:

 1
TV cst
4 T0
Radiation (Photons)  T
3 a

5 T0
Monatomic Gas  T
(hydrogen) 3 a2
Radiation
&
Matter
 Cosmic Radiation
The Universe is filled with thermal radiation, the photons that were
created in
The Big Bang and that we now observe as the Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB).

The CMB photons represent the most abundant species in the

Universe, by far !

The CMB radiation field is PERFECTLY thermalized, with their energy

distribution representing the most perfect blackbody spectrum we
8 h
know in nature. The energy density u3(T) is therefore given by the
1
u (T )  3
Planck spectral distribution,
h / kT
c e 1

T  2.725 0.001 K
At present, the temperature
0 T of the cosmic radiation field is known to
impressive
precision,
CMB Radiation Field
Blackbody Radiation
 COBE-DIRBE:
temperature, blackbo

2h 3 1
B (T )  2 h / kT •T = 2.725 K
c e 1

• John Mather
Nobelprize physics 20

 Most accurately
measured
Black Body Spectrum
Ever !!!!!
 Cosmic Radiation
With the energy density uν(T) of CMB photons with energy hν given, we
know the
number density nν(T) of such photons:

u (T ) 8 2 1
n (T )   3 h / kT
h c e 1

The total number density nγ(T) of photons in the Universe can be

assessed by
integrating the number density nγ(T) of photons with frequency ν over
all 
T 2.725 K
n (T ) n (T )d 
frequencies,

0
 3
8 2
1  kT 
 3 h / kT
d  60.4  
n (T ) 412 cm  3
0
c e 1  hc 
 Baryon-Photon Rati
Having determined the number density of photons, we may compare
this with the
number density of baryons, nb(T). That is, we wish to know the
PHOTON-BARYON ratio,

n B  B crit
 nb  
nB mp mp

The baryon number density is inferred from the baryon mass density.
here, for simplicity, we have assumed that baryons (protons and
neutrons) have
the same mass, the proton mass mp ~ 1.672 x 10-24 g. At present we
therefore 1.12 10 5 b h 2 g cm  3
nb find We know that
Ωb~0.044 and h~0.72:

n
n 1 0  1.60 109
0  3.65 107 nb
nB b h 2
 Baryon-Photon Rati
From simple thermodynamic arguments, we find that the number of
photons is
vastly larger than that of baryons in the Universe.

n
0  1.60 109
nb

In this, the Universe is a unique physical system, with tremendous

repercussions for the thermal history of the Universe. We may in fact
easily find that the cosmic photon-baryon ratio remains constant
during the expansion of the Universe,
nb ,0
nb (t ) 
a3 n (t ) n ,0
  0
nb (t ) nb ,0
3 1 n 0
n (t )  T (t )  3  n (t )  3
a a
 Entropy of the Univers
The photon-baryon ratio in the Universe remains constant during the
expansion
of the Universe, and has the large value of

n (t ) n ,0
  0 1.60 10 9

nb (t ) nb ,0

This quantity is one of the key parameters of the Big Bang. The
baryon-photon
ratio quantifies the ENTROPY of the Universe, and it remains to be
explained why
the Universe has produced such a system of extremely large
entropy !!!!!

The key to this lies in the very earliest instants of our Universe !
 Cosmic Light (CMB):
most abundant species
By far,
the most abundant particle species
in the Universe

nγ/n B ~ 1.6 billion

 Hot Big Bang:

Thermal History
 Adiabatic Expansion
The Universe of Einstein, Friedmann &
Lemaitre
expands adiabatically

• Energy of the expansion of the Universe

corresponds to the decrease in the energy of
its constituents

• The Universe COOLS as a result of its

T (t )  1/ a(t )
expansion !
 Equilibrium Processes
Throughout most of the universe’s history (i.e. in the early universe),
various species of particles keep in (local) thermal equilibrium
via interaction processes:

i   j  i   j
Equilibrium as long as the interaction rate Γint in
the cosmos’ thermal bath, leading to Nint interactions in time t,

int  N int int (t ) dt

is much larger than the expansion rate of the Universe,
the Hubble parameter H(t):

int  H (t )
 Reconstruction
Thermal History Timeline
Strategy:
To work out the thermal history of the Universe, one has to evaluate at each cosmic time
which physical processes are still in equilibrium.
Once this no longer is the case, a physically significant transition has taken place.
Dependent on whether one wants a crude impression or an accurately and detailed
worked out description, one may follow two approaches:

 Crudely:
Assess transitions of particles out of equilibrium, when they decouple from
thermal bath. Usually, on crude argument:

int  H (t ) int  H (t )
 Strictly:
evolve particle distributions by integrating the Boltzmann equation
Adiabatic Expansion

reconstruction
Thermal History
of the Universe
 Interactions
Particle interactions are mediated by gauge bosons:
• photons for the electromagnetic force,
• W bosons for weak interactions,
• gluons for the strong force.
The strength of the interaction is set by the coupling constant,
leading to the following dependence of the interaction rate Γ, on temperature T:

(i) mediated by massless gauge boson (photon):

(ii) mediated by massive gauge boson (W+/- ,Z0)

Hot Big Bang
Eras
 Cosmic Epochs
Planck Epoch
t < 10-43 sec
GUT transition
electroweak transition
Phase Transition Eraquark-hadron transition
10-43 sec < t < 105sec

Hadron Era muon annihilation

neutrino-5decoupling
t ~10 sec
electron-positron annihilation
primordial nucleosynthesis

Lepton Era radiation-matter equivalence

recombination & decoupling
10-5 sec < t < 1 min
Structure & Galaxy formation
Dark Ages
Radiation Era Reionization
Matter-Dark Energy transition
1 min < t <379,000 yrs
 History of the Universe
in Four Episodes: I
On the basis of the
1) complexity of the involved physics
2) our knowledge of the physical processes
we may broadly distinguish four cosmic episodes:

(I)
Origin
universe
???
t < 10-43 sec

fundamental physics:

Planck Era
- totally unknown
 History of the Universe
in Four Episodes: II
•Ω tot:

(II
curvature/
flatness

10-43 < t < • Ω (n /n )

b b 

) 10-3 sec • `exotic’

dark matter

• primordial
fundamental physics: fluctuations
- poorly known
- speculative
VERY early
universe
 History of the Universe
in Four Episodes: III

(II 10-3 < t < 1013

• primordial
nucleo-

I)
synthesis
sec
• blackbody
Standard radiation:
CMB
fundamental
microphysics: Hot Big Bang
known very

Fireball
well
 History of the Universe
in Four Episodes: IV

(I t > 10 13
sec
• structure
formation:

V) Post
stars,
galaxies
clusters
…
complex macrophysics:
-Fundamentals known
(Re)Combinati
- complex interplay
on
universe
 Origins:
the Planck Epoch
 Thermal History:
Episode by Episode

Planck Epoch
t < 10-43 sec
• In principle, temperature T should rise to infinity
as we probe earlier and earlier into the
universe’s history:
T  , R  0
• However, at that time the energy of the particles
starts to reach values where quantum gravity
effects become dominant. In other words, the de
Thermal History: Planck
Epoch
Once the de Broglie wavelength is smaller than the
corresponding Schwarzschild radius, the particle
has essentially become a “quantum black hole”:
de Broglie wavelength:
≤
Schwarzschild radius:

These two mass scales define the epoch of

quantum cosmology, in which the purely
deterministic metric description of gravity by the
theory of relativity needs to be augmented by a
theory incorporating quantum effects: quantum
Thermal History: Planck
Epoch
On the basis of the expressions of the de Broglie
wavelength and the Schwarzschild radius we may
infer the typical mass scale, length scale and
timescale for this epoch of quantum cosmology:

Planck Mass

Planck Length

Planck Time
Statistical Equilibrium
Maxwell-Boltzmann
Non-relativistic medium

For statistical equilibrium, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

specifies for a temperature T, the density of particles:

- number density ni
- particles with mass mi
- statistical weight gi
- chemical potential μi

 2 mi kT 
3/2
 i  mi c  2
ni  gi exp  
2  
3
 kT 
Echo of the Big Bang:
Recombination,
Decoupling,
Last Scattering
CMB Discovery: Penzias & Wils
 Cosmic Light (CMB):
the facts

 Discovered serendipitously in 1965 Penzias & Wilson,

Nobelprize 1978 !!!!!

 Cosmic Light that fills up the Universe uniformly

 Temperature: Tγ=2.725 K
 (CMB) photons most abundant particle in the Universe:
nγ ~ 415 cm-3

 Per atom in the Universe: nγ/n B ~ 1.6 x 109

 Ultimate evidence of the Big Bang !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Recombination & Decoupling

waterstofatomen
protonen & electronen

lichtdeeltjes/fotonen
the Cosmic TV Sho

Note:
far from being an exotic faraway
phenomenon, realize that the CMB
nowadays is counting for approximately
1% of the noise on your (camping) tv set
…
!!!! Live broadcast from the Big
Bang !!!!
Courtesy: W. Hu
 Recombination &
Decoupling
T ~ 3000 K
zdec=1089 (Δzdec=195);
79.000 yrs
• Before the “Recombination Epoch
Radiation and Matter are tightly coupled through
Thomson scattering.

• The events surrounding “recombination” exist of THREE

major
(coupled, yet different) processes:

• Recombination protons & electrons

combine to H atoms
• Decoupling photons & baryonic
 Recombination &
Decoupling
T ~ 3000 K
zdec=1089 (Δzdec=195);
79.000 yrsthis time, radiation and matter are tightly coupled
• Before
through
Thomson scattering:

Because of the continuing scattering of photons, the

universe is a “fog”.
• A radical change of this situation occurs once the
temperature starts to drop below T~3000 K and electrons.
Thermodynamically it becomes favorable to form neutral
(hydrogen) atoms H (because the photons can no longer
destory the atoms):
Recombination - Saha
Recombination Process:

p  e  H  
Statistical Equilibrium sets the density of
electrons, protons and hydrogen atoms involved in the recombination process:

 2 me kT 
3/2
 e  me c 2 
ne  g e exp  
2  
3
 kT 

2 m kT 
3/2
p   p  m p c 2 
n p g p exp  
2  
3
 kT 
 2 mH kT 
3/2
  H  mH c 2 
nH g H exp  
 
3
2   kT 
Recombination - Saha
Recombination Process:

p  e  H  
Taking along that for the chemical potentials
 p   e  H

we find for the relation between the number densities

3/2  3/2
nH g H  mH   kT   [m p  me  mH ]c 2 
    2 
exp  
ne n p g e g p  me m p   2    kT 
Recombination - Saha
Recombination Process:

p  e  H  

- mass electron small: mH / m p 1

- binding energy hydrogen atom: m e  m p  mH  c 2

 13.6 eV

- weights gi: g e 2, g p 2, g H 4

results in the Saha Equation,

 3/2
nH  me kT   
 2 
exp  
ne n p  2    kT 
which specifies the shifting ionization state as a function of
shifting temperature T
 Recombination -
Ionization
Recombination Process:

p  e  H  

Photon number density in blackbody bath temperature T:

3 3
2.404  kT   kT 
n  2   0.243  
  c   c 
np nb n n  Xn
Ionization fraction x: X   ; e n p p X
n p  nH n n n p  nH nb
nb np
Baryon-photon ratio η:  
n Xn
3
 kT 
Proton number density at T: n p 0.243 X   
  c 
 Recombination:
Ionization Evolution (Saha)
 Recombination -
Ionization
Recombination Process:

p  e  H  

Relation between temperature T and ionization fraction X:

3/2
1 X  kT   
2
3.84  2 
exp  
X  me c nb
  kT 
; np X
n
Moment of recombination:

1
X kTrec 0.323 eV  3740 K
2
 Standard theory of H
recombination
(Peebles 1968, Zel’dovich et al 1968)

Recombination Process
not entirely trivial:

• ground state could be

H+ + e- reached via Lya transition (2P-1S)

radiative recombination DOES NOT WORK !!!!!

+ photoionization
large abundance Lya Ionization
3s 3p 3d •Recombination in parts:
forbidden transition =2-photon emission
2s 2p 2S – 1S

•Takes 8.23 s-1

Lyman- much slower than ‘direct’, and thus
2
resonance recombination occurs late …
escape at T ~ 3000 K
1s
 Decoupling
Decoupling:

  e    e
Thomson scattering:
Elastic scattering of photons off electrons

Cross-section:  e 6.65 10 29 m 2

1
Mean free path: 
ne e

c
Interaction rate:   ne e c

 Decoupling - Primordial
Plasma
Decoupling:

  e    e
Thomson scattering:

Fully ionized plasma:

ne n p nb
nb ,0
ne nb 
a3
nb ,0  e c 1 4.4 10 21  1
Interaction rate:   s  s
a3 a 3
a 10 5 : ~ 3 per week
 Decoupling - Primordial
Plasma
Decoupling:

  e    e
Thomson scattering:

Fully ionized plasma:

Interaction rate - Hubble expansion rate:   H

H 2  r ,0 H 0  r ,01/2
2
 4  H 2.110 20 s  1
H0 a a2
radiation-dominated phase
nb ,0  e c  1 4.4 10 21  1
 3
s  3
s
a a

If fully ionized: decoupling at a 0.023  z 42, T 120 K

Decoupling - Recombination
Decoupling:

  e    e
Thomson scattering:

While plasma undergoes recombination,

number density electrons ne decreases,
substantially altering interaction rate:

( z ) ne ( z ) e c  X ( z ) (1  z )3 nb ,0  e c
 4.4 10 21 s  1 X ( z )(1  z )3
Decoupling - Recombination
Decoupling:

  e    e
Thomson scattering:

Interaction rate vs. Hubble expansion rate:

H 2  m ,0
2
 3
  m ,0 (1  z ) 3
 H ( z ) 2.110  18 (1  z ) 3/2 s  1
H0 a

Decoupling when   H 43.0

1  zdec 
X ( zdec ) 2/3

Saha equation value X(z): zdec 1130

 Last Scattering
Thomson scattering:

  e    e

Probability scattering in time interval dt:

dP (t ) dt
Expected number of scatterings since time t
when CMB photon seen at t0,
t0

 (t ) (t ) dt
t
This is Optical Depth !
 Last Scattering
Thomson scattering:

  e    e

Last Scattering Epoch:

t0
time t for which
 (t ) (t ) dt 1
t

Last scattering epoch:

1 1 z z
da (a ) da ( z ) dz
 (a) (a)    ( z )  0.0035X ( z )(1  z )1/2 dz
a
a a
H (a) a 0
H ( z) 1  z 0

zls  zdec 1100

 Recombination &
• In Decoupling
summary, the recombination transition and the related
decoupling of matter and radiation defines one of the most
crucial events in cosmology. In a rather sudden transition,
the universe changes from
Before zdec, z>zdec After zdec, z<zdec
• universe fully ionized • universe practically
• photons incessantly neutral
scattered • photons propagate
• pressure dominated by freely
• pressure only by
radiation:
baryons:

• (photon pressure
 Origin CMB
Photons
Important Issues:
• When were the CMB photons
produced ?
• How did they become a
blackbody/thermal
radiation field
• At which time were they scattered for
the last time
 Origin CMB
Photons
T < 109 K
t ~ 1 min, z ~ 109

Origin CMB photons:

• most were produced when
electrons & positrons annihilated each other

• (a few perhaps even at reheating phase

inflation)
 CMB
thermalization
• At the onset certainly not thermally distributed energies
• Photons keep on being scattered back and forth until z ~
1089, the epoch
of recombination.
• Thermal equilibrium (blackbody spectrum) of photons
reached within
2 months after their creation

Blackbody Spectrum produced through three scattering

processes
● Compton scattering
● Free-free scattering
 CMB Thermalization

• Thermalization through three scattering processes

● Compton scattering +
dominant energy redistribution
● Free-free scattering + creates
new photons to
● Double Compton scattering adjust
spectrum to Planck

• While Compton scattering manages to redistribute the

energy of the
photons, it cannot adjust the number of photons. Free-
free scattering
and Double Compton scattering manage to do so …
 CMB Thermalization
• Following this thermalization, a perfect blackbody
photon spectrum
has emerged:

• This is the ULTIMATE proof of the HOT BIG BANG

• Note: after z ~ 105 till recombination, the interaction

between electrons and
photons exclusively by Thomson Scattering
CMB hermalization

Chluba & Silk 2015

First Three Minutes:
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Photon Energy Early Universe

Radiation-dominated phase:

 1/2
10  t 
T (t ) 10 K  
 1 sec 

 1/2
 t 
kT 1 MeV  
 1 sec 
Nucleosynthesis
n/p ~1/7: 1 min na BB Mass Fraction Light Elements

24% 4
He nuclei
traces D, 3He, 7Li nuclei
75% H nuclei (protons)

Between 1-200 seconds after Big Bang,

temperature dropped to 109 K:

Fusion protons & neutrons

into light atomic nuclei
 Primordial
Nucleosynthesis
T ~ 10 K ~ 0.1 MeV9

t ~ 200 sec ~ 3
• min
At the end of these “first three minutes” we find an event
that provides us with the first direct probe of the Hot Big
Bang, the nucleosynthesis of the light chemical elements,
such as deuterium, helium and lithium.
• The prelude to this event occurs shortly before the
annihilation of positrons and electrons. The weak
interactions coupling neutrons and protons

can no longer be sustained when the temperature drops

belowT ~ 109 K, resulting in a

Freeze-out of Neutron-Proton ratio:

 Neutron-Proton –
before Neutrino Decoupling
Before Neutrino Decoupling:

equilibrium between protons & neutrons through 2 weak

interactions:P 
n  e  p  e

n  e  p  e

we find for the relation between the number densities

3/2
nn  mn   [mn  m p ]c 2 
  exp  
n p  m p   kT 
Neutron-Proton - Saha
Deuterium-Neutron - Saha
 Primordial
Nucleosynthesis
• Note that from the ratio Nn/Np~ 1/6 we can already infer that if
all neutrons would get incorporated into 4He nuclei, around
25% of the baryon mass would involve Helium ! Not far from the
actual number ...

• After freeze-out of protons and neutrons, a number of light

element nucleons forms through a number of nuclear reactions
involving the absorption of neutrons and protons:
 Deuterium
 3
He
 4
He
Big Bang Reaction Networ
Nucleus Binding Energies
 Baryonic Matter:
primordial nucleosynthesis
From measured light element
abundances:
 Baryonic Matter
Note:
• STARS are but a fraction of the total amount of baryonic matter
• There is still a large amount of undetected baryonic matter:
- hiding as warm Intergalactic Gas (WHIM) ?

Fukugita & Peebles 2004

Baryonic Matter: CMB
Due to baryon drag in the
primordial baryon-photon
gas, 2nd peak in CMB
spectrum is suppressed:
 Helium Abundance –
Neutrino’s