Hindawi

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2019, Article ID 8238904, 16 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8238904

Research Article
Development of a Correlation between the Resilient Modulus and
CBR Value for Granular Blends Containing Natural Aggregates
and RAP/RCA Materials

1,2
Muhammad Arshad
1
Department of Geological Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
2
Department of Civil Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada

Correspondence should be addressed to Muhammad Arshad; [email protected]

Received 4 December 2018; Accepted 14 February 2019; Published 1 April 2019

Academic Editor: Claudio Pettinari

Copyright © 2019 Muhammad Arshad. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Limited supplies of natural aggregates for highway construction, in addition to increasing processing costs, time, and environmental
concerns, have led to the use of various reclaimed/recycled materials. Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA) have prospective uses in substantial amounts in base and subbase layers of flexible pavement in order to overcome
the increasing issue of a shortage of natural aggregates. This research presents the development of an empirical model for the
estimation of resilient modulus value (MR) on the basis of CBR values using experimental results obtained for 52 remoulded granular
samples containing natural aggregates, RCA, and RAP samples. Statistical analysis of the suggested model shows promising results in
terms of its strength and significance when t-test was applied. Additionally, experimental results also show that MR value increases in
conjunction with an increase in RAP contents, while the trend for the CBR value is the opposite. Statistical analysis of simulation
results using PerRoad and KenPave demonstrates that addition of RAP contents in the subbase layer of flexible pavements sig-
nificantly improves its performance when considering resistance against rutting and fatigue. However, results of repeated load triaxial
tests show that residual accumulative strain under a certain range of loading conditions increases substantially due to the addition of
RAP materials, which may be disadvantageous to the serviceable life of the whole pavement structure.

1. Introduction most commonly recycled materials used in different layers of

flexible pavements, while use of recycled bricks [8], recycled
The highway construction industry is responsible for almost glass [9–11], and fly ash [12] has also been documented by
30% of global air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions many researchers and institutions.
and contributes roughly a quarter of the total fossil fuel In general, RAP materials are a blend of coarse and fine
consumption across the world [1]. Replacing natural or aggregates and bitumen obtained from aged or expired
virgin aggregates with high-quality recycled materials has asphalt pavements. Throughout the world, major use of RAP
considerable potential to reduce the carbon footprint of the material in a surfacing layer is commonly termed as hot mix
road/pavement construction industry. The overall financial asphalt (HMA). RAP has been used in the surface layer of
and environmental savings due to the replacement of natural flexible pavements in combination with natural aggregates
aggregates with recycled materials can rationalise the sta- in different percentages, extending up to 80% in some cases
bilisation cost in pavement applications. Hence, low-carbon [13]. Most of the researchers suggest a typical range of
and low-cost substitutes for conventional aggregates are 20–50% [12, 14, 15]. This shows that RAP materials should
actively being sought by researchers worldwide [2]. also be used in base/subbase layers of pavement in addition
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) [3, 4] and recycled to using them to make blends with natural granular ma-
concrete aggregate (RCA) [5–7] have been reported as the terial in HMA applications. RCA can be obtained from the
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

revamping or demolition of different types of structures, (iii) Unconfined compressive strength [32];
including commercial and residential buildings or other civil (iv) Undrained compressive strength [33].
engineering structures [16–18]. Many researchers have
found that the engineering properties of RCA are either
comparable to, or even better than, typical natural aggregates Class II. In this category, the models are based on soil
used in road construction [19, 20]. This implies that RCA properties and stress state, for instance,
products have potentially suitable applications in subbase or (i) Bulk stress and index properties of the soil [34];
base course. It should also be noted that RCA can be used as
(ii) Unconfined compressive strength and index
premium base course materials [21].
properties of the soil [35];
Conventional pavement design usually depends on the
“California bearing ratio” (CBR) of the soil/aggregate used in (iii) R-value and index properties of the soil [36].
pavement structure, while the resilient modulus value (MR) of Regression models based on this methodology have
unbound aggregates is the fundamental input parameter markedly varying intricacy and acceptability in the research
required in the mechanistic empirical design/analysis of community [32, 37–39].
pavement structures. The most reliable, and hence most
desirable, way to determine the resilient moduli is through Class III. In this approach, resilient modulus value for a
repeated triaxial load testing. However, because of the diffi- certain soil is obtained by considering a certain type of stress
culties encountered with the test procedure, including time invariant or set of stress invariants, for instance,
consumption and the economy of the project, other labo-
ratory tests, such as CBR, would also be considered if a reliable (i) Bulk stress [27];
correlation could be established for the estimation of the MR (ii) Confining pressure and deviator stress [40]; and
value. In the existing literature, there are many studies to bulk stress and atmospheric pressure [41];
correlate resilient modulus values to those with CBR values (iii) Bulk stress, atmospheric pressure, and deviator
determined for the natural granular materials. However, stress [42];
studies incorporating RAP/RCA instead of natural materials
(iv) Bulk stress, atmospheric pressure, and octahedral
are very limited. Furthermore, a rational or coherent
shear stress [43];
mechanism of the correlation development could probably
not be identified, owing to the fact that the mechanics of both (v) Atmospheric pressure, octahedral normal stress,
of these tests are starkly different from each other. and octahedral shear stress [44].
The specific objectives of this paper are as follows: In this category, the model parameters are given simple
(1) To develop a rational model for the prediction of a numerical values.
resilient modulus value of unbound granular ma-
terials containing RAP/RCA as a major component Class IV. There are also certain constitutive equations for the
on the basis of CBR values; estimation of resilient modulus values derived from con-
sidering soil’s physical properties incorporated in model
(2) To evaluate the performance of blended samples
parameters in addition to stress invariant [45–48].
used in subbase layers through the computer soft-
Since this research is focused on the establishment of a
ware packages PerRoad and KenPave;
correlation between CBR value and resilient modulus value,
(3) To evaluate the long-term performance of blended it is logical to further explain such attempts in a historical
samples under a range of cyclic loading conditions. perspective.
Furthermore, a brief literature review on correlations for A number of researchers, including Porter [49, 50],
the estimation of MR values, with major emphasis on the Hight and Stevens [51], and Fleming and Rogers [52]
development of a correlation between CBR value and re- pointed out that the CBR tends to be a bearing value (more
silient modulus, is presented in the next section of this of a parameter in terms of strength) rather than a support
research paper. value (in terms of recoverable behaviour) of materials.
Thompson and Robnett [53] could not find a suitable
correlation between CBR and MR; Hight and Stevens [51]
2. Existing Regression Models for the stated that the CBR does not correlate consistently with
Prediction of MR Value either strength or stiffness; and Sukumaran et al. [54] opined
that there is an apparent wide variation in the MR value that
From the existing literature, regression models for the
can be obtained using the CBR, which depends on many
prediction of MR value for granular material can be cate-
factors. On the other hand, Lister and Powell [55] felt
gorically divided into four types:
positive that the CBR can be related, within reasonable
limits, to subgrade stiffness. Hossain [56] believed that the
Class I. In this category, the models are based on single
CBR test is still one of the most widely used tests for
strength or stiffness parameter of soil such as
evaluating the competency of pavement subgrade; however,
(i) CBR values [22–26]; there are variations in the procedure followed by different
(ii) R-value [27–31]; agencies (e.g., in terms of size of mould, compaction
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

techniques, and efforts), and it was found that [56] corre- Table 1: Existing models for the estimation of resilient modulus
lations between resilient modulus values and all test results based on CBR value.
(including the CBR) were not statistically significant. Garg MR � 10.33CBR [23]
et al. [57] opined that the CBR value can be converted to a MR � 38(CBR)0.711 [22]
resilient modulus; a strong trend is apparent in the corre- MR � 18(CBR)0.64 [55]
lation but there is a lot of scatter. A few of the existing MR � 21(CBR)0.65 [58]
correlations based on CBR values are given in Table 1. MR � 17.6(CBR)0.64 [59]

(4) metallic penetration piston of 50 mm diameter and

3. Material Characterisation minimum of 100 mm in length;
For this research, four different types of RAP samples (5) loading machine with a capacity of at least 50 kN and
(designated as “RAP(1),” “RAP(2),” “RAP(3),” and equipped with a movable head or base that travels at
“RAP(4)”), three different types of natural aggregates a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min.
(designated as “A,” “F,” and “W”), and one RCA sample The CBR value is defined as the ratio of stress required
were used. Based on the gradation curves, natural ag- for the circular piston to penetrate, at the rate of 1.25 mm/
gregate A is finer than other natural aggregate (F and W) min, the soil mass in the cylinder to the standard stress that is
while natural aggregate W is the most coarser among required for the corresponding penetration of a standard
them. Each of the natural aggregate samples, as well as the material, i.e., like limestone found in California. Further
RAP and RCA materials, contained crushed limestone of procedural details on the CBR value calculations can be
subangular to angular shape. Elongated and flat particles found in AASHTO T 193.
in the samples/materials were not more than 6% as per
ASTM D 4791.
A summary of material characterisations in terms of 3.2. Resilient Modulus Test. Resilient modulus (MR) is de-
detailed gradation properties (D10/D30/D50 grain size di- fined as the ratio of cyclic axial stress to recoverable axial
ameter corresponding to 10/30/50 percent finer by mass; Cc strain (Δσ c /Δεa ). The cylindrical test specimen is compacted
coefficient of curvature; Cu coefficient of uniformity), at a desired density and is subjected to cyclic axial stress at a
compaction characteristics, effective shear strength param- given confining pressure within a conventional triaxial cell.
eters, and physical properties of recovered bitumen binders Resilient modulus tests for this research were conducted as
has been presented in Table 2. Further detail on material per the guidelines specified in AASHTO T 307-99(2004), for
characterisation can be found in Arshad and Ahmed [60] which a haversine-shaped loading waveform is mandatory to
and Arshad [61]. Since focus of the testing campaign consists simulate traffic loading. Each load cycle of this waveform
of the CBR test and the resilient modulus test, the same has essentially consists of 0.1 seconds load duration and a
been briefly explained in the following subsections. 0.9 second rest period. Figure 2 shows a typical repetitive
Table 3 shows the matrix of the testing program in- load/stress pulse along with the generated residual de-
cluding the resilient modulus tests, the CBR tests, and the formation curve in the time domain. The regular loading
repeated load tests. sequence in AASHTO T 307-99 consists of 15 different
stages, each one having 100 load cycles, following the ex-
ecution of the conditioning stage of 750 load cycles. Each of
3.1. CBR Test. In conventional pavement design, the CBR the loading stages has a particular combination of confining
value is an important parameter used to determine the stress, maximum axial stress, and cyclic deviator stress as
thickness of various layers of the pavement structure. shown in Table 4. Further procedural details of the test
Usually, the higher the CBR value, the better the perfor- including sample preparation and installation technique;
mance of the pavement is, with regard to both stiffness and electromechanics of the loading system (servo-controlled
strength. This implies that the CBR value can be used as a electrohydraulic MTS testing machine); specification of the
parameter to evaluate the suitability of a soil for use as used load cells and LVDTs; and particulars of the data ac-
pavement construction material. For this study, standard 3- quisition system can be found in several works [60–62].
point CBR tests were performed on the natural/RAPs and
blended samples under unsoaked conditions, to simulate the 4. Test Results and Discussion
moisture content at which the resilient modulus tests were
performed. A schematic diagram of the CBR test is shown in This section presents a discussion on trends obtained for the
Figure 1. CBR tests and the resilient modulus tests performed on a
The test equipment primarily consisted of a: number of reconstituted granular samples as identified in
Table 2.
(1) cylindrical mould having an inner diameter of
150 mm and a height of 175 mm;
4.1. Sample Results of the CBR Test. Sample results of the CBR
(2) spacer disc of 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in test in terms of compaction effort and the percentage of RAP
height; content on the CBR values are presented in Figure 3. From
(3) special surcharge weights; this figure, it can be inferred that the CBR value decreases
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 2: Characterisation of the tested materials.

Compaction characteristics (AASHTO T180)
Material
Maximum dry density (kN/m3) Optimum moisture content (%)
Natural aggregates 21.9–23.3 5.5–7.1
RAPs 19.7–21.4 6.4–9.1
RCA 20.7 7.5
Gradation characteristics (AASHTO T27-99)
D10 (mm) D30 (mm) D50 (mm) Cu Cc % Sand size (mm) % (4.75–9.5) mm
Natural aggregate A 0.15 0.45 1 11.7 0.77 70 10
Natural aggregate F 0.15 1.5 9 100.0 1.00 35 10
Natural aggregate W 0.6 5 15 33.3 2.08 25 12
RAP(1) 0.3 1.2 2.75 13.3 1.20 64 22
RAP(2) 0.3 1.2 2.75 13.3 1.20 60 30
RAP(3) 1.5 5 6.5 5.0 2.22 27 50
RAP(4) 0.3 1.2 2 9.2 1.75 82 10
RCA 0.25 1.5 6.5 40.0 0.9 40 18
Flat and elongated particles (ASTM D 4791)
Natural aggregates/RAPs/RCA Limited to 6%
Shear strength parameters under quick shear test
Natural aggregates/RAPs/RCA Friction angle Cohesion
36°–43° 20‒30 kPa
Physical properties of recovered bitumen binder
60°C viscosity (poise) 25°C penetration (dmm)
RAPs Softening point (°C) (ASTM D36-76)
(ASTM D4402) (ASTM D5-06)
23500–46700 20–52 62–67

Table 3: Matrix of the testing program.

Minimum number of Minimum number Minimum number of
Natural aggregate/RCA RAP
resilient modulus tests of CBR tests repeated load triaxial tests
Natural aggregate A, F, W — 3 3 2
RCA — 1 1 —
Blends of natural aggregates with RAPs 4 × 3∗ 3 × 3 × 4  36 3 × 3 × 4  36 7
Blends of RCA with RAPs 4 × 3∗ 3 × 4  12 3 × 4  12 —
Total 52 52 9
∗
Blended samples were prepared by mixing 25%, 50%, and 75% (by weight) of each RAP type with the natural aggregates and RCA.

Applied load
Stress/strain level

Standard plunger Transducer to measure Deformation vs time

penetration

Annular weights

Sample Stress vs time

Standard mould
Time
Figure 2: Typical shape of applied repeated load cycles and the
Figure 1: A schematic diagram of the CBR test. generated deformation curve.

noticeably in correspondence to the increasing content in the trend can also be observed for the other two compaction
the blended samples incorporating granular (A) and RAP(1). efforts consisting of 10 and 30 blows.
For instance, the blend containing 25% RAP(1) achieves only
74% of the CBR value achieved by the aggregate (A) (natural
material) at the same level of compaction effort, i.e., 65 4.2. Effect of RAP Contents on Resilient Modulus (MR).
blows. Similarly, the corresponding value for blends con- Forty-eight blended samples were prepared by mixing the
taining 50% RAP(1), 75% RAP(1), and 100% RAP(1) is four types of RAP materials with natural granular samples A,
limited to 56.25%, 32.5%, and 22.5%, respectively. Likewise, F, W, and RCA in proportion with RAP contents of 25%,
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 5

Table 4: Loading sequence for the resilient modulus test as per AASHTO T 307 protocol.
Confining stress Max. axial stress Cyclic axial stress Contact stress
Seq. No. No. of load applied Total axial stress (kPa)
σ 3 (kPa) σ max (kPa) σ cyclic (kPa) 0.1σ max (kPa)
0 750 103.4 103.4 93.1 10.3 206.8
1 100 20.7 20.7 18.6 2.1 41.4
2 100 20.7 41.4 37.3 4.1 62.1
3 100 20.7 62.1 55.9 6.2 82.8
4 100 34.5 34.5 31 3.5 69
5 100 34.5 68.9 62 6.9 103.4
6 100 34.5 103.4 93.1 10.3 137.9
7 100 68.9 68.9 62 6.9 137.8
8 100 68.9 137.9 124.1 13.8 206.8
9 100 68.9 206.8 186.1 20.7 275.7
10 100 103.4 68.9 62 6.9 172.3
11 100 103.4 103.4 93.1 10.3 206.8
12 100 103.4 206.8 186.1 20.7 310.2
13 100 137.9 103.4 93.1 10.3 241.3
14 100 137.9 137.9 124.1 13.8 275.8
15 100 137.9 275.8 248.2 27.6 413.7

90 campaign. In some cases, ∼50% increase in MR values was

80
observed for the blends containing 75% RAP contents. In
general, for most of the blended samples containing 25%
70
and 50% RAP contents, the corresponding increase in MR
values was in the range of 5–15% and 10–20%, respectively.
Unsoaked CBR (%)

60

50 An important point is that the addition of RAPs to RCA

40
induced the most significant increase in the resilient
moduli when compared with the increase in MR when RAP
30
was added to granular samples. Similar observations have
20 also been documented by many researchers, including Kim
10 and Labuz [12], MacGregor et al. [63], Alam et al. [64], and
Bennert and Maher [65].
0
1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250
Unit weight (kN/m3) 5. Development of Correlation between
A 25% A + 75% RAP(1) Resilient Modulus and CBR Values
75% A + 25% RAP(1) RAP(1)
50% A + 50% RAP(1) 5.1. Proposed Correlation and Theoretical Background.
For this study, an attempt has been made to correlate the
Figure 3: Effect of RAP contents on CBR values.
MR values with the CBR values on the basis of a common
value of bulk stress identified during both types of tests.
50%, and 75% for each. Figures 4(a)–4(d) show the effects of This should be emphasize that CBR values tend to decrease
the addition of these RAPs on the measured MR values over a with addition of RAP contents while reverse is the situation
range of bulk stresses as specified in AASHTO T 307-99 (68). in case of resilient modulus values. Such trends are pri-
Variation of MR values with bulk stress can be approximated marily due to the fact that loading for the resilient modulus
through trend lines based on a power function having the test is dynamic in nature while in the case of the CBR test, it
coefficient of determination (R2) in the range of 0.95–0.99. is virtually static.
From these trend lines, it is evident that MR values increase Fundamentally, axial stress is applied during the CBR
not only due to the increase in bulk stress but also in tests through a plunger (σ pa) in addition to an axial sur-
combination with the addition of RAP contents, i.e., blended charge weight (σ sa) as shown in Figure 5. However, lateral
samples give higher MR values when compared to those stress on the walls of the CBR mould can be estimated on the
obtained from the natural samples of granular A, F, W, and basis of the lateral earth pressure coefficient (Ka) as described
RCA. More specifically, for instance, at a bulk stress of in classical soil mechanics, such that
∼673 kPa, MR value for the 100% granular W is 320 MPa σ pl  Ka σ pa ,
while the corresponding values for blended samples in-
corporating 25%, 50%, and 75% of RAP(1) are 340 MPa, σ sl  Ka σ sa , (1)
360 MPa, and 390 MPa, respectively. Ka  1 − sin(ϕ),
A similar trend in MR values was observed at lower
levels of bulk stress, or more precisely, over the entire where ϕ is the effective angle of internal friction of the soil
range of bulk stresses considered during the testing sample (blend) under consideration.
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

450 450
400 400
350 350
300 300
y = 10.1x0.56 y = 5.17x0.64
MR (MPa)

MR (MPa)
250 R2 = 0.98 250 R2 = 0.99
200 y = 13.6x0.51 200 y = 9.72x0.57
R2 = 0.95 R2 = 0.96
150 150
y = 8.8x0.56 y = 10.1x0.54
100 R2 = 0.98 100 R2 = 0.97
50 y = 5.2x0.64 50 y = 7.45x0.58
R2 = 0.99 R2 = 0.99
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Bulk stress (kPa) Bulk stress (kPa)

100% A 50% A + 50% RAP(2) 100% F 50% F + 50% RAP(3)

75% A + 25% RAP(2) 25% A + 75% RAP(2) 75% F + 25% RAP(3) 25% F + 75% RAP(3)

(a) (b)
450 450
400 400
350 350
300 300
y = 5.17x0.64
MR (MPa)

MR (MPa)

250 R2 = 0.99 250 y = 9.72x0.57

y = 9.72x 0.57 R2 = 0.96
200 200
y = 5.17x0.64
R2 = 0.96
150 150 R2 = 0.99
y = 10.1x0.54
y = 10.1x0.54
100 R2 = 0.97 100
R2 = 0.97
50 y = 7.45x0.58 50 y = 7.45x0.58
R2 = 0.99 R2 = 0.99
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Bulk stress (kPa) Bulk stress (kPa)

100% W 50% W + 50% RAP(1) 100% RCA 50% RCA + 50% RAP(4)
75% W + 25% RAP(1) 25% W + 75% RAP(1) 25% RCA + 75% RAP(4) 75% RCA + 25% RAP(4)

(c) (d)

Figure 4: Variation of MR value with bulk stress and percentage of RAP contents for (a) natural A; (b) natural F; (c) natural W, and (d) RCA.

test uses a unique value of the sample’s dry and bulk

Plunger density. To estimate a unique value of the bulk stress during
the CBR test which is analogous to the bulk stress value
Surcharge identified from resilient modulus test, the following pro-
weight
cedure was adopted:
Soil sample (1) Determine the dry density of the resilient modulus
sample
(2) Estimate the CBR value corresponding to that dry
density value
(3) Determine the axial stress (σ pa ) value corresponding
Lateral stress due to to the CBR value
loading of plunger (σpl)
(4) Calculate the bulk stress using the following relation:
Lateral stress due to
surcharge loading (σsl)
σ bulk  θ  σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3  σ pa + σ sa  + 2Ka σ pa + σ sa . (2)
Figure 5: An assumed configuration of axial and lateral stresses
during CBR test. Using a unique value of bulk stress on the basis of
equation (2), the corresponding resilient modulus value
It is interesting to note that the 3-point CBR test en- from the actual experimental data (MR test) was matched
compasses a wide range of dry and bulk density in the and then a correlation between CBR value (point 2)
sample, while on the other hand, each resilient modulus and the resilient modulus value, in terms of the power
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 7

function having a coefficient of determination ∼0.81, can This provides the researcher with some idea of how large
be given as a correlation coefficient must be before it can be considered
as demonstrating that there really is a relationship between
MR � 49.37(CBR)0.59 . (3)
two variables (in our case the (MR)measured and CBR values).
Table 5 shows the experimental data and the estimated It may be the situation that two variables are related by
values of MR based on the four steps explained above and chance, and a hypothesis test for r allows the researcher to
equation (3). decide whether the observed r could have emerged by chance
Figure 6 shows the capabilities of the proposed regression or not. The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship
model on the basis of the distribution of the data points, between the two variables. That is, if ρ is the true correlation
which in fact involves the experimentally determined and coefficient for the two variables and when all population
estimated MR values along the unity line, giving a 95% values have been observed, then the null hypothesis can be
prediction and confidence interval. This figure illustrates that given as
there is an almost equal distribution of the data points on both H0: ρ � 0. (5)
sides of the unity line. Additionally, the entire set of the data
points is confined within the 95% prediction interval, which is The alternative hypothesis could be written as
defined as the interval around the linear regression line such
that 95% of the predicted values will fall in this interval. HA: ρ ≠ 0, (6)
Further details on the mathematical framework of the pre-
whereas the standardised t-test for the null hypothesis that r
diction and the confidence interval can be found in standard
is equal to zero can be written as
textbooks dealing with statistics and probability analysis, such 􏽲�����
as those authored by Wonnacott and Ronald [66], Penny and n−2
t�r , (7)
Roberts [67], and Dybowski and Roberts [68]. 1 − r2
where n is the number of paired observations in the given
5.2. Statistical Analysis of the Proposed Model. A Pearson’s sample.
correlation coefficient (r), as given by equation (4), is a The null hypothesis is evaluated by comparing the t-
measure of the strength and direction of linear association statistic of equation (7) with t-critical (2.01) obtained from t
that exists between two continuous variables. More specif- distribution having the n − 2 degree of freedom.
ically, for the drawn line of best fit for sample data points of
two variables, Pearson’s correlation indicates how well the
Case 2. Direct comparison of the coefficient of correlation
data points fit this new model/line of best fit, and its nu-
value (0.9) with the r-critical value (0.27) obtained from a
merical value indicates how far away all these data points are
statistical table corresponding to a specific degree of freedom
to the line of best fit (i.e., how well the data points fit this new
and level of significance [61, 74].
model/line of best fit) [69, 70]:
􏽐ni�1 ui − u�i 􏼁 ti − �ti 􏼁
r � 􏽱������������������� �, (4) Case 3. It often becomes mandatory to statistically evaluate
2 2
􏽐ni�1 􏽨 ui − ui 􏼁 ti − ti 􏼁 􏽩 the difference between two datasets obtained by two dif-
ferent sources. As in our case, one set of MR values was
where ui and ti � experimental and predicted values, re- obtained experimentally using the AASHTO T 307-99(2004)
spectively, for the ith output, ui � average of experimental protocol and the other set of MR values was obtained using
outputs, and n � size of sample. the proposed correlation. A standard t-test was performed to
The statistical value of r may range from −1 for a perfect evaluate the difference between the paired values of
negative linear relationship (inversely related) to +1 for a (MR)measured and (MR)estimated at a specific degree of freedom
perfect positive linear relationship (directly related). In gen- and level of significance [74, 75].
eral, from theoretical point of view, the strength of the linear Table 6 summarises the statistical analysis of the above
relationship can be categorised as “very strong,” “moderately three cases.
strong,” and “fairly strong” for the corresponding numerical
values of r in the range 0.8–1.0, 0.6–0.8, and 0.3–0.5 [71]. It
should be emphasized that if r � 0.0 it does not necessarily
mean that the two variables have no relationship. In order to 6. Assessment of Pavement Performance
look into the real strength of the correlation, usually, a sta- Containing RAP Content in Its Subbase Layer
tistical test of significance is performed, as discussed in [72].
For this study, three different types of statistical tests were To examine the performance of the pavement containing
applied to assess the significance of the developed correlation natural aggregates mixed with RAP and used as subbase
presented in equation (3) and Table 5. materials, the following analyses were performed using
computer software simulation:
Case 1. t-Test for the assessment of the implication of co- (1) To access the likelihood that critical pavement re-
efficient of correlation (r) at a specific degree of freedom and sponses exceed predefined thresholds using com-
level of significance [73]. puter program PerRoad [76];
8 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 5: A comparison of measured and estimated MR values along with CBR values.
Estimated MR values
Dry unit weight Total axial MR values measured/
Material/Blend CBR (%) bulk stress estimated
achieved (kN/m3) stress (kPa) projected (MPa)
in CBR test (kPa) (MPa)
100% A 21.1 65 978.0 1663 550 584
100% F 22.1 74 1113.0 1892 600 631
100% W 22.4 85 1278.0 2173 670 685
100% RCA 19.2 53 798.0 1357 410 518
75% A + 25% RAP(1) 20.7 47 708.0 1204 470 482
50% A + 50% RAP(1) 20.5 31 468.0 796 300 377
25% A + 75% RAP(1) 20.2 22 333.0 566 280 308
75% A + 25% RAP(2) 20.3 55 828.0 1408 505 529
50% A + 50% RAP(2) 20.8 39 588.0 1000 410 432
25% A + 75% RAP(2) 21.3 17 258.0 439 260 264
75% A + 25% RAP(3) 20.1 51 768.0 1306 490 506
50% A + 50% RAP(3) 20.5 30 453.0 770 315 370
25% A + 75% RAP(3) 19.9 19 288.0 490 310 282
75% A + 25% RAP(4) 19.7 55 828.0 1408 505 529
50% A + 50% RAP(4) 19.8 43 648.0 1102 402 458
25% A + 75% RAP(4) 19.2 27 408.0 694 252 347
75% F + 25% RAP(1) 20.8 52 783.0 1331 538 512
50% F + 50% RAP(1) 21.3 41 618.0 1051 455 445
25% F + 75% RAP(1) 20.1 14 213.0 362 356 235
75% F + 25% RAP(2) 20.5 59 888.0 1510 525 552
50% F + 50% RAP(2) 19.9 48 723.0 1229 407 488
25% F + 75% RAP(2) 19.7 31 468.0 796 408 377
75% F + 25% RAP(3) 20.1 62 933.0 1586 667 568
50% F + 50% RAP(3) 19.2 41 618.0 1051 516 445
25% F + 75% RAP(3) 20.8 19 288.0 490 343 282
75% F + 25% RAP(4) 21.3 43 648.0 1102 515 458
50% F + 50% RAP(4) 20.1 32 483.0 821 490 384
25% F + 75% RAP(4) 21.3 13 198.0 337 278 225
75% W + 25% RAP(1) 20.8 51 768.0 1306 510 506
50% W + 50% RAP(1) 20.5 44 663.0 1127 500 464
25% W + 75% RAP(1) 19.9 16 243.0 413 240 255
75% W + 25% RAP(2) 19.7 55 828.0 1408 502 529
50% W + 50% RAP(2) 19.9 31 468.0 796 438 377
25% W + 75% RAP(2) 21.3 12 183.0 311 265 215
75% W + 25% RAP(3) 20.1 48 723.0 1229 520 488
50% W + 50% RAP(3) 21.3 35 528.0 898 447 405
25% W + 75% RAP(3) 20.7 21 318.0 541 255 299
75% W + 25% RAP(4) 20.5 45 678.0 1153 480 470
50% W + 50% RAP(4) 19.9 34 513.0 872 473 398
25% W + 75% RAP(4) 19.2 9 138.0 235 213 181
75% RCA + 25% RAP(1) 20.8 38 573.0 974 486 425
50% RCA + 50% RAP(1) 21.3 23 348.0 592 330 316
25% RCA + 75% RAP(1) 20.1 12 183.0 311 187 215
75% RCA + 25% RAP(2) 21.3 38 573.0 974 525 425
50% RCA + 50% RAP(2) 20.1 31 468.0 796 356 377
25% RCA + 75% RAP(2) 21.4 14 213.0 362 200 235
75% RCA + 25% RAP(3) 20.1 32 483.0 821 447 384
50% RCA + 50% RAP(3) 20.5 15 228.0 388 226 245
25% RCA + 75% RAP(3) 19.9 9 138.0 235 148 181
75% RCA + 25% RAP(4) 19.2 39 588.0 1000 473 432
50% RCA + 50% RAP(4) 20.1 13 198.0 337 200 225
25% RCA + 75% RAP(4) 20.2 18 273.0 464 161 273

(2) To determine the stresses and strains at critical lo- PerRoad is a Monte Carlo-based simulation software
cations in the pavement structure using computer used to develop probability-based analysis for flexible
program KenPave developed by the University of pavement. This software can easily demonstrate the influ-
Kentucky [77]. ence of the MR values of the pavement material on the
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 9

800 e
1 lin
700 1:
95%
600
confidence
500 interval

MR (estimated)
400 95%
prediction
300 interval
200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800
MR (measured)

Figure 6: A comparison of estimated and measured MR values along the unity line.

Table 6: Summary of the statistical analysis of the proposed model at an alpha value of 0.05 which matches to 95% confidence level.
Case Comments
Since t-statistic > t-critical which implies that value of the correlation coefficient is not due
1 t-Critical  2.0 t-Statistic  14.59 to sampling error, the null hypothesis is rejected and it is concluded that there is a
significant correlation between (MR)measured and CBR value in the population.
Since r-Pearson > r-critical which implies that the null hypothesis is rejected,
it is quite realistic to accept the “alternative hypothesis,” that is the value of r that
2 r-Pearson  0.9 r-Critical  0.27
we have obtained from our sample represents a real relationship between (MR)measured
and CBR value in the population.
Since t-statistic < t-critical which implies that the null hypothesis is accepted,
3 t-Critical  2.0 t-Statistic  0.52 it is concluded that there is an insignificant difference between
(MR)measured and (MR)correlated values in the population.

cumulative damage factor (CDF). It also demonstrates the and bottom of the granular subbase layer were determined
likelihood that critical pavement responses could exceed using the computer program KenPave. For the selected
predefined thresholds, which are the horizontal tensile strain HMA resilient moduli (MR  5000 MPa), the bulk stresses
of 70 microns at the bottom of the asphalt concrete (which is were found in the range of 27 kPa to 30 kPa and 14 kPa to
linked with fatigue cracking) and the vertical compressive 18 kPa at the top and bottom of the subbase layers, re-
strain of 200 microns at the top of the subgrade (which is spectively, for the wheel load of 40 kN. In the simulations,
associated with the structural rutting) [78]. values of MR are used corresponding to the bulk stress of
100 kPa.

6.1. Pavement Structure and Material Characteristics.

Figure 7 shows a typical cross section of flexible pavements, 6.2. Traffic Load. For this parametric study, the traffic data
which consists of a hot mix asphalt layer supported by the for urban interstate highways, as recommended by
unbound base, unbound subbase, and compacted subgrade. AASHTO, were used. In the case of the PerRoad software,
The thickness of each layer generally depends on the traffic traffic is separated by axle type: single axle, tandem axle,
load or more specifically, the equivalent single axle load tridem axle, and steer axle. After determining the percentage
(ESAL) during the proposed life cycle of the road. of each axle type in the total traffic, traffic is then subdivided
In this parametric study, the focus is placed on how the into weight classes in 2 kip intervals. The following is the
properties of granular subbase materials are changed by the summary of the traffic data: the average annual daily traffic
addition of a certain amount of RAP and their effect on the (AADT) is 1000 vehicles with 10% being trucks; annual
pavement’s performance. As such, the resilient modulus of growth rate of traffic is 4%; the directional distribution is
the granular base and the asphalt concrete is fixed. The 50%; and the percentages of single, tandem, and tridem axles
structure of the pavement to be simulated and the properties are 55.73%, 42.66%, and 1.61%, respectively. The rest of the
of materials in different layers are summarised in Table 7. In traffic loading characteristics, in terms of the distribution of
this particular study, the subbase material will be one of the vehicle types and axle weights, are described in Figure 8.
aggregates or aggregate/RAP blends tested during the ex- These values were used as input in PerRoad 3.5. Axle weights
perimental studies of this research. were used to evaluate the response of the pavement layers in
The properties of the different pavement layers used in terms of stresses, strains, and deformations at critical lo-
the analysis are shown in Table 7. The bulk stresses at the top cations of certain layers of the flexible pavement.
10 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

6.4. Simulation Results and Discussion. Simulation results

Asphalt concrete are obtained and discussed in terms of
Unbound base (1) The likelihood of the tensile strain at the bottom of
the HMA exceeding 70 με;
Unbound subbase (2) The likelihood of the vertical strain at the top of the
subgrade soil exceeding 200 με;
Compacted subgrade
(3) The number of years it could take to reach a CDF of
0.1 (the threshold level) for fatigue damage;
Natural subgrade
(4) The number of years it could take to reach a CDF of
Figure 7: A typical cross section of flexible pavement. 0.1 for damage induced by rutting.
Figure 9 illustrates the concept frequency distribution
for strain both within and outside the threshold limits.
Table 7: Material properties and pavement layer thicknesses.
We first examine the likelihood of critical pavement
Subbase responses exceeding the predefined thresholds when the
Parameters HMA Base course Subgrade
course resilient modulus of the asphalt concrete is 5000 MPa, and
MR (MPa) 5000 350 Variable 35 different aggregates or aggregate-RAP blends are used in
Coefficient of the granular subbase layer. Figure 10 summarises (1) the
25 30 35 45
variation for MR (%) likelihood of the tensile strain at the bottom of the HMA
Thickness of remaining within the critical value of 70 με and (2) the
250 200 300 —
the layer (mm) likelihood of the vertical strain at the top of the subgrade
Thickness soil exceeding 200 με. From this figure, it can be inter-
5 8 15 —
Variability (%)
preted that all of the blends result in better pavement
Poisson ratio 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
performance than the natural aggregate both in terms of
the tensile strains at the bottom of the HMA and the
6.3. Pavement Performance Criteria. In the design of vertical compressive strains at the top of the subgrade soil.
conventional flexible pavements, pavement sections For instance, the natural aggregates and RCA on average
are designed corresponding to a cumulative damage have an 81.3% likelihood that horizontal strain at the
factor (CDF) of 1.0, which corresponds to a terminal bottom of the HMA will remain within the critical limit of
level of pavement damage. For perpetual pavements, 70 με.
however, it is recommended that the CDF is equal to 0.1 On the other hand, the likelihood for blended ma-
at the end of its design life [76]. The fatigue and rutting terials containing 25%, 50%, and 75% of RAP materials in
algorithms developed at Mn/ROAD [79] for the cali- the blended samples may reach (on average) 85.75%,
bration of flexible pavement performance equations were 89.37%, and 93.77% (respectively) chance of remaining
used to predict pavement damage in cases where pave- within the limit. Similarly, the likelihood that the com-
ment responses exceeded these thresholds. These corre- pressive strain at the top of the subgrade will not exceed
lations are as follows: the critical value of 200 microns is 88.28% (natural
3.148 samples), 93.46% (25% RAP material blends), 95.57%
1 (50% RAP material blends), and 98.2% (75% RAP ma-
Nf � 2.83 ∗ 10−6 􏼠 􏼡 (fatigue),
εt terial blends).
(8) Figure 11 shows the number of years required to reach
3.87
1 a CDF of 0.1 when fatigue is controlled by the horizontal
Nr � 6.026 ∗ 10−8 􏼠 􏼡 (ritting), tensile strain at the bottom of the subgrade, and the HMA
εv
and vertical structural rutting are controlled by the vertical
where Nf � number of load repetitions when fatigue failure compressive strain at the top of the subgrade. The number
occurs, Nr � number of load repetition when rutting failure of years required to reach a CDF of 0.1, in general, in-
occurs, εt � the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the creases in line with the increase in the quantity of RAP in
HMA, and εv � the vertical compressive strain at the top of the blend. For example, the number of years required to
the subgrade. reach a CDF of 0.1 in terms of fatigue damage at the
It should be noted that the damage of rutting estimated bottom of HMA is 40.33 years for natural samples, while
by PerRoad only takes into account the permanent de- the corresponding figure for the blends containing 75%
formation in the subgrade. Any rutting associated with the RAP is 51.68 years on average. A similar trend regarding an
deformation of granular subbase materials is not considered. increase in the number of years required to reach a CDF of
According to the test results in this study, use of RAP in 0.1 in terms of structural damage at the top of the subgrade
granular subbase layers may induce substantial residual was also observed. Furthermore, for all the cases, the
deformation. Further investigation should be performed to number of years to reach a CDF of 0.1 was more than
get a better understanding of its influence on the rutting of 40 years, but it is clear that fatigue will be the predominant
flexible pavements. pavement failure mode.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 11

Figure 8: Vehicular load classification used in PerRoad 3.5.

containing natural aggregate W and the blends with RAP(1) at

50% and 75%, the residual strain after 20000 load cycles is 55%
and 300% higher when compared with the corresponding
value for the 100% natural aggregate W. Furthermore, it is
Strain frequency

evident from the figures that almost 60% of the total residual
strain occurred during the first 2000 load cycles out of the
20000 total load cycles applied across all the cases.
However, it should be emphasized that there is a ten-
dency for the elastic shakedown to be less pronounced for
blended samples when compared to pure natural aggregates.
For instance, for the blended sample 50% W and 50%
Area outside the threshold limit RAP(1), the rate of increase of strain becomes 0.000154% for
Figure 9: Example of frequency distribution of strain within and the load cycles in the range of 2000–20000. On the other
outside the threshold limits. hand, this figure remained limited to 0.000056% for the
sample containing 100% natural aggregate W under the
same loading condition.
7. Long-Term Effect of Cyclic Loading on Figure 13 shows the effect of the ratio of “cyclic deviator
stress to the confining stress (σ d /σ c )” on the residual strain for
Blended Samples the blended sample containing 50% A and 50% RAP(3).
In order to explore the long-term effects of cyclic loading, 9 From this figure, it can be inferred that the ratio σ d /σ c has a
repeated load triaxial tests were performed under a range of substantial effect on the residual strain generated under
cyclic loading conditions and varying percentages of RAP cyclic loading. For instance, at (σ d /σ c )  0.9, the residual
contents. Figure 12 presents the variation of the residual strain strain after 6000 load cycles is limited to 0.06%; however, this
of the tested samples subjected to 20000 load cycles under two value reaches 0.11% and 0.21% at (σ d /σ c )  1.8 and
different values of confining pressures of 34.5 kPa and (σ d /σ c )  2.7, respectively. The samples tend to stabilise
137.9 kPa each, while the corresponding cyclic deviator stress more quickly under a lower value of (σ d /σ c )  0.9 when
was maintained at 31.05 kPa and 372 kPa. From this figure, it compared to the stabilising tendency at the higher values of
can be inferred that the presence of RAP contents increases the (σ d /σ c )  1.8 and (σ d /σ c )  2.7, which were also in-
residual strain considerably for both of the confining pressure vestigated in this research. A 50–60% residual strain occurs
scenarios. For instance, for the repeated load test conducted at during the first 1000 load cycles out of the total 6000 load
the confining pressure of 34.5 kPa, the residual strain for 100% cycles applied during the experimental campaign, irre-
natural aggregate F is 0.12% after 20000 load cycles, while for spective of the σ d /σ c value.
the blend containing 50% RAP(2) and 75% RAP(2), the
corresponding figures reach 0.22% and 0.60%, i.e., an addition 8. Summary and Conclusions
of 50% RAP increases the residual strain by a margin of almost
83% while the addition of 75% RAP increases the residual (1) The blended samples (i.e., RAP combined with
strain by almost 400%. Similarly, for the repeated load tests natural granular materials) result in higher MR
conducted at a confining pressure of 137.9 kPa on samples values than those obtained for natural granular
 12

Years Percentage of area

subgrade.
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
70
75
80
85
90
95
100

100% A 100% A
100% F 100% F
100% W 100% W
100% RCA 100% RCA
75% A + 25% RAP(1) 75% A + 25% RAP(1)
75% A + 25% RAP(2) 75% A + 25% RAP(2)
75% A + 25% RAP(3) 75% A + 25% RAP(3)
75% A + 25% RAP(4) 75% A + 25% RAP(4)
75% F + 25% RAP(1) 75% F + 25% RAP(1)
75% F + 25% RAP(2) 75% F + 25% RAP(2)
75% F + 25% RAP(3) 75% F + 25% RAP(3)
75% F + 25% RAP(4) 75% F + 25% RAP(4)
75% W + 25% RAP(1) 75% W + 25% RAP(1)
75% W + 25% RAP(2) 75% W + 25% RAP(2)
75% W + 25% RAP(3) 75% W + 25% RAP(3)
75% W + 25% RAP(4) 75% W + 25% RAP(4)
75% RCA + 25% RAP(1) 75% RCA + 25% RAP(1)
75% RCA + 25% RAP(2) 75% RCA + 25% RAP(2)
75% RCA + 25% RAP(3) 75% RCA + 25% RAP(3)
75% RCA + 25% RAP(4) 75% RCA + 25% RAP(4)
50% A + 50% RAP(1) 50% A + 50% RAP(1)
50% A + 50% RAP(2) 50% A + 50% RAP(2)

of correlation (r) value in the range of 0.97–0.99.

50% A + 50% RAP(3) 50% A + 50% RAP(3)

samples under the same loading conditions, while

the addition of RAP contents; however, a clear

approximated through power law having coefficient

(2) The CBR values of blended samples decrease with

stresses during the resilient modulus tests can be
variations between MR values and the applied bulk
50% A + 50% RAP(4) 50% A + 50% RAP(4)
50% F + 50% RAP(1) 50% F + 50% RAP(1)
50% F + 50% RAP(2) 50% F + 50% RAP(2)
50% F + 50% RAP(3) 50% F + 50% RAP(3)
50% F + 50% RAP(4) 50% F + 50% RAP(4)
Percentage of area within the critical limit of vertical strain at the top of subgrade
50% W + 50% RAP(1) 50% W + 50% RAP(1)
Percentage of area within the critical limit of horizontal strain at the bottom of HMA

50% W + 50% RAP(2) 50% W + 50% RAP(2)

50% W + 50% RAP(3) 50% W + 50% RAP(3)
50% W + 50% RAP(4) 50% W + 50% RAP(4)

Number of years required to reach CDF = 0.1 in terms of vertical strain at the top of subgrade
50% RCA + 50% RAP(1) 50% RCA + 50% RAP(1)

Number of years required to reach CDF = 0.1 in terms of horizontal strain at the bottom of HMA
50% RCA + 50% RAP(2) 50% RCA + 50% RAP(2)
50% RCA + 50% RAP(3) 50% RCA + 50% RAP(3)
50% RCA + 50% RAP(4) 50% RCA + 50% RAP(4)
25% A + 75% RAP(1) 25% A + 75% RAP(1)
25% A + 75% RAP(2) 25% A + 75% RAP(2)
25% A + 75% RAP(3) 25% A + 75% RAP(3)
25% A + 75% RAP(4) 25% A + 75% RAP(4)
25% F + 75% RAP(1) 25% F + 75% RAP(1)
25% F + 75% RAP(2) 25% F + 75% RAP(2)
25% F + 75% RAP(3) 25% F + 75% RAP(3)
25% F + 75% RAP(4) 25% F + 75% RAP(4)
25% W + 75% RAP(1) 25% W + 75% RAP(1)
25% W + 75% RAP(2) 25% W + 75% RAP(2)
25% W + 75% RAP(3) 25% W + 75% RAP(3)
25% W + 75% RAP(4) 25% W + 75% RAP(4)
25% RCA + 75% RAP(1) 25% RCA + 75% RAP(1)
25% RCA + 75% RAP(2) 25% RCA + 75% RAP(2)
25% RCA + 75% RAP(3) 25% RCA + 75% RAP(3)
25% RCA + 75% RAP(4) 25% RCA + 75% RAP(4)

percentage of RAP contents could not be found.

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

data points (MR measured and MR estimated) about

Figure 10: Percentage of area within the critical limits for horizontal strain at the bottom of HMA and vertical strain at the top of subgrade.

determined CBR having a coefficient of correlation “r”

cludes the stress state through the experimentally
(3) The new model for the estimation of MR values in-
decreasing trend in conjunction with an increasing
Figure 11: Number of years required to reach CDF  0.1 in terms of horizontal strain at the bottom of HMA and vertical strain at the top of

equal to approximately 0.9, with fair distribution of the

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 13

5.00

4.50

4.00

3.50
Axial strain (%)
3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
Number of load cycles
100% W
50% W + 50% RAP(1)
25% W + 75% RAP(1)
σc = 137.9 kPa, σd = 372kPa
100% F
50% F + 50% RAP(2)
25% F + 75% RAP(2)
Figure 12: Effect of RAP contents on residual strain under long-term repeated loading.

0.25 (5) Residual strain during the long-term repeated load

triaxial test was found to increase in line with an
increase in the ratio of “cyclic deviator stress to the
0.20
confining stress (σ d /σ c )” in correlation to an increase
in the percentage of RAP contents in the blended
Axial strain (%)

0.15 sample;
(6) From the author’s perspective, the addition of RAP
0.10 contents beyond a certain limit (∼50%) may prove to
be detrimental for the overall performance of flexible
pavement structure.
0.05

Data Availability
0.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
The experimental data used to support the findings of this
Number of load cycles
study are included within the article in the form of graphs
od/oc and tables.
0.9
1.8
2.7 Conflicts of Interest
Figure 13: Effect of ratio of “cyclic deviator stress to the confining The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest
stress (σ d /σ c )” on the residual strain under long-term repeated regarding the publication of this paper.
loading.
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