Experiment No: 1

P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.

2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions
for Si P-N Junction diode.
Components:

Name Qty
Diodes IN 4007(Si) 1
Resistor 1K, 10K 1
Equipment:

Name Range Qty

Bread Board - 1
Regulated Power 0-30V DC 1
Supply
Digital Ammeter 0-200A/20mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-2V/20V DC 1
Connecting Wires
Theory:

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities
into the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a
Junction called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This Region
gives rise to a potential barrier V called Cut- in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode
at which it starts conducting. It can conduct beyond this Potential.

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode
(N- side) then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential
barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both
the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and
constitute a forward current (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction
and entering N-side of the diode, due to electrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of
the diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be
approximated as short-circuited switch.

If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In
this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential
barrier at the junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away
from the junction thereby increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot
continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow
in the diode. This small current is due to thermally generated carriers. Assuming current
flowing through the diode to be negligible, the diode can be approximated as an open
circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:

I =I0 (ev/(vT) - 1) where

I=current flowing in the diode I 0=reverse saturation current
V=voltage applied to the diode
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV (@ room temp).
=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The
reverse saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.
Circuit Diagram
Procedure:
Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vf gradually in steps of 0.1 volts upto 5volts and note down the corresponding
readings of If .
3. Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e. if
output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
4. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse biased condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vr gradually in steps of 0.5 volts upto 8 volts and note down the corresponding
readings of Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages. (Ir = VR /
R, where VR is the Voltage across 10K Resistor).

Observations
Si diode in forward biased conditions:

Sl. Forward Forward

No RPS Voltage across current
Voltage the diode through the
Vf (volts) diode If (mA)
Si diode in reverse biased conditions:

Reverse
Reverse Voltage
Sl. No current
RPS Voltage across the diode
through the
Vr (volts)
diode Ir (A)

Graph (Instructions):
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the
graph sheet.
2. Now mark + ve x-axis as Vf
- Ve x-axis as Vr
+ Ve y-axis as If
- ve y-axis as Ir.

3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Si
reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.

Calculations from Graph:

If (mA)

Vr (volts) Vf(volts)

Ir (A)

Static forward Resistance R dc = V f / If Ω

Dynamic forward Resistance r ac = V f /If Ω
Static Reverse Resistance R dc =V r / I r Ω
 Dynamic Reverse Resistance r ac = V r /I r Ω

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to
damage the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections
as per the circuit diagram.

Result:
1. Cut in voltage = ……… V
2. Static forward resistance = ………. 
3. Dynamic forward resistance = ………. 

VIVA-VOCEQuestions

1. How depletion region is formed in the PN junction?

2. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?
3. What is cut-in or knee voltage? Specify its value in case of Ge or Si?
4. What is maximum forward current and maximum reverse voltage? What is it
required?
5. What is leakage current?
6. How does PN-junction diode acts as a switch?
7. What is the effect of temperature in the diode reverse characteristics?
8. What is break down voltage?
9. What is incremental resistance of a diode?
10. What is diode equation?
11. What is the value of VT in the diode equation?
12. Explain the dynamic resistance of a diode?
13. Explain the phenomenon of breakdown in PN- diode?
14. What is an ideal diode? How does it differ from a real diode?
15. What are the specifications of a diode?
16. Temperature co-efficient of resistance of
(i) Metals (ii) Intrinsic semiconductor (iii) Extrinsic semiconductor
(iv) FET (v) BJT
17. What is the internal impedance of
(i) Ideal current source (ii) Ideal voltage source (iii) Ammeter

Specifications:
For Silicon Diode IN 4007: -
Max. Forward Current = 1A
Max. Reverse Current = 30A
Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V
Max. Reverse Voltage = 1000V
Max. Power dissipation = 30mw
Temperature = - 65 to 2000C
 Experiment No: 2
COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor

In common emitter configuration.

Components:
Name Qty
Transistor CL 100S 1
Resistor 220K 1
Resistor 560 1

Equipment:

Name Range Qty

Bread Board - 1
Regulated Power 0-30V DC 2
Supply
Digital Ammeter 0-20mA /0-200A 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-2V/20V DC 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor CL 100S: -

Max. Collector Current = 0.1A
VCEO max = 50V

Pin assignment of Transistor:

Emitter Base

Collector
 Circuit Diagram:
1) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
RC 1K
RB 100K IB (0-200A)
CL-100S


 (0-20V)
VBB VBE VCE
(0-20V) VCC
0-30V 0-30V

2) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS: (0-20mA) RC 1k

RB IB (0-200A)
IC
100K CL-100S

VBB VCE
VCC
(0-30v) (0-20V) (0-30) v

Theory:
The basic circuit diagram for studying input and output characteristics are
shown in fig (1) & fig (2). In this the input is applied between base and emitter
and the output is taken from collector and emitter. Here emitter is common to
both input and output and hence the name common emitter configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage
taking output voltage as parameter. It is plotted between V BE and IB at constant
VCE in CE configuration.
Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output
current taking input current as parameter. It is plotted between V CE and IC at
constant IB in CE configuration.

Procedure:

Input Characteristics

4. Make the connections as per circuit diagram fig (1).

 5. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
6. Varying VBB gradually, note down both base current IB and base - emitter voltage
(VBE).

4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE =5V.

Output Characteristics
5. Make the connections as per circuit diagram fig (2).
6. By varying VBB keep the base current I B = 20A.

7. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and collector-
emitter voltage (VCE).

8. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE=40A.

Observations:

I VCE = 0 V VCE = 5 V IB= 20A IB = 40A

IB VBE IB VBE VCE IC (mA) VCE IC

(A) (V) (A) (V) (V) (V) (mA)

Input Characteristics Output Characteristics

Expected graph:

3. Plot Input Characteristics and output Characteristics: the input

characteristics by taking VBE on Y-axis and IB on X-axis at constant VCE.

4. Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on Y-axis and IC on X-axis by
taking IB as a parameter.
Calculations from graph:
2. Input resistance: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB at constant VCE on
one of the input characteristics.
Then Ri = VBE / IB (VCE constant)
2. Output resistance: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCE at
Constant IB.
Ro = VCE / IC (IB constant)
Inference:
1. Medium Input and Output resistances.
2. Smaller value of VCE comes earlier cut-in-voltage.
3. Increase in the value of IB causes saturation of the transistor at an
Earlier voltage.

Precautions:
4. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the
Transistor. This may lead to damage the transistor.
5. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the
Circuit diagram.
6. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
Circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.
7. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of
the transistor.

Result:
1. Input Resistance (Ri) = ................... 
 2. Output Resistance (Ro) = ................... 

3. β=Ic/IB |vce=constant

Viva-VoceQuestions

1. Two discrete diodes connected back-to-back cannot work as a transistor, why?

2. For amplification, CE configuration is preferred, why?

3. To operate a transistor as amplifier, the emitter junction is forward

biased and thecollector junction is reversed biased, why?

4. With the rise in temperature, the leakage collector current increases, why?

5. An electronic device transistor is named as transistor, why?

6. Most of the transistor are NPN type and not PnP, why?

7. The forward resistance of emitter junction is slightly less than forward

resistance ofcollector junction, why?
 Experiment No: 2
COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor

In common emitter configuration.

Components:
Name Qty
Transistor CL 100S 1
Resistor 220K 1
Resistor 560 1

Equipment:

Name Range Qty

Bread Board - 1
Regulated Power 0-30V DC 2
Supply
Digital Ammeter 0-20mA /0-200A 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-2V/20V DC 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor CL 100S: -

Max. Collector Current = 0.1A
VCEO max = 50V

Pin assignment of Transistor:

Emitter Base

Collector
 Circuit Diagram:
1) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
RC 1K
RB 100K IB (0-200A)
CL-100S


 (0-20V)
VBB VBE VCE
(0-20V) VCC
0-30V 0-30V

2) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS: (0-20mA) RC 1k

RB IB (0-200A)
IC
100K CL-100S

VBB VCE
VCC
(0-30v) (0-20V) (0-30) v

Theory:
The basic circuit diagram for studying input and output characteristics are
shown in fig (1) & fig (2). In this the input is applied between base and emitter
and the output is taken from collector and emitter. Here emitter is common to
both input and output and hence the name common emitter configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage
taking output voltage as parameter. It is plotted between V BE and IB at constant
VCE in CE configuration.
Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output
current taking input current as parameter. It is plotted between V CE and IC at
constant IB in CE configuration.

Procedure:

Input Characteristics

4. Make the connections as per circuit diagram fig (1).

 5. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
6. Varying VBB gradually, note down both base current IB and base - emitter voltage
(VBE).

4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE =5V.

Output Characteristics
5. Make the connections as per circuit diagram fig (2).
6. By varying VBB keep the base current I B = 20A.

7. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and collector-
emitter voltage (VCE).

8. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE=40A.

Observations:

I VCE = 0 V VCE = 5 V IB= 20A IB = 40A

IB VBE IB VBE VCE IC (mA) VCE IC

(A) (V) (A) (V) (V) (V) (mA)

Input Characteristics Output Characteristics

Expected graph:

3. Plot Input Characteristics and output Characteristics: the input

characteristics by taking VBE on Y-axis and IB on X-axis at constant VCE.

4. Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on Y-axis and IC on X-axis by
taking IB as a parameter.
Calculations from graph:
2. Input resistance: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB at constant VCE on
one of the input characteristics.
Then Ri = VBE / IB (VCE constant)
2. Output resistance: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCE at
Constant IB.
Ro = VCE / IC (IB constant)
Inference:
1. Medium Input and Output resistances.
2. Smaller value of VCE comes earlier cut-in-voltage.
3. Increase in the value of IB causes saturation of the transistor at an
Earlier voltage.

Precautions:
4. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the
Transistor. This may lead to damage the transistor.
5. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the
Circuit diagram.
6. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
Circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.
7. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of
the transistor.

Result:
1. Input Resistance (Ri) = ................... 
 2. Output Resistance (Ro) = ................... 

3. β=Ic/IB |vce=constant

Viva-VoceQuestions

1. Two discrete diodes connected back-to-back cannot work as a transistor, why?

2. For amplification, CE configuration is preferred, why?

3. To operate a transistor as amplifier, the emitter junction is forward

biased and thecollector junction is reversed biased, why?

4. With the rise in temperature, the leakage collector current increases, why?

5. An electronic device transistor is named as transistor, why?

6. Most of the transistor are NPN type and not PnP, why?

7. The forward resistance of emitter junction is slightly less than forward

resistance ofcollector junction, why?
 Experiment No: 3
FET CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a FET.

Components:
Name Qty
JFET BFW 10 1
Resistors 470 2
Equipment:

Name Range Qty

FET Trainer Kit - 1

Digital Ammeter 0-20mA 1

Digital Voltmeter 0-20 V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For JFET BFW10: -

Gate Source Voltage VGS = - 30V
Forward Gain Current IGF = 10 mA
Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300 mW.

Circuit Diagram:
ID (0–20mA) 1k

68K G D

BFW10
 S VDD

VGG VGS VDS
(0-30V) (0–20V)
(0–20V)
Pin assignment of FET:
Source Drain

Gate
Substrate

Theory:
The basic circuit diagram for studying drain and transfer characteristics is
Shown in figure.

Drain characteristics are obtained between the drain to source voltage (VDS) and drain current
(ID) taking gate to source voltage (VGS) as the parameter.

Transfer characteristics are obtained between the gate to source voltage (VGS) and Drain
current (ID) taking drain to source voltage (VDS) as parameter.

Procedure:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep VGS = 0V by varying VGG.
3. Varying VDD gradually, note down both drain current ID and drain to source voltage
(VDS).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VGS = -1V.

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Keep VDS = 2V by varying VDD.

2. Varying VGG gradually from 0 – 5V, note down both drain current (ID) and gate to
source voltage (VGS).
3. Repeat above procedure (step 2) for VDS = 4V.
Observations:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

VGS = 0V VGS = -1V

VDS (V) ID (mA) VDS (V) ID (mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

VDS = 2V VDS = 4V

VGS (V) ID (mA) VGS (V) ID (mA)

Graph (Instructions):
1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at constant VGS.
2. Plot the Transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at constant VDS.

DRA
IN CHARACTERISTICS TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

Calculations from Graph:

Drain Resistance (rd) : It is given by the ration of small change in drain to source
voltage (VDS) to the corresponding change in Drain current
(ID) for a constant gate to source voltage (VGS), when the
JFET is operating in pinch-off or saturation region.
Trans-Conductance (gm) : Ratio of small change in drain current (ID) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage (VGS) for a
constant VDS.
gm = ID / VGS at constant VDS. (From transfer
characteristics)
The value of gm is expressed in mho’s ( ) or siemens (s).

Amplification Factor () : It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source
voltage (VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source
voltage (VGS) for a constant drain current.
 = VDS / VGS.
 = (VDS / ID) X (ID / VGS)
 = rd X gm.

Inference:
1. As the gate to source voltage (VGS) is increased above zero, pinch off voltage is
increased at a smaller value of drain current as compared to that when VGS =0 V

2. The value of drain to source voltage (VDS) is decreased as compared to that when VGS
=0 V
Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead
to damage the FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the
Circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
Circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals
Of the FET.

Result:
1. Drain Resistance (rd) = ………….
2. Transconductance (gm) = ………….
3. Amplification factor () = ……………

Viva voce Questions

1. Why FET is called as a unipolar transistor?

2. What are the advantages of FET?
3. What is the difference between MOSFET and FET?
4. What is Trans conductance?
5. What is amplification factor?
6. Why thermal runaway does not occur in FET?
7. State weather FET is voltage controlled or current controlled and also state the reason?
8. State why BJT is current controlled device?
9. Why current gain is important parameter in BJT where as conductance is important
Parameter in FET?

10. Why we plot input and output characteristics? What information we can obtain?
 Experiment No: 4

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTERS

AIM: Study of Half – wave rectifier with & without Filter and to finds Ripple Factor.

EQUIPMENT:

Name Range
Quantity
Transformer 9-0-9V/12-0-12V 1
Bread Board 1
Digital Multimeter 1
Resistor 1kΩ,10kΩ 1
Connecting wires

THEORY:

The conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic devices can convert AC

power into DC power with high efficiency
Consider the given circuit. Assume the diode to be ideal i.e. Vf = 0, Rr =, Rs = 0. During
the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows
through the load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is
equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the
diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in a half wave rectified output.

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
(Neglecting Rf and Rs)
Let Vac = Vm sint is the input AC signal, the current Iac flows only for one half cycle i.e.
from t = 0 to t =  , where as it is zero for the duration
  T  2
Therefore, Iac = Vac/R = Vm Sinwt/R

= Im sint 0  t   

= 0   t  2


Where Im = maximum value of current

Vm = maximum value of voltage
AVERAGE OR DC VALUE OF CURRENT
2
Idc = 1/2  Im (sint) dt
0
  2
Idc =1/2  sint dt +  0 dt = Im / 
0 

Similarly

Vdc = Vm /

The RMS VALUE OF CURRENT





 Irms = 1 1 2
 2 2  Iac2 dt
 0



 = 1 1 2

 2 2  Im2 sin 2dt
 0



= 1 Im2  1-cos2t Im
2 2  dt = 2
0 2

Similarly

RIPPLE FACTOR:
Vrms Vm
=
2

The output of a half – wave rectifier consists of some undesirable ac components known as
ripple. These can be removed using suitable filter circuits.

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the average
DC value. It is denoted by the symbol

= V ac
V dc
V rms = V2ac + V2dc
2

 =  V2rms - V2dc
V dc

Converting V rms and Vdc into its corresponding Vm value, we get

 = 1.21

RECTIFICATION FACTOR:

The ratio of output DC power to the input AC power is defined as efficiency

Output power = I2dcR

Input power = I2rms(R+Rf)
 Where Rf – forward resistance of the diode
Pdc I2dcR
= =
Pac I2rms (R+Rf)
R
= 4 X
 2
R + Rf
= 40.5 % (if Rf < < R, Rf can be neglected).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Half Wave Rectifier (with out filter):
Half Wave Rectifier (with C-filter):

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as per the Circuit Diagram.
2. Note down the AC and DC Voltages and Currents without Filter and with Load.
3. And again observe the AC and DC Voltages and Currents with L &  Filters and
with load.
4. Observe the Voltage across the secondary of the Transformer.

Tabular Column:

Vac = (Voltage across the secondary of the transformer)

Condition Vac Vdc Vm R

Without Filter

Condition Vac Vdc Vm C R

With C Filter
CALCULATIONS:

Vac
Ripple factor  =
Vdc

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

Input Waveform

Vac
Vm

0 π 2π 3π 4π t

HWR WITHOUT FILTER:

vm

HWR WITH FILTER:

Vr

V
dc

VR = Ripple Voltage
RESULT: -

Parameters Without With c - Filter

filter
Ripple Factor

Efficiency

VIVA-VOCE Questions

1. Why are rectifiers used with a filter at their output?

2. What is the voltage regulation of the rectifier?
3. What is the ideal value of regulation?
4. What does no load condition refer to?
5. What are the advantages of bridge rectifier?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of capacitor filter?
7. What are the applications of rectifiers?
8. What is the regulation for a
(i) Half - wave circuit (ii) Full-wave circuit
9. What is PIV? State it value in case of (i) Half wave (ii) Full wave (iii) Bridge
rectifier.
10. What is the output signal frequency in case of (i) Half wave (ii) Full wave (iii) Bridge
rectifier?
 FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTERS

AIM: To Study the Full – wave rectifier Circuit & to Find its, Ripple factor

EQUIPMENT:

Name Range
Quantity
Transformer 9-0-9V/12-0-12V 1
Bread Board 1
Digital Multimeter 1
Resistor 1kΩ,10kΩ 1
Connecting wires

THEORY:

The conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic devices can convert

AC power into DC power with high efficiency

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:
The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tap transformer, which results in equal
voltages above and below the center-tap. During the positive half cycle, a positive voltage
appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this
diode D1 is forward biased it results in a current Id1 through the load R.
During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2 and
hence it is forward biased. Resulting in a current I d2 through the load at the same instant a
negative voltage appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t
conduct.

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS (Neglecting Rf and Rs)

The current through the load during both half cycles is in the same direction and hence it is
the sum of the individual currents and is unidirectional
Therefore, I = Id1 + Id2
Vac  Vm sin  t
 Vm
Id1  sin  t 0  ωt  π
R
0   ωt  2π

Id2 0 0  ωt  π
- Vm
 sin  t   ωt  2π
R

The individual currents and voltages are combined in the load and there fore their average
values are double that obtained in a half – wave rectifier circuit.

AVERAGE OR DC VALUE OF CURRENT Idc

 2
Idc =1/2  Im (sint) dt -  Im (sint) dt = 2 Im / 
0 
Similarly,

Vdc = 2Vm /


The RMS VALUE OF CURRENT


= 1 1 2
2 2  I m2 sin 2 t dt
0
m I
=
2

Vm
Similarly, Vrms 
2

RIPPLE FACTOR

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol 
V
  ac
Vdc

( = 0.48)

RECTIFICATION FACTOR

The ratio of output DC power to the input AC power is defined as efficiency

Efficiency, 
 Pdc Vdc * Idc
  * 100
Pac Vrms Iac 2  Idc 2

 = 81% (if R >> Rf . then Rf can be neglected)

Where Rf – forward resistance of two diode

Peak – Inverse – Voltage (PIV)

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse biased
PIV = 2Vm
Advantages of Full wave Rectifier
1.  is reduced
2.  is improved
Disadvantages of Full wave Rectifier
1. Output voltage is half the secondary voltage
2. Diodes with high PIV rating are used
Manufacturing of center-taped transformer is quite expensive and so Full wave rectifier with
center-taped transformer is costly.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (With out Filter):

(With C -Filter) :
PROCEDURE:
5. Make connections as per the Circuit Diagram.
6. Note down the AC and DC Voltages and Currents without Filter and with Load.
7. And again observe the AC and DC Voltages and Currents with Filter and with load.
8. Observe the Voltage across the secondary of the Transformer (i.e. Vrms).

Tabular Column:

Condition Vac Vdc Vm R

Without Filter

Condition Vac Vdc Vm C R

With C Filter

CALCULATIONS:
Vac
Ripple factor =
Vdc
Pdc Vdc * Idc
Efficiency    * 100
Pac Vrms Iac 2  Idc 2

VNL – VFL
Percentage of regulation = X 100 %
VFL

VNL = Voltage across load resistance,

When minimum current flows though it

VFL = Voltage across load resistance, When maximum current flows through it.
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

Input Waveform

Vac
Vm

0 π 2π 3π 4π t

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER:

Vac
Vm

0 π 2π 3π
4π
t

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

vr

vd
c

VR = Ripple Voltage
RESULT:

Parameters Without With C Filter

filter
Ripple Factor

Efficiency

VIVA-VOCE Questions

1. A diode should not be employed in the circuits where it is to carry more than its
maximum forward current, why?

2. While selecting a diode, the most important consideration is its PIV, why?

3. The rectifier diodes are never operated in the breakdown region, why?

4. In filter circuits, a capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?

In filter circuits, an inductor is always connected in series why?
 SIMULATION AND HARDWARE REALISATION OF CLIPPING
AND CLAMPING CIRCUITS

5(a).CLIPPER
To construct a Clipper using diode and to draw its performance characteristics.
y identified.
ARATUS REQUIRED:

and then S.No Name Range Qt-v

I Function Gen I
2. Diode IN4001 2

-)- Resistor lKe) I

4. Bread Board I

5. Capacitor 100pf I

6. CRO I

circuits have the ability to "clip" off a portion of the input signal without distorting
ining part of the alternating waveform. The half wave rectifier of the previous
t is an example of the simplest form of diode clipper. Depending on the orientation
diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is "clipped" off. There are two
with categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series c configuration is defined as one
the diode is in series with the load, while the parallel variety has the diode in branch
to the load.
 PRECAUTIONS:

1) The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should

be carefully identified.
2) The polarities of the diode should be carefuily identified.

3) While determiningtheYo regulation, first Full load should be applied

and then
it shoulcl be decremented in steps.

REST]LT;

The Ripple factor and the o%

regulation for the Full-Wave Rectifier with
and without filters are calculated.

l.The Ripple factor of Full-wave Rectifier without filter is

2.The Ripple factor of Full-wave Rectifier with firter is

3.The % Regulation of Fulr-wave Rectifier without firter

is
4.The % Regulation of Fulr-wave Rectifier with firter is
 s(b).cLAMPER

To construct a Clarnper using diode and to draw its performance characteristics.

TUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name Range Qtv

I Function Gen 1

2. Diode rN4001 2

3. Resistor 1Ke) I
4. Bread Board 1

5. Capacitor l00pf I

6. CRO I

you may want to leave the waveform unchanged, but modiSz its DC level up or
To accomplish this, you use a clamper circuit. The beauty of clampers is that they can
the DC position of the waveform without knowing what the waveform actually is. The
clamper shown in the figure below works as follows:

positive half of the first cycle, the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
y; therefore as the voltage on the input moves up, the voltage on the top of the
has to follow this voltage. This reverse biases the diode causing it to act as an opffi,
output voltagefollows the input voltage. As the input voltage drops into the negative
the first cyc-le, the dh-dij is going to be forward biased. In the positive half of the first
the voltage across the capacitor cainorchange instantaneously; therefore as the voltage
input moves up, the voltage on the top of the diode has to follow this voltage.

reverse biases the diode causing it to act as an open, thus the output voltage follows the
voltage. As the input voltage drops into the negative half of the first cycle, the diode is
to be forward biased. This causes the diode to behave like a wire, rvhich cannot
any voltage. This causes to inter-related effects. First, the output voltage is held
at 0V. Second, because there are 0V dissipated across the diode (arid.resistor) ail of
voltage has to be dissipated across the capacitor. This charges the capacitor to the
itude of the input signal.

Positive
 i *l i.J

t-{'
-

.-;--'
j-

| ' ^;.r-i
t" l
r ".i l.:l

ri
.. .-.,-t ir
Tt

,
-e .. .d... ..-- ..

A
Model Graph:
Input Characteristics : Output characteristics :

Procedure:

Clippins Circuit:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure.

2. Ensure that the variable DC is at minimum and the source is at 10vp.p.

3. Observe and Sketch the input and output waveforms.

4. Increase the variable DC voltage to 4Y, and notice to what voltage are the positive
chopped off sketch the waveforms.

Ilesultj

Thus the static characteristics clipper configuration is studied.

 t

Result:

Thus the static characteristics clamper configuration is studied.

 1u

-n it-
:
I

-j
ID t-\

I '! 1,.-. 20 Vp-p

i f= 1K
I

Model Graph:
Input Characteristics :

,n\
!\,,i,1\ r'\ ,,^\
!'\ii
/iJlJi
ii\i
il \1
\,'/ \..,i

Output characteristics :

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure.

2. Ensure the variable DC is at minimum.

3. Set the sine wave generator frequency to lKHz and its output amplitude
to 1gVp.p
4. observe and sketch the input waveform with the variable DC at
-ini*rri,
5. Sketch the output wayefonn.
 1u

---jF
: l:"1 r:i i
-t t-

:
i I

:
IU .,:'
*i I lli:
n"}t".,,
i.. i
, * /,x.i.i 20 Vp-p
.1 f=1K
:

Model Graph:
Input Characteristics :

Output characteristics :

Procedure:

l. Connect the circuit shown in Figure.

2. Ensure the variable DC is at minimum.

3. Set the sine wave generator frequency to lKHz and its output amplitude to lOVP.P

4. observe and sketch the input wavefom with the variable DC at *ini*.r*,
5. Sketch the output waveform.
1.. Connections are rnade as per circuit diagrarn.
2. Keep the input voltage constant at 20mV peak-peak and lkHz fiequency.For'
different values of load resistance, note down the output voltage
3. Calculate the gain by using the expressionAu: 20log(Vs i V1 ) dB
4. Remove the emitter bypass capacitor and repeat STEP 2.And obserue the
effect of feedback on the gain of the amplifier.
5. For plotting the frequency the input voltage is kept constant at 20rnV peak-
peak and the frequency is varied from l00Hz to 1MHz.
6. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
7. Al1 the readings are tabulatedand the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using expression
Ar: 20log (V6 / V; ) dB
8. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain on Y-axis on semi 1og graph

9. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the
expression Bandwidth B.W: fz- f t.
a. Where f1 is lower cutt off
frequency of CE amplifier f 2 is
upper cutt offfrequency ofCE
amplifier

10. The gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated by using the expression

Gain-Bandwidth Product: 3-dB midband gain X Bandwidth.

ModelGraph:

Irrpilt wavef{}r[r

rf\
l': :t -s
i*.-+ .+- +- -.1N,,*-*, "
li

-,*, * -*, -- t(m*ec)

l*,
l
'"1
,
l'
','n
lr'r I ' lt
l:u'"-'i
ll .r
r\-
,t':
Ta bularColums:
Hgr f$f*n's-&f;Y ff&fr*ts
I
LerrltrH f,UTT I iJFPr* i;1,j11 *rF
VoltaoeGain:Vn2{hmHrnrrcY Er I
Y T$TENilTTICY
@r
""t '*0 -l
_*,.-Fi t.,_
.l
I-
A.vM I*'*n"f*
t
---'*-I f'"t
*t
di ltl -l
*4.fi10 tt4,*rH |'t----
 ?.VOLTAGE SERIE SFE EDBACKAMPLIFIER

Aim:
To plot the frequency response characteristics of voltage series feedback amplifier.

ApparatusRequired:
Transistor

Resistorsandcapacitors,

Functiongenerator,

CRO

CircuitDiagram:

if{r lI}
l
t
1
I
t ,,
i?
ffkar
:: l"5t{{t *Sr

i{l*J:
lrl*
fllla! l
!i,l{*L'-rru , -!
r. t u
It'Ibl,, irrq i."q., i-IrHtl i..,.
i--
',
i

-*.-...? 1

-i. -"_ "*!

THEORY:

When
anyincreiseintheoutputsignalresultsintotheinputinsuchawayastocausethedecreaseintheo
utputsignal,th eampli fierissaidtohavenegativefeedback.

The advantages of providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the
amplifier with feedback can be stabilized against variations in the hybrid palameters of
the transistoror the parameters of the other active devices used in tle circuit.Th emost
advantage of the negative feedback is thatby proper use of this,there issignificant
improvement int he frequency response andi rr. the Hnearityof the operatioi of the
amplifier'This disadvantage oft he negative feedback is that the'voltage gain is
decreased.InCurrent-SeriesFeedback,theinput impedance and the output imp"eAui""
a.e
increased.Noise and distortions are reduced considerably.

PROCEDURE:
 withoutfeedback

PRECAUTIONS:

Whi letakingtheobservationsforthefrequencyresponse,theinputvoltagemustbemai
ntainedccnstantat2 OmV

The frequencyshouldb e slowlyincreasedinsteps.

Thethreeterminalso ft hetransi storshouldbec arefu llyidenti fied.

Alltheconnectionsshouldbecorrect.

RNSULT:
Thus voltage series feedback amplifieris realised.
 EXPERIMENT 7: STUDY OF RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR.

AIM:

To design and set up an RC phase shift oscillator using BJT

and to observe the sinusoidal output waveform.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE QUANTITY
S.NO. TYPE RANGE
EQUIPMENT (NO.S)

1 Transistor BC547 1
2 Resistors 47kΩ, one from
10kΩ,2.2kΩ,680Ω each
3 Resistor 4.7kΩ 3
3 Capacitors 1µF,22µF one from
each
4 Capacitor 0.01 µF 3
5 CRO

6 RPS (0 – 30V) 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting wires Required

THEORY:
An oscillator is an electronic circuit for generating an AC signal
voltage with a DC supply as the only input requirement. The frequency
of the generated signal is decided by the circuit elements used. An
oscillator requires an amplifier, a frequency selective network and a
positive feedback from the output to the input.
The Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation is Aβ = 1 where
A is the gain of the amplifier and β is the feedback factor (gain).The
unity gain means signal is in phase. ( If the signal is 180 0 out of phase
and gain will be -1). RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier
followed by three sections of RC phase shift feed-back Networks. The
output of the last stage is return to the input of the amplifier. The
values of R and C are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC
section is 60º.Thus The RC ladder network produces a total phase shift
of 180º between its input and output voltage for the given frequency.
Since CE Amplifier produces 180 º phases shift. The total phase shift
from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the base
will be exactly 360º or 0º. This satisfies the Barkhausen condition for
sustaining oscillations and total loop gain of this circuit is greater than
 or equal to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal
oscillations.

MODEL GRAPH:

BJT PIN DIAGRAM

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the pin details of BC107 Transistor (or equivalent silicon

Transistor such as BC108/547) and test it using a millimeter. Set
up the circuit on breadboard as shown in figure.
2. A 12V Supply Voltage is given by using Regulated power supply
and output is taken from collector of the Transistor.
3. By using CRO the output time period and voltage are noted.
4. Plot all the readings curves on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus the RC phase shift oscillator using BJT was obtained and the
output waveform was plotted.
 Experiment No:8a
COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

AIM: - To Study the common collector amplifier and to find

1. Cut off frequencies.
2. Bandwidth.

Components:

Name Qty
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistors 10K,33K,8.2K,2.2K 1
Capacitors 10µf 2

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Equipment Quantity
Bread Board 1
CRO 1
Function generator 1
Connecting Wires

THEORY:
In common collector amplifier as the collector resistance is made to zero, the
Collector is at ac ground that is why the circuit is also called as grounded
Collector amplifier or this configuration is having voltage gain close to unity
And hence a change in base voltage appears as an equal change across the
Load at the emitter, hence the name emitter follower. In other words the
Emitter follows the input signal.

This circuit performs the function of impedance transformation over a wide

range of frequencies with voltage gain close to unity. In addition to that, the
emitter follower increases the output level of the signal. Since the output
voltage across the emitter load can never exceed the input voltage to base, as
the emitter-base junction would become back biased. Common collector state
has a low output resistance, the circuit suitable to serve as buffer or isolating
amplifier or couple to a load with large current demands.

Characteristics of CC amplifier:

1. Higher current gain

2. Voltage gain of approximately unity
3. Power gain approximately equal to current gain
4. No current or voltage phase shift
5. Large input resistance
6. Small output resistance
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: VCC = 12V

R1 33K

RS 2.2K CB C
BC 107
10f B
E
Ii CE 10f
+ VS = 1V R2 8.2K E
+
+
_
Io V0
RE 10K
–

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Source Voltage Vs = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency, using function generator.
3. keeping the input voltage constant vary the frequency from 50Hz to 1MHz in regular
steps
And note down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Plot the Graph: gain (dB) Vs frequency.
5. Calculate the bandwidth from Graph.
Graph (Frequency Response):

Gain (dB)

(|A| max)
-3dB(|A| max)

fL fH f (Hz)

TABULAR COLUMN: VS = 50mV

In the usual application, mid band frequency range are defined as those frequencies at which
the response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as fL and
fH, and are called as the 3dB frequencies are simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies
respectively. The difference between higher cut-off frequency and lower cut-off frequency is
referred to as bandwidth (fH – fL).

RESULT:
Maximum Gain=
3db Gain= Maximum Gain -3db
Band Width =
Viva Voce Questions

1. Why CC amplifier is known as emitter follower?

2. Mention the applications of CC amplifier. Justify?
3. What is the phase difference between input and output signals in the case of CC
amplifier?
4. Mention the characteristics of CC amplifier?
5. What is gain bandwidth product?
Frequency VO (volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain (dB) =20 log10 Vo/Vs)
 Experiment No: 8b
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

AIM: - To Study the common emitter amplifier and to find

1. Cut off frequencies.
2. Bandwidth.

Components:

Name Qty
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistors 10K(2),33K,1K 1
Capacitors 10µf 2
4.7 µf (1)

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Name Qty
Bread Board 1
CRO 1
Function generator 1
Connecting wires

THEORY:
The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as
It has both voltage and current amplification.

Resistors R1 & R2 form a voltage divider across the base of the transistor. The function of this
network is to provide necessary bias condition and, ensure that emitter - base junction is
operating in the proper region.

In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, the biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point should be in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that
the load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design the VCE is always set to VCC/2. This
will conform that the Q-point always swings within the active region. This limitation can be
explained by maximum signal handling capacity. Output is produced without any clipping or
distortion for the maximum input signal. If not so, reduce the input signal magnitude.

The Bypass Capacitor The emitter resistor RE is required to obtain the DC quiescent
stability. However the inclusion of RE in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification at
higher frequencies. In order to avoid such a condition, it is bypassed by capacitor so that it
acts as a short circuit for AC and contributes stability for DC quiescent condition. Hence
capacitor is connected in parallel with emitter resistance.
XCE << RE
1
 RE
2fCE
 1
C E 
2fRE
The Coupling Capacitor An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In order to have
noiseless transmission of signal (with out DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct
current should not enter the amplifier or load. This is usually accomplished by inserting a
coupling capacitor between any two stages.
XCC << (Ri hie)
1
 (Ri hie)
2fCC
CC 
1
2fCC (Ri hie)
Frequency Response Emitter bypass capacitors are used to short circuit the emitter resistor
and thus increase the gain at high frequency. The coupling and bypass capacitors cause the
fall of in the low frequency response of the amplifier because their impedance becomes large
at low frequencies. The stray capacitors are effectively open circuits.

In the mid frequency range the large capacitors are effective short circuits and the stray
capacitors are open circuits, so that no capacitance appears in the mid frequency range.
Hence, the mid band gain is maximum.

At the high frequencies, the bypass and coupling capacitors are replaced by short circuits and
stray capacitors and the transistor determine the response.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC = 12V

RC 4.7K
R1 33K
CC 10f

RS 10K CB C
BC 107
10f B +

Ii BE

+ + VS = 50mV R2 10K RE 1K VO

CE 4.7f
-

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Source Voltage Vs = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency, using function generator.
3. Keeping the input voltage constant vary the frequency from 50Hz to 1MHz in regular
steps and note down the corresponding output voltage.
 4. Plot the Graph: gain (dB) Vs frequency.
5. Calculate the bandwidth from Graph.
6. Calculate all the parameters at mid band frequencies (i.e. at 1 KHz).

Graph (Frequency Response):

TABULAR COLUMN:
Frequency VO (volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain (dB) =20 log (V o/Vs)

VS = 50mV

In the usual application, mid band frequency range are defined as those frequencies at which
the response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as fL and
fH, and are called as the 3dB frequencies are simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies
respectively. The difference between higher cut-off frequency and lower cut-off frequency is
referred to as bandwidth (fH – fL).

RESULT

Maximum Gain=
3db Gain= Maximum Gain -3db
Band Width =

Reasoning Questions

1. How do we test the transistor for active region condition?

2. What are the factors, which influence the higher cut-off frequency?
3. What are the components, which influence the lower cut-off frequency?
4. Mention the applications of CE amplifier. Justify?
5. Compare the characteristics of CE amplifier, CB amplifier & CC amplifier.
6. What must be the voltage across the transistor, when it is operated as a switch?
7. How do we test the transistor for switching condition?
 9 TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

Exp. No: Date:

PREAMBLE:

Study the operation and working principle Tuned amplifier.

OBJECTIVE:

To obtain the frequency response of a tuned voltage amplifier using Multisim and to obtain
the band width.

SOFTWARE TOOL:

 Multisim

APPARATUS:

S. No Name Range / Value Quantity

1 Transistor SL100/BC 107 1
2 Resistors 1K ,100K,10k 2,1,1
3 Capacitors 10uF,5nf,0.047uf 2,1,1
4 Inductor 50mH 1
5 RPS 12V 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1

THEORY:

Most of the audio amplifiers we have discussed in the earlier chapters will also work at
radio frequencies i.e. above 50 kHz. However, they suffer from two major drawbacks. First, they
become less efficient at radio frequency. Secondly, such amplifiers have mostly resistive loads and
consequently their gain is independent of signal frequency over a large bandwidth. In other words,
an audio amplifier amplifies a wide band of frequencies equally well and does not permit the
selection of a particular desired frequency while rejecting all other frequencies. However,
sometimes it is desired that an amplifier should be selective i.e. it should select a desired frequency
or narrow band of frequencies for amplification.

For instance, radio and television transmission are carried on a specific radio frequency
assigned to the broadcasting station. The radio receiver is required to pick up and amplify the radio
frequency desired while discriminating all others. To achieve this, the simple resistive load is
replaced by a parallel tuned circuit whose impedance strongly depends upon frequency. Such a
tuned circuit becomes very selective and amplifies very strongly signals of resonant frequency and
narrow band on either side. Therefore, the use of tuned circuits in conjunction with a transistor
makes possible the selection and efficient amplification of a particular desired radio frequency.
Such an amplifier is called a tuned amplifier. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on
transistor tuned amplifiers and their increasing applications in high frequency electronic circuits.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

OBSERVATIONS/GRAPHS:

Input and Output waveforms

 Amplifiers which amplify a specific frequency or narrow band of frequencies are called
tuned amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers are mostly used for the amplification of high or radio
frequencies. It is because radio frequencies are generally single and the tuned circuit permits their
selection and efficient amplification. However, such amplifiers are not suitable for the
amplification of audio frequencies as they are mixture of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz and
not single. Tuned amplifiers are widely used in radio and television circuits where they are called
upon to handle radio frequencies. Below figure shows the circuit of a simple transistor tuned
amplifier. Here, instead of load resistor, we have a parallel tuned circuit in the collector. The
impedance of this tuned circuit strongly depends upon frequency. It offers a very high impedance
at resonant frequency and very small impedance at all other frequencies. If the signal has the same
frequency as the resonant frequency of LC circuit, large amplification will result due to high
impedance of LC circuit at this frequency. When signals of many frequencies are present at the
input of tuned amplifier, it will select and strongly amplify the signals of resonant frequency while
rejecting all others. Therefore, such amplifiers are very useful in radio receivers to select the signal
from one particular broadcasting station when signals of many other frequencies are present at the
receiving aerial.

PROCEDURE:

1. Open Multisim Software to design circuit

2. Select on New editor window and place the required component on the circuit
window.
3. Make the connections using wire and check the connections and oscillator.
4. Go for simulation and using Run Key observe the output waveforms on CRO
5. Indicate the node names and go for AC Analysis with the output node
6. Observe the Ac Analysis and draw the magnitude response curve
7. Calculate the bandwidth of the amplifier

RESULT &DISCUSSION:

1. Frequency response of single tuned Amplifier is pSetted.

2. Gain = dB (maximum).

3. Bandwidth= (fH—fL) = Hz.

Frequency Response:

Theoretical calculations:

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is a tuned amplifier?

2. Define Q-factor?
3. What is selectivity?
4. Is tuned amplifier a hallow band or wide band amplifier?
5. Give the applications for tuned amplifier.
***

HOD/ EEE
Dr. L. Chitra