OVERVIEW:

We start this chapter with various forms of work and discuss energy transfer by work. Also, the
expression for the first law of thermodynamics and its use. We discuss the efficiencies of some familiar
energy conversion processes, and examine the impact on energy conversion on the environment.

LESSON OUTLINE:

1. Energy

2. Energy Transfer by Heat and Work

3. Mechanical Forms of Work

4. First Law of Thermodynamics

5. Energy Conversion Efficiencies

6. Energy and Environment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, the students must be able to:

a) Identify the different forms of Energy.

b) Discuss the sign convention in Energy Transfer by Heat and Work.
c) Familiarize the Mechanical Forms of Work.
d) Familiarize the First Law of Thermodynamics.
e) Solve problem involving Energy Conversion Efficiencies.
f) Discuss the impact on energy conversion on the environment.

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PRE-TEST:

Answer the following statements below. Determine what is being asked for in the following statements.
Write your answers on the blanks provided.

1. What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?

2. During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from 200 to 20 psia, the
speed increases from 200 to 1000 fps, the internal energy of the open system decreases 25 Btu/lb., and
the specific volume increases from 1 to 8 ft3/lb. No heat is transferred. Sketch an energy diagram.
Determine the work per lb. Is it done on or by the substance? Determine the work in hp for 10 lb./min.
(1 hp = 42.4 Btu/ min).

3. An air compressor (an open system) receives 272 kg per min. of air at 99.29 kPa and a specific volume
of 0.026 m3/kg. The air flows steady through the compressor and is discharged at 689.5 kPa and 0.0051
m3/kg. The initial internal energy of the air is 1594 J/kg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6241 J/kg.
The cooling water circulated around the cylinder carries away 4383 J/kg of air. The change in kinetic
energy is 896 J/kg increase. Sketch an energy diagram. Compute the work.

4. How does the conversion of energy affect the environment?

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 2.1 ENERGY

Energy

➢ cannot be created or destroyed during a process; it can only change from one form to another.
➢ can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic,
chemical, and nuclear and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.
➢ 1807 by Thomas Young, and its use in thermodynamics was proposed in 1852 by Lord Kelvin

Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of the total energy. It deals only with
the change of the total energy, which is what matters in engineering problems. Thus, the total energy of
a system can be assigned a value of zero (E= 0) at some convenient reference point

The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e and is expressed as
𝐸 𝐾𝐽
𝑒= ,( )
𝑚 𝑘𝑔

The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies

The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

Internal Energy

➢ The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system and is
denoted by U.
➢ The term internal energy and its symbol U first appeared in the works of Rudolph Clausius and
William Rankine in the second half of the nineteenth century, and it eventually replaced the
alternative terms inner work, internal work, and intrinsic energy commonly used at the time.
➢ It is related to the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity, and can be viewed
as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.

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Kinetic Energy (KE)

➢ The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference frame.
𝑉2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 , (𝐾𝐽)
2
Or
𝑉2 𝐾𝐽
𝑘𝑒 = ,( )
2 𝑘𝑔

Translational Energy
o The molecules of a gas move through space with some velocity, and thus possess some
kinetic energy.
Rotational Kinetic Energy
o The atoms of polyatomic molecules rotate about an axis, and the energy associated with
this rotation is the rotational kinetic energy.
Vibrational Kinetic Energy
o The atoms of a polyatomic molecule may also vibrate about their common center of
mass, and the energy associated with this back-and-forth motion is the vibrational kinetic
energy.
Rotational Kinetic Energy
o The electrons in an atom rotate about the nucleus, and thus possess rotational kinetic
energy
Spin energy
o Electrons at outer orbits have larger kinetic energies. Electrons also spin about their axes,
and the energy associated with this motion is the spin energy.
Sensible Energy
o The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of the
molecules is called the sensible energy.
Latent Energy
o The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called the latent energy.
Chemical Energy
o The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical
energy.
Nuclear Energy
o The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the atom itself is called nuclear energy

The various forms of microscopic energies that make up sensible energy.

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 The internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms of the microscopic energies.

Potential Energy (PE)

➢ The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧 , (𝐾𝐽)
Or
𝐾𝐽
𝑝𝑒 = 𝑔𝑧 ,( )
𝑘𝑔
Where: g is the gravitational acceleration and,
z is the elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily selected
reference level.

In the absence of magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects, the total energy of a system consists of
the kinetic, potential, and internal energies and is expressed as:

𝑉2
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧 (𝐾𝐽)
2
𝑉2 𝐾𝐽
𝑒 = 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧 , ( )
2 𝑘𝑔

Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity remain constant during a
process are frequently referred to as stationary systems.

Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time, and it is convenient to express
the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in the rate form.

This is done by incorporating the mass flow rate 𝒎̇, which is the amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.

It is related to the volume flow rate 𝑽̇, which is the volume of a fluid flowing through a cross
section per unit time, by:
𝒌𝒈
Mass flow rate: 𝒎̇ = 𝝆𝑽̇ = 𝝆𝑨𝑪 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 (𝒔)

Where: 𝜌 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦,

𝐴𝐶 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝐴𝑐.

𝑘𝐽
Energy flow rate: 𝐸̇ = 𝑚̇𝑒 ( 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑊)

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Mechanical Energy

➢ The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical
work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
➢ Mechanical energy is a useful concept for flows that do not involve significant heat transfer or
energy conversion, such as the flow of gasoline from an underground tank into a car.
➢ Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of mechanical energy. Thermal energy is not
mechanical energy, however, since it cannot be converted to work directly and completely (the
second law of thermodynamics)

Flow Energy

➢ Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it is convenient to view it as part of the
energy of a flowing fluid and call it flow energy.
𝑁 𝑁.𝑚 𝐽
The pressure unit Pa is equivalent to 𝑃𝑎 = = = .Note that pressure itself is not a form of energy
𝑚2 𝑚3 𝑚3
but a pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance produces work, called flow work, in the amount
𝑃
of 𝜌 per unit mass.

The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed on a unit mass basis as:

𝑃 𝑉2
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
𝑃 𝑉2
Where: = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2

𝑃 𝑉2
̇ = 𝑚̇𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑚̇ ( +
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ + 𝑔𝑧)
𝜌 2

where 𝑚̇ is the mass flow rate of the fluid.

Then the mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible (𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) flow becomes

𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑘𝐽
∆𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) , ( )
𝜌 2 𝑘𝑔

𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑣22 − 𝑣12
̇
∆𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = ∆𝑚̇𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝑚̇ ( + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )) , (𝑘𝑊)
𝜌 2

Therefore, the mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow if its pressure, density, velocity,
and elevation remain constant.

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 2.2 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT AND WORK

Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms: heat and work.

Heat

➢ defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference. Thus, in thermodynamics, the term heat
simply means heat transfer

Adiabatic Process

➢ A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process.

➢ The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed.

There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:

Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass
through the boundary, or both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature
and therefore there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.

Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is determined from:
𝑄
𝑞= , (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
𝑚
The heat transfer rate is denoted 𝑄̇ , where the overdot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit time”.
𝑡2
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑄̇ 𝑑𝑡 (𝑘𝐽)
𝑡1

When 𝑄̇ remains constant during a process, this relation reduces to

𝑄 = 𝑄̇∆𝑡 (𝑘𝐽)

Where ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 is the time interval during which the process takes place.

Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Heat is easy to recognize: Its driving force is a temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings.

Work

➢ is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

➢ also a form of energy transferred like heat and, therefore, has energy units such as kJ

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. energy can cross
the boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or work. Therefore, if the energy crossing the
boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work.

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The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w and is expressed as:
𝑊 𝑘𝐽
𝑤= ,( )
𝑚 𝑘𝑔

The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted 𝑊̇. The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete description of a heat or work
interaction requires the specification of both the magnitude and direction.

Formal sign convention for heat and work:

a) heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive;

b) heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.

For example,

a work input of 5 kJ can be expressed as 𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 5 𝑘𝐽 ,while

a heat loss of 3 kJ can be expressed as 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3 𝑘𝐽

Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its surroundings, and there are
many similarities between them:

1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries. That is, both
heat and work are boundary phenomena.

2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.

3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning
at a state.

4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as
well as the end states).

Electrical Work

➢ In an electric field, electrons in a wire move under the effect of electromotive forces, doing work.
When N coulombs of electrical charge move through a potential difference V, the electrical work
done is
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉𝑁

which can also be expressed in the rate form as

𝑊̇𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼 (𝑊)
Where 𝑊̇𝑒 is the electrical power and I is the number of electrical charges flowing per unit time,
that is, the current.
𝑊̇𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉 2 /𝑅

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 2.3 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

In elementary mechanics, the work done by a constant force F on a body displaced a distance s in the
direction of the force is given by:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 (𝑘𝐽)

If the force F is not constant, the work done is obtained by adding (i.e., integrating) the differential
amounts of work,
2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑠 (𝑘𝐽)
1

The work done on a system by an external force acting in the direction of motion is negative, and work
done by a system against an external force acting in the opposite direction to motion is positive.

There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system and its surroundings to exist: (1)
there must be a force acting on the boundary, and (2) the boundary must move.

Common Forms of Mechanical Work

Shaft Work

➢ Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in engineering practice

➢ the torque T applied to the shaft is constant, which means that the force F applied is also
constant. For a specified constant torque, the work done during n revolutions is determined as
follows: A force F acting through a moment arm r generates a torque T of:
𝑇
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 → 𝐹 =
𝑟
This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r by : 𝑠 = (2𝜋𝑟)𝑛

Then the shaft work is determined from

𝑇
𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝐹𝑠 = ( ) (2𝜋𝑟𝑛) = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇
𝑟
The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per unit time, which can be
expressed as: 𝑊𝑠ℎ
̇ = 2𝜋𝑛̇ 𝑇 (𝑘𝑊), where 𝑛̇ is the number of revolutions per unit time.

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Spring Work

Elongation of a spring under the influence of a force

➢ It is common knowledge that when a force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring
changes. When the length of the spring changes by a differential amount dx under the influence
of a force F, the work done is

𝛿𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is proportional to the force applied

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 (𝑘𝑁)

where k is the spring constant and has the unit kN/m. The displacement x is measured from the
undisturbed position of the spring (that is, x = 0 when F = 0).
1
𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘 ( 𝑥22 − 𝑥12 ) (𝑘𝐽)
2
where x1 and x2 are the initial and the final displacements of the spring, respectively, measured
from the undisturbed position of the spring.

Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

We can determine the work asociated with the

expansion or contraction of an elastic solid bar by
replacing pressure P by its counterpart in solids,
𝐹
normal stress 𝜎𝑛 = , in the work expression:
𝐴

2 2
𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝜎𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 (𝑘𝐽)
1 1

where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.

Note that the normal stress has pressure units.

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Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film

➢ This force is used to overcome the microscopic forces between molecules at the liquid–air
interfaces. These microscopic forces are perpendicular to any line in the surface, and the force
generated by these forces per unit length is called the surface tension 𝜎𝑠 , whose unit is N/m.
Therefore, the work associated with the stretching of a film is also called surface tension work. It
is determined from
2
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = ∫ 𝜎𝑠 𝑑𝐴 (𝑘𝐽)
1
Where 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑏 𝑑𝑥 is the change in the surface area of the film. The factor 2 is due to the fact that
the film has two surfaces in contact with air. The force acting on the movable wire as a result of
surface tension effects is 𝐹 = 2𝑏𝜎𝑠 where 𝜎𝑠 is the surface tension force per unit length.

Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

➢ When a body is raised in a gravitational field, its potential energy increases. Likewise, when a body
is accelerated, its kinetic energy increases
➢ energy can be transferred to a given mass by heat and work, and the energy transferred in this
case obviously is not heat since it is not driven by a temperature difference. Therefore, it must be
work. Then we conclude that (1) the work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to the change
in the potential energy of the body, and (2) the work transfer needed to accelerate a body is equal
to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.

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 2.4 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

First Law of Thermodynamics

➢ The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of energy principle,
➢ the first law of thermodynamics states that Energy can be neither created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.

Although the essence of the first law is the existence of the property total energy, the first law is often
viewed as a statement of the conservation of energy principle.

Example, consider the heating of water in a pan

on top of a range. If 15 kJ of heat is transferred
to the water from the heating element and 3 kJ
of it is lost from the water to the surrounding
air, the increase in energy of the water will be
equal to the net heat transfer to water, which is
12 kJ.

The conservation of energy principle can be expressed as follows: The net change (increase or
decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process. That is,

(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) − (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
= (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Or 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Energy Change of a System, ∆𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

➢ The determination of the energy change of a system during a process involves the evaluation of
the energy of the system at the beginning and at the end of the process, and taking their difference.
That is,
Energy change = Energy at final state - Energy at initial state
Or 𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

Also, energy can exist in numerous forms such as internal (sensible, latent, chemical, and nuclear),
kinetic, potential, electric, and magnetic, and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.

In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects (i.e., for simple compressible
systems), the change in the total energy of a system during a process is the sum of the changes
in its internal, kinetic, and potential energies and can be expressed as

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

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 1
Where: ∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) , ∆𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ), ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

When the initial and final states are specified, the values of the specific internal energies u 1 and u2 can
be determined directly from the property tables or thermodynamic property relations.

Thus, for stationary systems, the changes in kinetic and potential energies are zero (that is, ∆𝐾𝐸 = ∆𝑃𝐸 =
0), and the total energy change relation in reduces to ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 for such systems. Also, the energy of a
system during a process will change even if only one form of its energy changes while the other forms of
energy remain unchanged.

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: heat, work, and mass flow. Energy
interactions are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained
or lost by a system during a process. The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a fixed
mass or closed system are heat transfer and work.

1. Heat Transfer, Q
➢ Heat transfer to a system (heat gain) increases the energy of the molecules and thus
the internal energy of the system, and heat transfer from a system (heat loss) decreases
it since the energy transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the molecules of the
system.
2. Work Transfer, W
➢ An energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference between a system and
its surroundings is work. A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electrical wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions. Work transfer to a system
(i.e., work done on a system) increases the energy of the system, and work transfer from
a system (i.e., work done by the system) decreases it since the energy transferred out as
work comes from the energy contained in the system. Car engines and hydraulic, steam, or
gas turbines produce work while compressors, pumps, and mixers consume work.
3. Mass Flow, m
➢ Mass flow in and out of the system serves as an additional mechanism of energy transfer.
When mass enters a system, the energy of the system increases because mass carries energy
with it (in fact, mass is energy). Likewise, when some mass leaves the system, the energy
contained within the system decreases because the leaving mass takes out some energy with
it. For example, when some hot water is taken out of a water heater and is replaced by the
same amount of cold water, the energy content of the hot-water tank (the control volume)
decreases as a result of this mass interaction.

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

where the subscripts “in” and “out” denote quantities that enter and leave the system,

The heat transfer Q is zero for adiabatic systems, the work transfer W is zero for systems that
involve no work interactions, and the energy transport with mass Emass is zero for systems that
involve no mass flow across their boundaries (i.e., closed systems).

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
13 | P a g e
 2.5 ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES

Efficiency, in general, can be expressed in terms of the desired output and the required input as:
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Efficiency of a Water heater

➢ defined as the ratio of the energy delivered to the house by hot water to the energy supplied
to the water heater.

Combustion Efficiency

➢ Efficiency of Equipment that involves the combustion of a fuel is based on the heating
value of the fuel, which is the amount of heat released when a unit amount of fuel at room
temperature is completely burned and the combustion products are cooled to the room
temperature. Then the performance of combustion equipment can be characterized by
combustion efficiency, defined as:
𝑄 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑

➢ A combustion efficiency of 100 percent indicates that the fuel is burned completely and the
stack gases leave the combustion chamber at room temperature, and thus the amount of heat
released during a combustion process is equal to the heating value of the fuel.

The heating value is called the lower heating value, or LHV, when the water leaves as a vapor.
Efficiencies of cars and jet engines are normally based on lower heating values since water normally
leaves as a vapor in the exhaust gases, and it is not practical to try to recuperate the heat of
vaporization.

The higher heating value, or HHV, when the water in the combustion gases is completely
condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is also recovered. Efficiencies of furnaces, on the
other hand, are based on higher heating values.

Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency, or AFUE

➢ The efficiency of space heating systems of residential and commercial buildings is usually
expressed in terms of the annual fuel utilization efficiency, or AFUE, which accounts for the
combustion efficiency as well as other losses such as heat losses to unheated areas and start-up
and cool-down losses

Generator Efficiency

➢ A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, and the effectiveness
of a generator is characterized by the generator efficiency, which is the ratio of the electrical
power output to the mechanical power input.

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
14 | P a g e
Thermal Efficiency

➢ The thermal efficiency of a power plant, which is of primary interest in thermodynamics, is usually
defined as the ratio of the net shaft work output of the turbine to the heat input to the working
fluid.

OVERALL EFFICIENCY

➢ The effects of other factors are incorporated by defining an overall efficiency for the power plant
as the ratio of the net electrical power output to the rate of fuel energy input. That is,

𝑊̇𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝑥 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Lighting Efficacy

➢ defined as the amount of light output in lumens per W of electricity consumed.

EFFICIENCIES OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL DEVICES

Mechanical Efficiency

➢ In the absence of any irreversibilities such as friction, mechanical energy can be converted
entirely from one mechanical form to another, and the mechanical efficiency of a device or
process can be defined as:
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙,𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = = = 1−
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙,𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛

Pump Efficiency

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑢

𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑖𝑛 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝

Where: ∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛 ; the rate of increase in the mechanical energy of the fluid,
which is equivalent to the useful pumping power 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑢 supplied to the fluid, and

Turbine Efficiency

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 |∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | 𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑒

Where: ∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ; the rate of decrease in the mechanical energy of the fluid,
which is equivalent to the mechanical power extracted from the fluid by the turbine 𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑒 , and we
use the absolute value sign to avoid negative values for efficiencies.

Motor Efficiency

➢ Electrical energy is commonly converted to rotating mechanical energy by electric motors to drive
fans, compressors, robot arms, car starters, and so forth. The effectiveness of this conversion
process is characterized by the motor efficiency 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 , which is the ratio of the mechanical
energy output of the motor to the electrical energy input.

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑖𝑛

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
15 | P a g e
Generator Efficiency

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡,𝑖𝑛

A pump is usually packaged together with its motor, and a turbine with its generator. Therefore,
we are usually interested in the combined or overall efficiency of pump–motor and turbine–generator
combinations, which are defined as

𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑢 ∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝−𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑖𝑛 𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑖𝑛

And
𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑒 |∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 |

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
16 | P a g e
 2.6 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Energy conversion processes are often accompanied by environmental pollution. The conversion
of energy from one form to another often affects the environment and the air we breathe in many ways,
and thus the study of energy is not complete without considering its impact on the environment.

Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for smog, acid rain, global
warming, and climate change. The environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it became
a serious threat to vegetation, wild life, and human health.

Ozone and Smog

➢ Smog is made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous other
chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other hydrocarbons. The harmful
ground-level ozone should not be confused with the useful ozone layer high in the stratosphere
that protects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Ozone at ground level is a pollutant
with several adverse health effects.
➢ Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue. It also causes
shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and aggravates respiratory
problems such as asthma

Acid Rain

➢ The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react with water vapor and other chemicals high in the
atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric acids. The acids formed usually
dissolve in the suspended water droplets in clouds or fog. These acid-laden droplets, which can
be as acidic as lemon juice, are washed from the air on to the soil by rain or snow. This is known
as acid rain.

Global Warming/ Global Climate Change

➢ The global climate change is due to the excessive use of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum
products, and natural gas in electric power generation, transportation, buildings, and
manufacturing, and it has been a concern in recent decades.

The considerable amounts of pollutants are emitted as the chemical energy in fossil fuels is
converted to thermal, mechanical, or electrical energy via combustion, and thus power plants, motor
vehicles, and even stoves take the blame for air pollution.

The electric cars can be claimed to be zero emission vehicles only when the electricity they consume
is generated by emission-free renewable resources such as hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal
energy. Therefore, the use of renewable energy should be encouraged worldwide, with incentives, as
necessary, to make the earth a better place to live in. The advancements in thermodynamics have
contributed greatly in recent decades to improve conversion efficiencies (in some cases doubling
them) and thus to reduce pollution. As individuals, we can also help by practicing energy conservation
measures and by making energy efficiency a high priority in our purchases.

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
17 | P a g e
SOLVED PROBLEMS:

1. A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to have steady winds at a speed of 8.5 m/s. Determine the
wind energy (a) per unit mass, (b) for a mass of 10 kg, and (c) for a flow rate of 1154 kg/s for air

SOLUTION:

A site with a specified wind speed is considered. Wind energy per unit mass, for a specified mass, and
for a given mass flow rate of air are to be determined.
𝐽
𝑉2 (8.5 𝑚/𝑠)2 (1𝑘𝑔)
(a) Wind energy per unit mass of air is 𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 = = 𝑚2
= 36.1 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2 2 (1 2 )
𝑠

𝐽
(b) Wind energy for an air mass of 10 kg is 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑒 = (10 𝑘𝑔) (36.1 𝑘𝑔) = 361 𝐽

𝑘𝑔 𝐽 1𝑘𝑊
(c) Wind energy for a mass flow rate of 1154 kg/s is 𝐸̇ = 𝑚̇𝑒 = (1154 ) (36.1 )( ) = 41.7𝑘𝑊
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 1000𝐽

2. Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car when the torque applied is 200 N·m and
the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm).

SOLUTION:
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝐽
𝑊̇𝑠ℎ = 2𝜋𝑛̇ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 (4000 ) (200 N · m ) ( )( ) = 83.8 𝑘𝑊
𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠 1000 N·m

3. Consider a 1200-kg car cruising steadily on a level road at 90 km/h. Now the car starts climbing a hill
that is sloped 30o from the horizontal. If the velocity of the car is to remain constant during climbing,
determine the additional power that must be delivered by the engine.

SOLUTION:
𝑚𝑔∆𝑧
𝑊̇𝑔 = = 𝑚𝑔𝑉𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
∆𝑡
𝑚
𝑚 𝑘𝑚 1𝑠 1𝑘𝐽
= (1200 𝑘𝑔) (9.81 ) (90 ) (sin30°) ( )( )
𝑠2 ℎ 𝑘𝑚 𝑚2
3.6 ℎ 1000 𝑘𝑔 2
𝑠
𝑘𝐽
= 147 = 147𝑘𝑊
𝑠
4. Determine the power required to accelerate a 900-kg car from rest to a velocity of 80 km/h in 20 s on
a level road.

SOLUTION:

1 1 80,000𝑚 2 1𝑘𝐽
𝑊𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) = (900 𝑘𝑔) [( ) − 02 ] ( ) = 222 𝑘𝐽
2 2 3600𝑠 𝑚2
1000 𝑘𝑔 2
𝑠
𝑊 222 𝑘𝐽
The average power is determined from 𝑊̇𝑎 = ∆𝑡𝑎 = 20 𝑠 = 11.1 𝑘𝑊

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
18 | P a g e
5. A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the
internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the
paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid. Neglect
the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

SOLUTION:

The tank is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential energy changes are zero, ∆KE=∆PE=0. Therefore,
∆E=∆U and internal energy is the only form of the system’s energy that may change during this process.
Energy stored in the paddle wheel is negligible.

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝑊𝑠ℎ,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

100 𝑘𝐽 − 500 𝑘𝐽 = 𝑈2 − 800 𝑘𝐽

𝑈2 = 400 𝑘𝐽

6. Electric power is to be generated by installing a hydraulic turbine–generator at a site 70 m below the

free surface of a large water reservoir that can supply water at a rate of 1500 kg/s steadily (Fig. 2–60).
If the mechanical power output of the turbine is 800 kW and the electric power generation is 750 kW,
determine the turbine efficiency and the combined turbine–generator efficiency of this plant. Neglect
losses in the pipes.

SOLUTION:

We take the free surface of water in the

reservoir to be point 1 and the turbine exit to be
point 2. We also take the turbine exit as the
reference level (z2=0) so that the potential
energies at 1 and 2 are pe1= gz1 and pe2=0.
The flow energy P/r at both points is zero since
both 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere (P1 =
P2 = Patm). Further, the kinetic energy at both
points is zero (ke1 = ke2 = 0) since the water at
point 1 is essentially motionless, and the kinetic
energy of water at turbine exit is assumed to be
negligible.

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
19 | P a g e
 The water elevation in the reservoir remains constant. The mechanical energy of water at the
turbine exit is negligible.

𝑚 1𝑘𝐽
The potential energy of water at point 1 is: 𝑝𝑒1 = 𝑔𝑧1 = (9.81 𝑠 2) (70𝑚) ( 𝑚2
) = 0.687𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
1000 𝑘𝑔 2
𝑠

Then the rate at which the mechanical energy of water is supplied to the turbine becomes

|∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | = 𝑚̇(𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 𝑚̇(𝑝𝑒1 − 0) = 𝑚𝑝𝑒

̇ 1

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
= (1500 ) (0.687 ) = 1031 𝑘𝑊
𝑠 𝑘𝑔

The combined turbine–generator and the turbine efficiency are determined from their definitions to be

𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 750 𝑘𝑊
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛 = = = 0.72 𝑜𝑟 72 %
|∆𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | 1031 𝑘𝑊

𝑊̇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 800 𝑘𝑊
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = = 0.776 𝑜𝑟 77.6 %
̇
|∆𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | 1031 𝑘𝑊

Therefore, the reservoir supplies 1031 kW of mechanical energy to the turbine, which converts 800 kW
of it to shaft work that drives the generator, which then generates 750 kW of electric power.

7. A centrifugal pump operating under steady flow conditions delivers 2,270 kg/min of water from an
initial pressure of 82,740 Pa to a final pressure of 275,800 Pa. The diameter of the inlet pipe to the pump
is 15.24 cm and the diameter of the discharge pipe is 10.16 cm. What is the work?

SOLUTION:
𝛑 𝛑
Area at entrance:𝐀𝟏 = 𝟒 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟒 𝐦)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟒 𝐦𝟐 ,Area at exit:𝐀𝟐 = 𝟒 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝐦)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐦𝟐

𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝒌𝒈
𝒎 𝒎
Speed at entrance: 𝝂𝟏 = 𝝆 = 𝒌𝒈
𝟔𝟎 𝒔
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝟒
𝟏 𝑨𝟏 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑)(𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟒 𝒎𝟐 ) 𝒔
𝒎

𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎𝐤𝐠
𝐦 𝐦
Speed at exit: 𝛎𝟐 = 𝛒 = 𝐤𝐠
𝟔𝟎 𝐬
= 𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝟐𝐀𝟐 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑)(𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐦𝟐 ) 𝐬
𝐦

𝐦 𝟐 𝐦 𝟐
𝛎𝟏 𝟐 (𝟐.𝟎𝟕𝟒 ) 𝐍⋅𝐦 𝛎𝟐 𝟐 (𝟒.𝟔𝟔𝟕 ) 𝐍⋅𝐦
Basis 1 kgm: 𝐊 𝟏 = = 𝐬
𝐤𝐠⋅𝐦 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝟏 , 𝐊𝟐 = = 𝐬
𝐤𝐠⋅𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟗
𝟐𝐤 𝟐(𝟏 ) 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝟐𝐤 𝟐(𝟏 ) 𝐤𝐠 𝐦
𝐍⋅𝐬𝟐 𝐍⋅𝐬𝟐

𝐍 𝐍
𝐩 (𝟖𝟐,𝟕𝟒𝟎 ) 𝐍⋅𝐦 𝐩 (𝟐𝟕𝟓,𝟖𝟎𝟎 ) 𝐍⋅𝐦
𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟐
Flow Work: 𝐖𝐟𝟏 = 𝐩𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝛒𝟏 = 𝐤𝐠 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 , 𝐖𝐟𝟐 = 𝐩𝟐 𝐕𝟐 = 𝛒𝟐 = 𝐤𝐠 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓. 𝟗
𝟏 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑 ) 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝟐 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑 ) 𝐤𝐠 𝐦
𝐦 𝐦

𝐏𝟏 + 𝐊 𝟏 + 𝐮𝟏 + 𝐖𝐟𝟏 + 𝐪 = 𝐏𝟐 + 𝐊 𝟐 + 𝐮𝟐 + 𝐖𝐟𝟐 + 𝐖

𝐊 𝟏 + 𝐖𝐟𝟏 = 𝐊 𝟐 + 𝐖𝐟𝟐 + 𝐖

𝐍⋅𝐦 𝐍⋅𝐦 𝐍⋅𝐦 𝐍⋅𝐦 𝐍⋅𝐦

𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝟏 + 𝟖𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟗 + 𝟐𝟕𝟓. 𝟖 +𝐖 𝐖 = −𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖
𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐤𝐠 𝐦

𝐍⋅𝐦 𝐤𝐠 𝐤𝐉
𝐖 = (−𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖 ) (𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎 ) = −𝟒𝟓𝟖. 𝟏
𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐢𝐧

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
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CHAPTER TEST # 2:

Answer the following problems below. Determine what is being asked for in the following problems.

1. A water jet that leaves a nozzle at 60 m/s at a flow rate of 120 kg/s is to be used to generate power
by striking the buckets located on the perimeter of a wheel. Determine the power generation potential of
this water jet.

2. A model aircraft internal-combustion engine produces 10 W of power. How much power is this in (a)
lbf·ft/s and (b) hp?

3. Determine the work required to deflect a linear spring with a spring constant of 70 kN/m by 20 cm
from its rest position.

4. A man weighing 180 lbf is pushing a cart that weighs 100 lbf with its contents up a ramp that is inclined
at an angle of 108 from the horizontal. Determine the work needed to move along this ramp a distance
of 100 ft considering (a) the man and (b) the cart and its contents as the system. Express your answers
in both lbf·ft and Btu.

5. Water is being heated in a closed pan on top of a range while being stirred by a paddle wheel. During
the process, 30 kJ of heat is transferred to the water, and 5 kJ of heat is lost to the surrounding air. The
paddle-wheel work amounts to 500 N ∙ m. Determine the final energy of the system if its initial energy is
10 kJ.

6. A water pump increases the water pressure from 15 psia to 70 psia. Determine the power input
required, in hp, to pump 0.8 ft3/s of water. Does the water temperature at the inlet have any significant
effect on the required flow power?

7. The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the installation of a hydraulic turbine-
generator at a location where the depth of the water is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000
kg/s. If the electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95
percent, determine (a) the overall efficiency of the turbine—generator, (b) the mechanical efficiency of
the turbine, and (c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator.

8. At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily at 7 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of air per
unit mass and the power generation potential of a wind turbine with 80-m-diameter blades at that
location. Also determine the actual electric power generation assuming an overall efficiency of 30 percent.
Take the air density to be 1.25 kg/m3.

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
21 | P a g e
REFERENCES:

Cengel and Boles. (2014). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition. McGraw-Hill.

Potter, Merle C. and Somerton, Craig W. (2014). Thermodynamics for Engineers. Third Edition.
McGraw-Hill.

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. SI version.Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,

and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1993.

Y. A. Çengel. “An Intuitive and Unified Approach to Teaching Thermodynamics.” ASME International
Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia, AES-Vol. 36, pp. 251–260,
November 17–22, 1996.

Engr.Francia L. Abarientos,ME
22 | P a g e