Analysis of Sedimentation of Canals: March 2013

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Analysis of sedimentation of canals
Article · March 2013
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International Journal of Development and Sustainability
Online ISSN: 2168-8662 – www.isdsnet.com/ijds
Volume 2 Number 1 (2013): Pages 306-332
ISDS Article ID: IJDS13013001
Analysis of sedimentation of canals

J.C. Agunwamba 1, C.C. Dike 1, N.M. Ogarekpe 2*, B.U. Dike 3
1 Department of Civil Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Cross River University of Technology, Calabar, Nigeria
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
Abstract
The dredged canals in the Niger Delta coastal flood plain are being threatened by siltation. This study is limited to
those canals in Rivers State of Nigeria, which are under the influence of tidal waves. A total of eight canals were
considered with four each from Ekulama and Cawthorne Channel. Different approaches were used to carry out this
study, which includes field reconnaissance survey, hydrographic survey, soil sample analysis and collection of all
available data and information. The typical bed materials size (D 50) is approximately 0.01mm; which gives a settling
velocity of 0.09mm/sec using stroke’s law. Hydrographic survey of the canals from 1992 to 1996 revealed an
average siltation rate of 2.35m/yr. A regression equation was also derived which relates the cost of dredging to canal
area, rate of siltation and average aggregation. A plot of canal centre profile; entrance, middle and end cross sections
showing sediment distribution along the canal profile, shows that majority of the particles that form the sediment
enter the canal from the rivers. The sedimentation is caused by the reduction in water current, which has average
value of 0.0145m/sec. The bathyorographical check on the canals revealed that the sum of the two exterior angles of
the canal with the river at the point of connection has to lie within 180 0 + 50 for an effective flow that will minimize
settlement of particles. In addition, the canals should be constructed to start and terminate on a moving water body,
to avoid dead ends. A regression equation was determined which relates the cost of dredging to canal area, rate of
siltation and average aggradations.
Keywords: Sedimentation, Canals, Analysis, Regression, Siltation, Bathymetry
Copyright © 2013 by the Author(s) – Published by ISDS LLC, Japan

International Society for Development and Sustainability (ISDS)
Cite this paper as: Agunwamba, J.C., Dike, C.C., Ogarekpe, N.M. and Dike, B.U. (2013), “Analysis of
sedimentation of canals”, International Journal of Development and Sustainability, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp.
306-332.
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]

International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol.2 No.1 (2013): 306-332
1. Introduction
Canals are natural or man-made waterways, which give access to the main navigable waterways. There are
two types of canal, tidal and non-tidal. The tidal canals are those in coastal area, located directly adjacent to
the ocean, or connecting the sea to a water body where facilities are located. Non-tidal canals are those with
ends connecting natural river channels and most often connecting river channels with oil related field
facilities or small port facilities and jetties.
Canals are frequently silted at an alarming rate; as a result of poor maintenance or lack of it. Canal
maintenance is capital intensive and very necessary in order to make the facilities and ports, which they are
linked with, accessible. Huge sums of money are spent annually in dredging these canals by the government
and industries, which result to loss of aquatic lives due to excessive biological oxygen demand of the
biodegradable portion of the sediments, which results to loss of dissolved oxygen in the receiving water
bodies where the spoils from dredging are discharged.
This therefore necessitates the need for an understanding of the various factors that influences
sedimentation, analyzing them critically so as to come up with some measures of checking the excessive
sedimentation or as much as possible, bringing the rate of sedimentation to a minimum.
Due to the fact that most canals are artificially dredged connections, they do suffer from continuous and
often severe siltation. The causes of the siltation may in principle be two fold. First reason is that the canals
are dredged in a geotechnically very unstable area; the banks of the canals are unstable in themselves. This
gives rise to a gradual flattening of the canals cross-sections thereby decreasing the navigable depth.
The second reason may be the intake of sediment from the river or ocean into the canal under the
influence of the water flows entering the canals and tidal waves; a phenomenon, which is connected to the
natural process of formation and preservation of the delta as a whole.
Sediments are described generally as solid particles, which are being moved or have been moved by a
fluid. Sediment is in general classified according to size, specific weight, shape, mineralogical composition,
colour and other aspects. With respect to its movement by the water, the grain size is the most important
factor since it causes widest range of mobility. For the purposes of aquatic monitoring, sediment can be
classified as deposited or suspended (Ongley, 1996). In practice, virtually all sediment transport occurs
either as bed load or suspended load. The following discussion will be limited to particles moved by water.
In the past, researches have been conducted on sediment transport and the sedimentation problems
associated with canals; solutions proffered. Studies have been conducted on open channel flow with
suspended sediments (Itakura and Kishi, 1980), flow resistance and bed form geometry in a wide alluvial
channel (Yang et al., 2005), criterion for deposition of sediment transported in rigid boundary channels
(Arora et al., 1984), non-equilibrium bed load transport by steady flow (Bell and Sutherland, 1983), effect of
turbulence on sedimentation (Dobbins, 1944), mechanics of sediment transport and alluvial stream
problems (Garde and Ranga Raju, 1985), fraction-wise calculation of bed load transport (Patel and Ranga
Raju, 1996). Galappatti and Vreugdenhil, (1985) derived a model for suspended sediment transport in
unsteady and non-uniform flow. Basic equations for a mathematical model of sediment-laden flow in a non-
ISDS www.isdsnet.com 307

orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system were derived using tensor analysis of two-phase flow and
incorporate a natural variable-density turbulence model with non-equilibrium sediment transport (Fang and
Wang, 2000).
The study on the sedimentation of dredged canals especially as it affects the navigability of the canals is
very important due to the numerous economic benefits, both to the industries that use the canals to access
their facilities and also indigenous populace, who depend on the canals for water borne transportation. It will
enhance the appreciation of the various factors contributing to increased siltation rate, and will proffer
measures to mitigate the siltation problems.
The research is centered not only on the study of the geotechnical behaviours of sub-soil in the zone; but
includes the study of the engineering design and solutions of the bathymetric shape of the canals to influence
the flow regime. These solutions will cause less sediment to build up at the entrance of the canal from the
main water body, thus prevent the cutting off, of the canal from the entire river.
To this end, the specific aims and objectives of this research are summarized as follows:
a. To determine the rate of sedimentation of various canals and to compare them;

b. To determine the reasons for comparative higher rate of siltation in different canals;
c. To determine the settling velocity of sediments at low-low water level.
d. Determination of a regression equation that relates the cost of dredging to canal area, rate of
siltation and average aggradations.
e. The overall causes of the sedimentation; and
f. To proffer solutions or recommendations to the sedimentation problems.
Recommendations reached in this report are based on the data obtained from soil borings and tests
performed. Also information gathered from previous dredging, physical examination of the soil within the
study depth, geotechnical and topographical situation of the study area. Information on tidal waves and the
position of the study area in the Niger Delta coastal flood plain were also put into consideration.
1.1. Scope of study
This research study on sedimentation of dredged canals is centered not only on the study of the geotechnical
behaviors of sub-soil in the zone; but includes the study of the engineering design and solutions of the
bathymetric shape of the canals to influence the flow regime. These solutions will cause less sediment to
build up at the entrance of the canal from the main water body, thus prevent the cutting off, of the canal from
the entire river.
308 ISDS www.isdsnet.com

2. Materials and method
2.1. Study Area/Geology
The study areas lies in the Niger Delta coastal formation which consists of a chain of barrier islands
interspersed by river estuaries, giving the delta, the typical shape like birds foot. The area is characterized by
vast amount of sediment being washed down the rivers Niger and Benue for many thousand years ago. The
canals serve as connecting links between the main navigable waterways and industrial field facilities, port
facilities, landing jetties and fishing ports. This makes it necessary that a study, which will aim at finding
measures of checking excessive siltation, should be carried out.
This sediment accumulates in rivers estuarine region, creating a vast flood plain. The selected study areas
are: cawthorne channel and ekulama
2.2. Cawthorne channel
Cawthrone channel is located in the coastal salt-water mangrove swamp and backwash of the new Calabar
River, Krakama Creek and Cawthrone Channel River. There is no known town, which exist in this area except
some fishing villages. Many facilities belonging to Shell Petroleum Development Company are seen scattered
all over the place. Most of the entire area is dry, especially during the dry season, except some area close to
the adjoining rivers, which are found water logged at high tide.
Halophytic red mangroves and other salt-water trees are the main native plants of the area. The thickness
of the undergrowth vegetation varies from medium to very dense but distinctly much lighter where the
natural vegetation has been severely disturbed by previous human activities.
2.3. Ekulama
Ekulama falls within the mangroves swamp environment which is underlain by recent deltaic sediments and
covered by medium dense to dense halophytic mangrove vegetation. The area is bathed by San Bartholomew
River and Sego creek, with majority of the landscape mostly under water. Sediments entering the mangrove
swamp environment are essentially polycentric. Suspended fines enter the system both from the sea and the
rivers. The soils in these environments are in system both from peat, organic clays, salty clays and sand.
2.4. Soil stratigraphy
Evaluation of the soil stratigraphy at the areas to a depth of 3.5m was based on the soil sampling, cone
penetration test and laboratory tests on the retrieved samples. The investigation revealed the domination of
peaty (chikoko) soil, with high compressibility and color ranging from dark brownish to dark grayish, and
from soft to firm texture.

2.5. Soil survey along the canal banks
Physical investigation was carried out on the soil along the canal banks which showed evidence of erosion in
some of the canal banks that empties into the canal in areas of sparse vegetation. Bank slopes of 1:3, 1:2 and
1:1; and vertical slopes were seen to dominate the stretches of the banks of the canal visited.
Apart from man’s influence on denudation process, investigation along the bank shows that some aquatic
fishes like mod fish and crab are daily contributing to denudation process. These shell fished and crabs bore
several holes daily along the canal banks, thus weakening the soil and making them more erodible with
subsequent deposition of eroded materials into the canals as sediment through trapping by tidal waves and
runoff. They also weaken the banks slope, which reduces the stability of the slope, giving rise to gradual
flattening of the canal’s cross-section with subsequent reduction in the canal’s drought.
2.6. Tidal influence
The water in the areas under investigation is under influence of tidal waves due to proximity to the Atlantic
Ocean. The tidal cycle has 8 hour return period. The average water current from the test conducted using
floatation method shows a value of 0.0145m/sec, the velocity varies according to the hour within each return
period and also according to the direction of the current. There are high and low tides, which controls the
depth of the water, with the current appearing steady at the end of each return period or tidal cycle. In some
cases, two different currents moving in opposing directions were observed, one on the surface of the water
and the other 30cm to 100cm below the surface of the water. This may be attributed to waters flowing into
the seas, which are under the gravitational influences, and with low salinity level capered to the one that
exists on the top surface level, which are under tidal influence. At greater depth, a steady current may exist
whenever this situation occurs.
The water level used in various survey conducted are based on the tide at its lowest water levels. This is
known as “Low-Low water level”, taken from the known levels on the benchmarks, which are indicated on
the various Shell Petroleum Development Company’s wellhead platform and other facilities for reference
purposes.
2.7. Methodology
The program for the investigation consisted of Auger boring, Dutch cone penetration (CPT) tests, soil
sampling, laboratory testing and hydrologic survey. Also preliminary information about the geological
formation, the properties of the soil on the site and the ground water levels where obtained from in situ tests
conducted and from geological maps of the study areas.
Water samples were collected before and after dredging, this was analyzed in the laboratory to determine
the pH levels, total dissolved solids and sulphate content. Test on BOD5 and dissolve oxygen content were not
carried out because of the time lapse between when the water was collected and the time the laboratory tests
were conducted.

2.8. Sampling methods
Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected from the bank and bed of the various canals of the
study areas. This was to enable measurements of classification and engineering characteristic to be made.
Disturbed samples were taken from the bank through boring at a depth 0.5m interval while undisturbed
samples were taken as when necessary. The total depth excavated was between 3m to 4m and the samples
were collected using auger boring. The samples were fixed on to an adapter, which screwed either on to the
handle or onto extension rod of the auger.
2.9. Handling of samples
The large undisturbed samples were adequately protected against change of moisture content and damage in
transit. The samples were placed in tins, tightly packed with sand dust to prevent damage, with the lid of the
tins sealed with adhesive tape. Careful records of all the samples taken were kept. Indicated on the lids were
location position, depth and other relevant date. The appropriate and corresponding labels were pasted
inside each tin. The tins were then placed in a cool, humid atmosphere until ready for testing, which was
carried out with minimum delay.
2.10. Laboratory tests
Detailed laboratory investigations were carried out on representative disturbed samples obtained from the
open borehole for the classification tests and other tests. The samples form the boreholes were described
visually with respect to color and texture the laboratory tests being carried out includes: particle size
analysis by sedimentation method, atterberg Limits, pH and Sulphate content, organic content tests,
unconfined compression test, specific gravity test, quick and undrained triaxial compression test.
All the tests were carried out in accordance with BS1377 (1990) methods of test for soil for civil
engineering purposes. Brief comments on the various tests results are given result discussion.
3. Results and discussion
The results of the soil tests are shown in Tables 1 to 3 while the data on cost, rate of siltation and duration of
dredging are shown in Table 4. Table 5 gives the PH level and sulphate content.
3.1. Soil Tests
Results of soil sample analysis from the bed and bank of the canals indicates that the soil samples are mostly
peaty clay (Table 1) of high plasticity with typical bed material (D50) of approximately 0.01mm, from which
the settling velocity was computed as 0.09mm/s using stokes law:

S= d2 g (ps-p)
--------------
18U
= d2 g (‘Ys-1)
--------------
18Y
where: ‘Ys = Specific gravity
‘Y = Kinematics viscosity
P and ps = Density of water and particles
d = Particle diameter
(‘Y and ps is assumed to be 8.98 x10-1mm2/s and 2.40, respectively).
The materials were relatively unstable, with a very low angle of internal friction and cohesive strength
(average  = 4.250, average C= 23kn/m2, Table 2).
Majority of the area studied is overlain by soft peat and peaty silty-clay mixture, up to the shallowest
depth of 1.5m and can go as deep as 4.75m. This material which is locally referred to as “Chikoko” is dark
brown to blown to black in color and fibrous with abundant plant remains. The formation is known for its
undrained behavior and instability phenomena, such as liquefaction which contributes to its geotechnical
hazards like flow-slides and extensive surface erosion.
From the laboratory consolidation tests carried out on relatively undisturbed samples, the bank materials
samples are of high compressibility and exhibits appreciable swelling potentials and low bearing capacity
value (Table 2 and 3). There was also a change in PH level and sulphate content but not so significant as
shown in Table 5.
3.2. Hydrographic surveys
Result of pre and post dredged survey of the canals from 1992 to 1996 were also obtained from SPDC
dredging department, from which rate of siltation, frequency of dredging and cost of dredging each canal
were calculated see Tables 4. Also plotted were canal center profiles and distribution of sediment across the
channels as shown in Figures 1 to 4.
The above plotting were carried out in order to determine the source of the sediments, the effects of the
catchments area on the sedimentation and also to know how the sediments were distributed along the canals
and its cause. Average aggradations between 1992 to 1996 across each canal entrance cross-section were

matched with the bathymetric shape of the canal at the entrance with the river that will discourage excessive
siltation at the canal entrance; see Figures 5 to 6. The average flow velocity, frequency of dredging, fall
velocity, inlet exterior angles and canal wave height for each of the canals are as shown in Figures 7 and 8.
The velocity of the canal currents during high and low tides were measured from which an average
velocity 0.0145m/s was obtained. The current is higher for those canals that are constructed from the open
river and lower for canals that have their roots from creeks.
The charts in Figures 1 to 4 shows a fairly uniform distribution of the sediments along the profiles, which
implies that the sediments are not being washed into the canal from the river bank. If this were case a semi-
concave shape of deposition pattern would have resulted such that more materials are deposited close to the
bank than at the centre. Hence, the accumulated sediments result from river as either suspended into the
canal, with only a minimal quantity coming from the river bank through either run off, or as a result of
gradual flattening of canal cross section. From various centre profile and cross-sectional profile plotted, the
deposition tends to be heavier towards the end of the canals as a result of the dead ends, which does not
allow for a continuous flow. This results in lowering of the water current to approximately that, which would
encourage siltation.
A check on the bathymetric shape of the canal especially at the canal entrance as it effects deposition of
materials reveals that the canal has to start from the river with a particular alignment angle in order to
discourage deposition at the entrance which may lead to cutting off, of the entire canal from the river body.
From Figures 7 and 8, analysis of the various off take angles reveals that the exterior angles of the canal with
the river have to sum up to 180 0 + 50 for an effective water flow that will minimize settlement of particles.
Also a thorough examination of the plots indicates that the best angular ratio is 60 0: 1200 while 900: 900 will
encourage deposition towards the edges of the canal, which may reduce the width of the canal (Figures 7 and
8). Angle summation that is far below or above 1800 will result in deposition of material more at the middle
of the entrance cross section or more at one of the ends of the canal cross sectional width. It should be noted
that the above measures are only applicable to canals under tidal influence, and not for canals with its water
flowing in only one direction. The choice of alignment and ratio of angle depends also on the curvature of the
river at the point of the canal entrance.
From the result of the pre and post dredge survey of the canals from 1992 to 1996 average siltation rate
of 2.35 m/yr. was estimated. The estimated cost, frequency of dredging, average flow velocity, fall velocity
and canal wavelength of each canal including their average siltation rate are indicated in Tables 4 and 6
respectively.
The dredging cost is high ranging from N236,925 to N9,881,196.

Table 1. Characteristics and Nature of Samples at Various Depths

COMPRESS-
STATION DEPTH (M) COLOUR NATURE STRENGTH
IBILITY
0.0-1.0 Dark Grey Organic Clay Soft High
1.0-2.5 Dark Grey Peaty Clay Soft Very High

EKULUMA
Brownish
2.5-3.5 Silty Sand Loose/Fibrous Very high
Grey
0.0-1.5m
Brownish Peaty/Chikoko Soft/Fibrous Very High
CATHORNE
CHANNEL 1.5-2.0 Grayish Clay Firm High
Loose/Fibrous
2.0-2.5 Grayish Grayish Silty Sand
High
Table 2. Undrained Triaxial Compression Tests
Natural Bulk Dry Undrained Friction

DEPTH moisture unit Cohesion Cu Description of
STATION weight d cohesion
(M) content weight  Sample
(KN/MM2) 
(%) (KN/M3) (KN/M3)
Soft brownish
1.0 90.0 13.5 7.1 20 5 gray fibrous peaty
EKULUMA clay
Soft to firm dark

3.5 88.5 13.1 6.9 23 3
gray peaty clay
Soft to firm dark

1.5 90.5 13.7 7.2 22 4
CAWTHOR gray peaty clay
NE
CHANNEL Soft to firm dark
3.5 90.0 13.1 7.0 20 5
gray peaty clay

Table 3. Classification Test (Atterberg Limited)

Natural
Liquid
DEPTH moisture Plastic Plasticity Liquid Casangrande
STATION Limited
(M) content Limit (%) Index (%) Index Classification
(%)
(%)
1.0 90.0 96.0 43.3 52.7 0.89 CH
EKULUMA 2.5 90.3 9601 43.3 52.8 0.89 CH
3.5 88.5 94.2 43.0 51.2 0.89 CH
1.5 90.5 96.3 43.4 52.9 0.89 CH
CAWTHORNE 2.0 89.7 95 43.1 52.3 0.89 CH
3.5 90.0 95.8 43.2 42. 6 0.89 CH
Table 4. Rate of siltation and cost of dredging
Total cost of dredging

Average Siltation (m)
Siltation rate (m/yr)

Quantity of material
Duration from date
Date of Dredging
Rate of Siltation
Canal area (m2)
dredged (m3)
last dredged
Cost per m3
(Assumed)
(m/d)
STATION
N4,058,578.00
27,057.19
8,906.25
N150.00
29-8-92
3.038
-
EKULAMA
N4,315,392.00
28,769.28
7 months
9,365.00
0.00144
16-3-93
CANAL 2
3.072
5.27
-Do-

316
CANAL 9
EKULAMA
19-9-94 16-8-93 20-3-93 23-1-92 04-9-96 22-4-95 0-7-6-94 11-11-93
13months 5months 14months - 17months 10 months 7 months 8 months
2.745 1,529 1.615 2.532 2.913 2.557 2.797 2.949

6.172.00 6,581.25 6,227.50 5,601.25 9,347.50 8.846.25 8,906.25 7,801.25
0.0069 0.0100 0.0038 - 0.0056 0.0084 0.013 0.012
16,942.14 10.064.50 10.057.41 14,182.37 27,229.27 22.619.86 24.910.78 23,005.89
-Do- -Do- -Do- N150.00 -Do- -Do- -Do- -Do-
N2,541,321.00 N1,509,675.00 N1,508,611.50 N2,127,355.50 N4,084,390.50 N3,392,979.00 N3,736,617.00 N3,450,883.50
2.53 3.66 1.39 - 2.05 3.07 4,758 4.39
ISDS www.isdsnet.com
Vol.2 No.1 (2013): 306-332
CANAL 28
EKULAMA
03-12-96 13-8-96 24-8-94 15-10-93 11-05-93 01-03-92 23-1-97 06-5-95
4months 24months 10months 5months 13months - 8months 8months
1.307 3.403 1.703 2.063 1.328 2.375 2.812 1.997

11.567.00 11,937.50 15,290.00 11,617.00 13,441.50 11,617.50 6,125.00 6.403.75
0.0107 0.0047 0.0056 0.01360 0.00323 - 0.0115 0.0082
15.118.07 40.945.63 26,038.87 23,966.90 17,852.30 27.592.16 17.223.50 12.788.29
-Do- -Do- -Do- -Do- -Do- N150.00 -Do- -Do-
N2,267,710.35 N6,141,844.00 N3,905,830.00 N3,595,035.00 N2,677,845.00 N4,138,035.00 N2,583,525.00 N1,918,243.00
3.92 1.72 2.05 4.97 1.18 - 4.21 3.00
317
Vol.2 No.1 (2013): 306-332
318
CANAL 1
CHANNEL
CANAL 18
EKULAMA
CAWTHORNE
12-5-94 03-5-93 13-4-92 16-10-96 07-5-95 23-5-93 11-9-92 06-3-92
12months 13months - 17months 24months 8months 6months -
3.562 3.008 3.238 2.650 2.659 1.809 1.218 2.520

3.162.50 3,250.00 3,360 4,400.75 4,481.25 4,207.50 4,481.25 4.582.00
0.0098 0.0076 - 0.00512 0.00364 0.0074 0.0067 -
11,265.34 9,776.00 10,879.68 11,661.99 11,915.64 7,611.37 5.458.16 11.547.90
-Do- -Do- N150.00 N150.00 -Do- -Do- -Do- N150.00
N1,689,801.00 N1,466,400.00 N1,631,952.00 N1,749,298.00 N1,787,346.00 N1,141,705.50 N818,724.00 N1,732,185.00
3.58 2.78 - 1.87 1.33 2.71 2.45 -
Vol.2 No.1 (2013): 306-332
2
CHANNEL
CHANNEL
CANAL 17
CAWTHORNE
CAWTHORNE
FLOW STATION
16-12-94 01-5-93 06-5-92 04-9-95 06-9-93 07-6-92 07-2-95
19months 12months - 24months 14months 9months

-
1.3595 1.884 1.891 2.111 2.424 2.612 2.387

14,086.25 12,895.5 12.887.5 25.004.00 21.190.00 25.220.00 3,818.75
0.0024 0.0037 - 0.0029 0.0057 - 0.0087
17.650.17 24,280.10 24,370.26 52,783.44 51,364.58 65,874.36 9,115.36
-Do- -Do- N150.00 -Do- -Do- N150.00 N150.00
N2,641,525.00 N3,642,007.00 N3,655,537.00 N7,917,516.00 N7,704,684.00 N9,881,196.00 N1,367,304.00
0.878 1.35 - 1.06 1.09 - 3.18
319
Vol.2 No.1 (2013): 306-332
N1,226,580.00
4,721.25
8,177.21
N150.00
06-7-92
1.732
-
-
N1,222,414.00
14months
4.887.50
7,482.76
26-9-93
0.0036
1.531
1.32
-Do-
CAWTHORNE
CHANNEL
CANAL 10
N1,614,652.30
24months
10.764.35
5,326.25
16-9-95
0.0028
2.021
-Do-
1.03
N236,925.00
29-12-95
1,579.50
3months
0.00443
0.405
-Do-
1.62
Table 5. Water Test before and after Dredging
SAMPLE AFTER
PARAMETER
STANDARD
DREDGING
DREDGING
SAMPLE
BEFORE
(Mg/l)
W.H.O
STATION
pH 7.8 8.6 6.5-8.5

EKULUMA
SO42- (mg/l) 144 260 400
CHANNEL
Total solid (mg/l) 600 14400 500
pH 7.35 8.77 6.5-8.5

CAWTHORNE
CHANNEL SO42- (mg/l) 200 295 400
Total Solid (mg/l) 550 13550 500

Table 6. Average flow velocity, frequency of dredging, fall velocity and canal wave heights
Average velocity of flow (m/s)

Frequency of Dredging (1992-
Average canal width (m)
Average canal depth (m)

Rate of siltation (m/yr)
Fall velocity (mm/s)

Average side slope
Wave heights (m)

STATION
1997)
Ekulama
channel Canal 6 0.195 3.90 70 0.34 2.91 0.09 0.15
2
Ekulama
channel Canal 6 0.165 2.96 60 0.33 2.66 0.09 0.12
9
Ekulama
channel Canal 6 0.110 2.77 95 0.30 2.76 0.09 0.09
28
Ekulama
channel Canal 5 0.162 2.09 60 0.29 2.85 0.09 0.11
18
Cawthorne
channel Canal 4 0.193 3.17 70 0.34 2.83 0.09 0.15
1
Cawthorne
channel Canal
2 3 0.165 1.57 130 0.28 2.86 0.09 0.12
F/S
Cawthorne
channel Canal 3
17 0.188 1.01 55 0.25 2.92 0.09 0.14
Cawthorne
channel Canal
10 4 0.103 1.32 65 0.26 3.00 0.09 0.07

1 September, 1994
0.5
0
-0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Height (m)
-1
Pre Dregde
-1.5
Post Dregde
-2
Low Low Water Level
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
Distance along the profile (m)
Figure 1a. Center profile of Ekulama channel 9
1 May, 1995
0.5
0
-0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1
Height (m)
Pre Dregde
-1.5
Post Dregde
-2
Low Low Water Level
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
Figure 1b. Center profile of Ekulama channel 9

Figure 1c. Center profile of Ekulama channel 9
1 April, 1992
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1
-2
Height (m)
Pre Dregde
-3
Post Dregde
-4 Low Low Water Level
-5
-6
-7
Figure 2a. Center profile of Cawthorne channel 1

1 May, 1993
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1
-2
Height (m)
Pre Dregde
-3
Post Dregde
-5
-6
-7
Figure 2b. Center profile of Cawthorne channel 1
2 May, 1994
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1
Height (m)
Pre Dregde
-2
Post Dregde
-3
Low Low Water Level
-4
-5
-6
Figure 2C. Center profile of Cawthorne channel 1

1 September, 1994
0.5
0
-0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Entrance
Height (m)
-1
Middle
-1.5
End
-2
Low Low Water Level
-2.5
-3
-3.5
Distance across the canal width (m)
Figure 3a. Distribution of sediment across Ekulama channel 9
May, 1995
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.5
-1
-1.5 Entrance
Height (m)
-2 Middle
-2.5 End
-3.5
-4
Figure 3b. Distribution of sediment across Ekulama channel 9

1.5 January, 1997

1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Entrance
Height (m)
-0.5
Middle
-1
End
-1.5 Low Low Water Level
-2
-2.5
-3
Figure 3c. Distribution of sediment across Ekulama channel 9
April, 1992
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.5
-1
Entrance
Height (m)
-1.5
Middle
-2 End
-2.5 Low Low Water Level
-3
-3.5
Figure 4a. Distribution of sediment across Cawthorne channel 1

May, 1993
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Entrance
-1
Height (m)
-2 Middle
-3 End
-4
Low Low Water
-5 Level
Figure 4b. Distribution of sediment across Cawthorne channel 1
May, 1994
0
-0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-1
Entrance
Height (m)
-1.5
-2 Middle
-2.5 End
-3.5
-4
Figure 4c. Distribution of sediment across Cawthorne channel 1

CANAL
L O
81 11
CRO 4O
SS S
ECTI R
O N
SEG
O CR
EEK
Ebb
Figure 5. Entrance cross-section of Ekulama channel

CANAL
10
O 0 R
L O
2
11
CROSS SECTION
CAWTHORN CHANNEL - RIVER
Ebb
Figure 6. Entrance cross-section of Cawthorn channel
a b
0.20 0.20
U (m/s)
U (m/s)
Ekulama channel Ekulama channel

0.15 Cawthorn channel 0.15 Cawthorn channel
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
180 190 200 210 220 0 50 100 150 200
Os OL
c d
0.20 0.20
U (m/s)
U (m/s)

0.15 0.15 Cawthorn channel
Cawthorn channel
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
0 50 100 150 200 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
OR OL/OR
Figure 7. Variation of velocity with different angle parameters (a) θs, sum of the channel inlet exterior angles (b)
θL, left inlet exterior angle (c) θR, right inlet exterior angle (d) θL/ θR, ratio of left to right inlet exterior angle

a b
4.0 4.0
S (m/yr)
S (m/yr)
3.0 3.0 Cawthorn channel
Cawthorn channel
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
180 190 200 210 220 0 50 100 150 200
Os OL
c d
4.0 4.0
S (m/yr)
S (m/yr)
3.0 Cawthorn channel
3.0
Cawthorn channel
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0 50 100 150 200 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
OR OL/OR
Figure 8. Variation of average sedimentation rate with various angle parameters (a) θs, sum of the channel inlet
exterior angles (b) θL, left inlet exterior angle (c) θR, right inlet exterior angle (d) θL/ θR, ratio of left to right inlet
exterior angle
3.3. Regression analysis
A regression equation was determined with relates the cost of dredging to canal area, rate of siltation and
average aggradations. The equation is as stated below.
C= 8249448 + 732.16A x 5721404H – 3480303R

C= cost of dredging
A= canal area
H = average aggradations
R= Rate of Siltation

ANOVAb
Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
3.43E+13 3
1 Regression Residual 1.1440E+13
6.37E+12 4 7.179 044a
Total 1.5936E+12
4.07E+13 7
a. Predictors: Constant, R,A,H

b. Dependent Variable: C
COEFFICIENTs
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t-value Sig.
Coeffients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) -6249448 2725990.5 .933 -2.293 *.084
A 732.159 179.901 1.238 4.070 *.015
H 5721404.0 1613248.7 -1.435 3.547 *.024
R -3480303 899355.13 -3.870 *.018
*= significant at P <0.05
4. Conclusion
The result of this study show that for canals under tidal influence, sedimentation can only take place
whenever there is reduction in water current due to constrictions and barriers to flow water in the canal.
Being that most of the constrictions are natural occurrence due to the process of delta formation, the
prevention of excessive sedimentation to approximately that which would occur under natural conditions,
relies on eliminating all forms of barriers or impediment to water flow as much possible. This will invariably
maintain the water current in such a way that it will keep the sediments afloat in order to facilitate its
transportation to areas where navigation is not affected.

Based on the above fact and finding from test and physical examinations, the following recommendations
are proffered which if adhered to, will lead to both short and long term measures of checking excessive
siltation.
5. Recommendation
The following recommendations are presented based on the results of the study:
1. Canal should be constructed in a closed circuit form, with no dead ends. It should be constructed to
start and terminate on a moving water body, be it a river or a creek.
2. All impediments, constructions and barriers to free flow of the sediments should be eliminated as
much as possible.
3. The exterior angle of alignment of the canal with the river should sum up to 180 0 ± 50 with choice
angle ratio depending on the curvature of the river, preferably 1200: 600.
4. Excessive speeding of boats should be discouraged in canals access. This is to discourage waves
generated by the boat from causing sliding of unstable canal banks. This recommendation is yet to be
proved scientifically and therefore further research is needed.
5. Bund walls should be provided where spoils from dredging are to be deposited to avoid dredged
materials flowing back into the canal during or after dredging.
6. Dredging should be done in such a way that the movement of the dredger should not be against the
direction of the river current, so as to discourage the settling of suspended particles on the dredged
area.
References
Arora, A.K., Garde, J.R. and Ranga Raju, K.G. (1984), “Criterion for deposition of sediment transported in rigid
boundary channels”, Proc. International Conference on Hydraulic Design in Water Resources Engineering.
Channels and Channel Control Structures. Southampton, U.K.
Bell, R.G. and Sutherland, A.J. (1983), “Non-equilibrium bed load transport by steady flow”. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE.Vol. 109 (3), pp. 351-367.
Dobbin, W. (1944), “Effect of Turbulence on Sedimentation”, Trans. ASCE, Vol. 109, pp. 629-653.
Fang, H-W. and Wang, G-Q. (2000), “Three-dimensional mathematical model of suspended sediment
transport”, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 126, pp. 578-592.

Galappatti, G. and Vreugdenhil, C.B. (1985), “A depth-integrated model for suspended sediment transport”,
Journal of Hydraulic Research, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 359-377.
Garde, R.J. and Ranga Raju, K.G. (1985), Mechanics of sediment transport and alluvial stream problems (Second
ed.). Wiley, Eastern Limited, New Delhi, India.
Itakura, T. and Kishi, T. (1980), “Open Channel Flow with Suspended Sediments” Journal of the Hydraulics
Division, Vol. 106 No. 8, pp. 1325-1343.
Ongley, E. (1996), “Sediment Measurements” in J. Bartram, & R. Ballace (Eds.), Water Quality Monitoring - A
Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation of Freshwater. United Nations Environment Programme and
the World Health Organization.
Patel, P.L. and Ranga Raju, K.G. (1996), “Fraction-wise calculation of bed load transport”, Journal of Hydraulic
Research, IAHR, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 363-379.
Yang, S.,Tan, S. and Lim, S. (2005), “Flow Resistance and Bed Form Geometry in a Wide Alluvial Channel”
Water Resources Research, Vol. 41.
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Analysis of sedimentation of canals

Article · March 2013

Jonah Agunwamba Charles Chizom Dike

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

N. M. Ogarekpe Benedicta Dike

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Analysis of sedimentation of canals

Copyright © 2013 by the Author(s) – Published by ISDS LLC, Japan

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]

ISDS www.isdsnet.com 307

a. To determine the rate of sedimentation of various canals and to compare them;

1.1. Scope of study

308 ISDS www.isdsnet.com

2. Materials and method

2.1. Study Area/Geology

2.2. Cawthorne channel

2.4. Soil stratigraphy

ISDS www.isdsnet.com 309

2.5. Soil survey along the canal banks

2.6. Tidal influence

310 ISDS www.isdsnet.com

2.8. Sampling methods

2.9. Handling of samples

2.10. Laboratory tests

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Soil Tests

ISDS www.isdsnet.com 311

where: ‘Ys = Specific gravity

P and ps = Density of water and particles

(‘Y and ps is assumed to be 8.98 x10-1mm2/s and 2.40, respectively).

3.2. Hydrographic surveys

312 ISDS www.isdsnet.com

ISDS www.isdsnet.com 313

Table 1. Characteristics and Nature of Samples at Various Depths

0.0-1.0 Dark Grey Organic Clay Soft High

1.0-2.5 Dark Grey Peaty Clay Soft Very High

Table 2. Undrained Triaxial Compression Tests

Natural Bulk Dry Undrained Friction

Soft to firm dark

Soft to firm dark

314 ISDS www.isdsnet.com

Table 3. Classification Test (Atterberg Limited)

1.0 90.0 96.0 43.3 52.7 0.89 CH

EKULUMA 2.5 90.3 9601 43.3 52.8 0.89 CH

3.5 88.5 94.2 43.0 51.2 0.89 CH

1.5 90.5 96.3 43.4 52.9 0.89 CH

CAWTHORNE 2.0 89.7 95 43.1 52.3 0.89 CH

3.5 90.0 95.8 43.2 42. 6 0.89 CH

Table 4. Rate of siltation and cost of dredging

Total cost of dredging

Siltation rate (m/yr)

ISDS www.isdsnet.com 315

13months 5months 14months - 17months 10 months 7 months 8 months

2.745 1,529 1.615 2.532 2.913 2.557 2.797 2.949

6.172.00 6,581.25 6,227.50 5,601.25 9,347.50 8.846.25 8,906.25 7,801.25

0.0069 0.0100 0.0038 - 0.0056 0.0084 0.013 0.012

16,942.14 10.064.50 10.057.41 14,182.37 27,229.27 22.619.86 24.910.78 23,005.89