Chapter 7 muscles and glands

The Nervous System o Further divided into the

sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
Functions of the Nervous System systems
1. Sensory input—gathering information
o Sensory receptors monitor changes, called
stimuli, occurring inside and outside the Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
body  Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as
2. Integration neuroglia
o Nervous system processes and interprets  General functions
sensory input and decides whether action is o Support
needed o Insulate
3. Motor output o Protect neurons
o A response, or effect, activates muscles or
glands
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
 Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell types
Organization of the Nervous System o Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial
 Nervous system classifications are based on: cells, or glia)
o Structures (structural classification)  Resemble neurons
o Activities (functional classification)  Unable to conduct nerve impulses
 Never lose the ability to divide
o Neurons
Structural Classification
 Central nervous system (CNS)
o Organs Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells
 Brain  CNS glial cells: astrocytes
 Spinal cord o Abundant, star-shaped cells
o Function o Brace and anchor neurons to blood
 Integration; command center capillaries
 Interprets incoming sensory o Determine permeability and exchanges
information between blood capillaries and neurons
 Issues outgoing instructions o Protect neurons from harmful substances in
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) blood
o Nerves extending from the brain and spinal o Control the chemical environment of the
cord brain
 Spinal nerves—carry impulses to  CNS glial cells: microglia
and from the spinal cord o Spiderlike phagocytes
 Cranial nerves—carry impulses to o Monitor health of nearby neurons
and from the brain o Dispose of debris
o Functions
 CNS glial cells: ependymal cells
 Serve as communication lines o Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
among sensory organs, the brain
o Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal
and spinal cord, and glands or
fluid
muscles
 CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes
o Wrap around nerve fibers in the central
nervous system
Functional Classification
o Produce myelin sheaths
 Sensory (afferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry information to the  PNS glial cells
o Schwann cells
central nervous system
 Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers  Form myelin sheath around nerve
carry information from the skin, fibers in the PNS
skeletal muscles, and joints o Satellite cells
 Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers  Protect and cushion neuron cell
carry information from visceral bodies
organs
 Motor (efferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from Nervous Tissue: Neurons
the central nervous system organs to  Neurons = nerve cells
effector organs (muscles and glands) o Cells specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses)
o Two subdivisions o Major regions of all neurons
 Somatic nervous system =  Cell body—nucleus and metabolic
voluntary center of the cell
o Consciously (voluntarily)  Processes—fibers that extend from
controls skeletal muscles the cell body
 Autonomic nervous system =  Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron
involuntary o Nucleus with large nucleolus
o Automatically controls o Nissl bodies
smooth and cardiac  Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 o Neurofibrils dendrite
 Intermediate filaments that maintain  Located in special sense organs,
cell shape such as nose and eye
 Rare in adults

 Processes (fibers)
o Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the
cell body o Unipolar neurons—have a short single
 Neurons may have hundreds of process leaving the cell body
dendrites  Sensory neurons found in PNS
o Axons—conduct impulses away from the ganglia
cell body  Conduct impulses both toward and
 Neurons have only one axon arising away from the cell body
from the cell body at the axon hillock  Functional properties of neurons
 End in axon terminals, which o Irritability
contain vesicles with  Ability to respond to a stimulus and
neurotransmitters convert it to a nerve impulse
 Axon terminals are separated from o Conductivity
the next neuron by a gap  Ability to transmit the impulse to
o Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals other neurons, muscles, or glands
and the next neuron  Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane
o Synapse—functional junction between o The plasma membrane at rest is inactive
nerves where a nerve impulse is transmitted (polarized)
 Myelin o Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s
o White, fatty material covering axons plasma membrane than outside
o Protects and insulates fibers  K+ is the major positive ion inside
o Speeds nerve impulse transmission the cell
 Myelin sheaths  Na+ is the major positive ion outside
o Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll– the cell
like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin sheath o As long as the inside of the membrane is
 Neurilemma—part of the Schwann more negative (fewer positive ions) than the
cell external to the myelin sheath outside, the cell remains inactive
 Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin  Action potential initiation and generation
sheath along the axon o A stimulus changes the permeability of the
o Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
around axons of the CNS o Sodium channels now open, and sodium
 Lack a neurilemma (Na+) diffuses into the neuron
 Terminology o The inward rush of sodium ions changes the
o Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS polarity at that site and is called
o Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside depolarization
the CNS in the PNS o A graded potential (localized depolarization)
o Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS exists where the inside of the membrane is
o Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS more positive and the outside is less positive
o White matter—collections of myelinated o If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium
fibers (tracts) influx great enough, local depolarization
o Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers activates the neuron to conduct an action
and cell bodies potential (nerve impulse)
 Functional classification  Propagation of the action potential
o Sensory (afferent) neurons o If enough sodium enters the cell, the action
 Carry impulses from the sensory potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
receptors to the CNS propagated over the entire axon
 Receptors include: o All-or-none response means the nerve
o Cutaneous sense organs in impulse either is propagated or is not
skin o Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve
o Proprioceptors in muscles impulses more quickly
and tendons  Repolarization
o Motor (efferent) neurons o Membrane permeability changes again—
 Carry impulses from the central becoming impermeable to sodium ions and
nervous system to viscera and/or permeable to potassium ions
muscles and glands o Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the
o Interneurons (association neurons) neuron, repolarizing the membrane
 Cell bodies located in the CNS o Repolarization involves restoring the inside
 Connect sensory and motor neurons of the membrane to a negative charge and
 Structural classification the outer surface to a positive charge
o Based on number of processes extending o Initial conditions of sodium and potassium
from the cell body ions are restored using the sodium-
o Multipolar neurons—many extensions from potassium pump
the cell body o This pump, using ATP, restores the original
 All motor and interneurons are configuration
multipolar o Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell
 Most common structural type while two potassium ions are returned to the
o Bipolar neurons—one axon and one cell
 o Until repolarization is complete, a neuron  Two-neuron reflex arcs
cannot conduct another nerve impulse o Simplest type
 Transmission of the signal at synapses o Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
o Step 1: When the action potential reaches  Three-neuron reflex arcs
the axon terminal, the electrical charge o Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory
opens calcium channels neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and
effector
o Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex

o Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny

vesicles containing the neurotransmitter
chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane

o Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon Central Nervous System (CNS)
terminal causes porelike openings to form,  Functional anatomy of the brain
releasing the neurotransmitter into the o Brain regions
synaptic cleft  Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
o Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules  Brain stem
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to  Cerebellum
receptors on the membrane of the next
neuron
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
 Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right)
o Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is superior parts of the brain
released, a graded potential will be o Include more than half of the brain mass
generated o The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
 Eventually an action potential (nerve grooves (sulci)
impulse) will occur in the neuron o Fissures are deeper grooves
beyond the synapse
o Lobes are named for the cranial bones that
lie over them
o Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by  Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
neurotransmitter binding are brief
2. White matter
o The neurotransmitter is quickly removed
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter
from the synapse either by reuptake or by
 Cerebral cortex
enzymatic activity
o Primary somatic sensory area
o Transmission of an impulse is
 Located in parietal lobe posterior to
electrochemical
central sulcus
 Transmission down neuron is
 Receives impulses from the body’s
electrical
sensory receptors
 Transmission to next neuron is
o Pain, temperature, light
chemical
touch (except for special
 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary
senses)
responses to stimuli
 Sensory homunculus is a spatial
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex
map
arcs
 Left side of the primary somatic
 Two types of reflexes
sensory area receives impulses
o Somatic reflexes
from right side (and vice versa)
o Autonomic reflexes
 Cerebral areas involved in special senses
 Somatic reflexes o Visual area (occipital lobe)
o Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
o Auditory area (temporal lobe)
o Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is
o Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
normally under voluntary control
o Primary motor area
o Example: pulling your hand away from a hot
 Located anterior to the central
object
sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Autonomic reflexes
 Allows us to consciously move
o Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the
skeletal muscles
heart, and glands  Motor neurons form pyramidal
o Example: regulation of smooth muscles, (corticospinal) tract, which descends
heart and blood pressure, glands, digestive to spinal cord
system  Motor homunculus is a spatial map
 Five elements of a reflex arc o Broca’s area (motor speech area)
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus  Involved in our ability to speak
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the  Usually in left hemisphere
integration center o Other specialized areas
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes
 Anterior association area (frontal
information and directs motor output
lobe)
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an
 Posterior association area (posterior
effector
cortex)
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to
 Speech area (for sounding out
be stimulated
words)
 Cerebral white matter o Includes important fiber tracts
o Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray o Contains important centers that control:
matter  Heart rate
 Corpus callosum connects  Blood pressure
hemispheres  Breathing
 Tracts, such as the corpus callosum,  Swallowing
are known as commissures  Vomiting
 Association fiber tracts connect o Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and
areas within a hemisphere medulla
 Projection fiber tracts connect the  Brain stem: reticular formation
cerebrum with lower CNS centers o Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
 Basal nuclei stem
o “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within o Involved in motor control of visceral organs
the white matter of the cerebrum o Reticular activating system (RAS)
o Regulate voluntary motor activities by  Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles
modifying instructions sent to skeletal and consciousness
muscles by the primary motor cortex  Filter for incoming sensory
 Diencephalon information
o Sits on top of the brain stem
o Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
o Made of three structures  Cerebrum
1. Thalamus o Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
2. Hypothalamus o Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region
3. Epithalamus of white matter
 Diencephalon: thalamus o Controls balance
o Encloses the third ventricle o Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
o Relay station for sensory impulses passing activity and coordination of body movements
upward to the cerebral cortex
o Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
cortex for localization and interpretation Protection of the Central Nervous System
 Diencephalon: hypothalamus  Meninges
o Makes up the floor of the diencephalon  Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
o Important autonomic nervous system center  Blood-brain barrier
 Regulates body temperature
 Regulates water balance
 Regulates metabolism  Meninges
o Houses the limbic center for emotions o Dura mater
o Regulates the nearby pituitary gland  Outermost leathery layer
o Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction  Double-layered external covering
(smell) o Periosteum—attached to
 Diencephalon: epithalamus inner surface of the skull
o Forms the roof of the third ventricle o Meningeal layer—outer
o Houses the pineal body (an endocrine covering of the brain
gland)  Folds inward in several areas
o Includes the choroid plexus—forms o Falx cerebri
cerebrospinal fluid o Tentorium cerebelli
 Brain stem o Arachnoid layer
o Attaches to the spinal cord  Middle layer
o Parts of the brain stem  Weblike extensions span the
1. Midbrain subarachnoid space to attach it to
2. Pons the pia mater
3. Medulla oblongata  Subarachnoid space is filled with
 Brain stem: midbrain cerebrospinal fluid
o Extends from the mammillary bodies to the  Arachnoid granulations protrude
pons inferiorly through the dura mater and absorb
o Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the cerebrospinal fluid into venous
third and fourth ventricles blood
o Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, o Pia mater
convey ascending and descending impulses  Internal layer
o Four rounded protrusions, corpora  Clings to the surface of the brain
and spinal cord
quadrigemina, are visual and auditory reflex
 Cerebrospinal fluid
centers
o Similar to blood plasma in composition
 Brain stem: pons
o The rounded structure protruding just below o Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
the midbrain  Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the
o Mostly composed of fiber tracts ventricles of the brain
o CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the
o Includes nuclei involved in the control of
brain and spinal cord
breathing
o Circulated in the arachnoid space,
 Brain stem: medulla oblongata
o The most inferior part of the brain stem that ventricles, and central canal of the spinal
cord
merges into the spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of
each ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into
the subarachnoid space via the median and
lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through
the central canal of the spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous
sinuses via the arachnoid villi
 Blood-brain barrier Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
o Includes the least permeable capillaries of  PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS
the body
o Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to
pass through the capillary walls Structure of a Nerve
o Excludes many potentially harmful  Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the
substances from entering the brain, such as CNS
wastes  Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
o Useless as a barrier against some surrounds each fiber
substances  Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a
fascicle
 Epineurium binds groups of fascicles
Brain Dysfunctions  Mixed nerves
 Traumatic brain injuries o Contain both sensory and motor fibers
o Concussion  Sensory (afferent) nerves
 Slight brain injury o Carry impulses toward the CNS
 Typically little permanent brain  Motor (efferent) nerves
damage occurs o Carry impulses away from the CNS
o Contusion
 Marked nervous tissue destruction
occurs Cranial Nerves
 Coma may occur  12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and
o Death may occur after head blows due to: neck
 Intracranial hemorrhage  Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
 Cerebral edema and abdominal cavities
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke  Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
o Results when blood circulation to a brain 1. Optic
area is blocked and brain tissue dies 2. Olfactory
o Loss of some functions or death may result 3. Vestibulocochlear
 Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
 Aphasia—damage to speech center
in left hemisphere Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA)  Oh – Olfactory
o Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of  Oh – Optic
blood flow)  Oh – Oculomotor
o Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired  To – Trochlear
 Touch – Trigeminal
speech
 And – Abducens
 Feel – Facial
 Very – Vestibulocochlear
Spinal Cord
 Green – Glossopharyngeal
 Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to
 Vegetables – Vagus
the first or second lumbar vertebra
 A – Accessory
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the
 H – Hypoglossal
inferior end
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from
the brain
Spinal Nerves
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
 Spinal nerves
cord
o 31 pairs
 Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
o Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies o Formed by the combination of the ventral
o Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
o Named for the region of the spinal cord from
 Receive information from sensory
neurons in the dorsal root; cell which they arise
bodies housed in dorsal root  Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal
ganglion cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus
o Anterior (ventral) horns house motor o Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains
neurons of the somatic (voluntary) nervous both motor and sensory fibers
system o Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of
 Send information out ventral root the posterior trunk
o Gray matter surrounds the central canal, o Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal
which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid nerves that supply muscles and skin of the
 White matter of the spinal cord ribs and trunk
o Composed of myelinated fiber tracts o Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a
o Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior
columns  Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and
o Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses sensory needs of the limbs
 Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
toward brain
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
o Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from
 Four plexuses
brain to skeletal muscles
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral
 o Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
acetylcholine
Autonomic Nervous System o Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic)
fibers release norepinephrine
 Motor subdivision of the PNS o Preganglionic axons of both divisions
o Consists only of motor nerves release acetycholine
o Controls the body automatically (and is also  Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
known as the involuntary nervous system) o Response to unusual stimulus when
o Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and emotionally or physically stressed or
glands threatened
o Takes over to increase activities
o Remember as the “E” division
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems  Exercise
Compared  Excitement
 Somatic nervous system  Emergency
o Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside  Embarrassment
the CNS  Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
o Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are o “Rest-and-digest” system
served o Conserves energy
 Autonomic nervous system o Maintains daily necessary body functions
o Chain of two motor neurons o Remember as the “D” division
 Preganglionic neuron is in the brain  Digestion
or spinal cord  Defecation
 Postganglionic neuron extends to  Diuresis
the organ
o Has two arms
 Sympathetic division Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System
 Parasympathetic division  The nervous system is formed during the first month
of embryonic development
 Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division effects
 Parasympathetic division is also known as the  Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
craniosacral division  The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
 Preganglionic neurons originate in: brain to develop
o Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X  Severe congenital brain diseases include:
o S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord o Cerebral palsy
 Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal o Anencephaly
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend to o Hydrocephalus
organs that are served o Spina bifida
 Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of the
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division last brain areas to mature prenatally
 Sympathetic division is also known as the  Development of motor control indicates the
thoracolumbar division progressive myelination and maturation of a child’s
 Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through nervous system
L2  Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die
o Axons pass through a ramus communicans throughout life and are not replaced; thus, brain
to enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion mass declines with age
o Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the  Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to
spinal cord changes in body position
 After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may  Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
synapse with a second neuron at the same or intellectual function
different level  Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the
 Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through the major cause of declining mental function with age
ganglion without synapsing and form part of the o Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of
splanchnic nerves blood vessels
o Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral
ganglion
o Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and
pelvic organs

Autonomic Functioning
 Body organs served by the autonomic nervous
system receive fibers from both divisions
o Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the
skin, some glands, and the adrenal medulla
o These exceptions receive only sympathetic
fibers
 When body divisions serve the same organ, they
cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters