MEC 1103: Electrical

Engineering for Mechanical

Engineers I
LECTURER: THOMAS MAKUMBI

Text Book:
Basic Electrical Engineering by U.A.Bakshi, V.U.Bakshi

Reference Books:
1. Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis by J. David Irwin
2. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku
3. Alan R. Hambley (2007): Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications, 4th edition.
 Introductory Remarks
Short Description

• This course presents a recap of the principles of electrical circuits. It covers DC and AC circuits, AC circuit analysis of simple
networks, Elementary transient signals, Elementary Electronic circuits and digital electronics.

Course Objectives

• To equip students with skills needed to analyse simple electrical systems

• The course will introduce methods and techniques for solving problems using electrical circuit analogous approach.

• The course will give an understanding between digital and analogue circuits

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this course, a student should be able to:

• Identify and explain the functions of the various components that make up an electrical circuit network

• Use the electrical circuits to solve problems in different engineering systems

• Carry out analysis of electrical circuits

 Course Outline and Grading
Course Outline

1. Direct Current (DC) Circuits

2. Electrostatics (Test 1,2)

3. Magnetism and Electromagnetism

4. L, R, C Transient Effects

5. Alternating Current (AC) Circuits (Test 3, 4, 5)

6. Introduction to Electronic circuits

Grading

Course work will carry a total of 40%.

(Coursework marks will be divided into; Assignments 5%, Tests 20 %, laboratories/ practicals 15%)

Written examination will carry 60%.

 1. Direct Current (DC)
Circuits
Chapter 2: Basic Electrical Engineering by U.A.Bakshi, V.U.Bakshi

1.1. Circuit concepts

1.2. Current and e.m.f
1.3. Ohm’s law
1.4. Joule’s law of heating.
1.5. Series and parallel circuits,
1.6. Kirchoff’s laws and Superposition principle
1.7. Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorem
1.8. Power and energy
 Introduction
Electrical systems have two main objectives:

• To gather, store, process, transport, and present information (electronics)

• To distribute and convert energy between various forms (power systems and machines)

Electrical Circuits

• An electrical circuit consists of various types of circuit elements connected in closed paths by conductors. The circuit elements
can be resistances, inductances, capacitances and voltage/ current sources, among others.

• There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active elements.

• An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not. Examples of passive elements are resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers
 Introduction
Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the more common ones are shown below
 Introduction
Electric current and quantity of electricity

• If an electric pressure or voltage is applied across any material there is a tendency for electrons to move in a particular direction.
This movement of free electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric current flow.

Thus current, I, is the rate of movement of charge in a circuit and is measured in ampere.

• The unit used to measure the quantity of electrical charge Q is called the coulomb C (where 1 coulomb = 6.24 x 1018 electrons).

• Quantity of electrical charge transferred: Q = I x t Coulomb

• When a current is constant with time, we say that we have direct current, abbreviated as dc.

On the other hand, a current that varies with time, reversing direction periodically, is

called alternating current, abbreviated as ac.

Electromotive Force (emf)

• The random movement of electrons within a material does not constitute an electrical current. In order to cause the ‘ free ’
electrons to drift in a given direction an electromotive force must be applied.

Thus the emf is the ‘ driving ’ force in an electrical circuit.

• The symbol for emf is E and the unit of measurement is the volt (V).

• Typical sources of emf are cells, batteries and generators.

 Introduction
Potential Difference

• For a continuous current to flow between two points in a circuit a potential difference (p.d.) or voltage, V, is required between
them; a complete conducting path is necessary to and from the source of electrical energy.

• The unit of p.d. is the volt, V , which are equivalent to joules per coulomb (J/C)

• Essentially, emf (being the driving force) causes current to flow; whilst a p.d. is the result of current flowing through an
element. Thus emf is a cause and p.d. is an effect.

• Energy is transferred when charge flows through an element having a voltage across it.
Dissipates energy in the form
of heat

Stores energy in a magnetic

field
Stores energy in the form of
an electrochemical reaction
(battery)
Stores energy in an electric
field
 Introduction
Resistance

• The flow of electric current is subject to friction. This friction, or opposition, is called resistance R and is the property of a
conductor that limits current.

• The unit of resistance is the ohm, Ω.

• Irrespective of the shapes and sizes, resistors can all be placed in one of two main categories: fixed or variable. Fixed resistors
are available with a large selection of resistance values that are set during manufacturing and cannot be changed

• Variable resistors are designed so that their resistance values can be changed easily. Two basic uses for variable resistors are to
divide voltage (potentiometer) and to control current (rheostat).

• Conductance G is the inverse of resistance G= 1/R with units 1/Ω or Ω-1. The units are called “siemens”

• The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on 3 factors, i.e.:

a) The length of the conductor Resistance, R, is directly proportional to length, l, of a conductor, i.e. R α l.
b) The cross-sectional area of the conductor Resistance, R, is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area, a, of a conductor.
i.e. R α 1/a

• c) The type of material Since R α l and R α 1/a then R α l/a. By inserting a constant of proportionality into this relationship the
type of material used may be taken into account.

The constant of proportionality is known as the resistivity of the material and is given the symbol ρ
Introduction
 Introduction
Power and Energy

• Because the current I is the rate of flow of charge and the voltage V is a measure of the energy transferred per unit of charge, the
product of the current and the voltage is the rate of energy transfer

• In other words, the product of current and voltage is power: P = V х I

• The unit of power is the watt, W.

• A reference polarity known as the passive sign convention is used when calculating power in an element i.e.

(a) Element absorbing power, (b) Element supplying power

Electrical energy

• Electrical energy = Power x Time

• If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds then the unit of energy is watt-seconds or Joules.

• For an ac circuit, power and energy may be represented as:

 Introduction
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.
There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.

Voltage Sources

Independent Voltage Source

• An ideal independent voltage source maintains a specified voltage across its terminals.

Dependent Voltage Source

• A dependent or controlled voltage source is similar to an independent source except that the voltage across the source terminals
is a function of other voltages or currents in the circuit

• A voltage-controlled voltage source is a voltage source having a voltage equal to a constant times a voltage elsewhere in the
circuit.
 Introduction
Current Sources

Independent Current Source

• An ideal independent current source forces a specified current to flow through itself.

Dependent Current Source

• The current flowing through a dependent current source is determined by a current or voltage elsewhere in the circuit.
 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely
proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant. i.e. I = V/R
V V
V  I  R, R , I
I R
V2
Power , P  V  I  I  R 
2
R

• Joule's Law of Heating

• When an electric current is passed through a conductor, heat is generated. This effect is called heating effect of current. This
effect was introduced by Joule. So, it this effect is also called Joule’s law of heating.

• Reading Assignment: Explain the factors that affect the heat produced in a conductor hence derive the mathematical
expression of Joule’s Law.
 Basic Circuit Topology
• A loop is a complete current path within a circuit,

• A node is a point where two or more components are connected.

• A branch is a path that connects two nodes

 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• It states that: ‘The net current entering a node is zero’ OR Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a node equals the
sum of the currents leaving a node.

• Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a
system cannot change.

??

OR
 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• It states that: The algebraic sum of the voltages equals zero for any closed path (loop) in an electrical circuit.

• In applying KVL to a loop, voltages are added or subtracted depending on their reference polarities relative to the direction of
travel around the loop.

OR
 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Tutorial 1

a) Use repeated application of KVL to find the values of vc and ve for the circuit (Answer vc = 8V, ve = −2V)

b) Identify elements that are in parallel.

c) Identify elements in series.

Tutorial 2

Solve for the source voltage in the circuit, unknown currents and power in each element (iy = 3 A, ix = 2 A, Vs = 35 V)
 Series Circuit
Series Circuit

• When elements are connected end to end, we say that they are connected in series. In order for elements A and B to be in
series, no other path for current can be connected to the node joining A and B.

• In a series circuit:
a) Total or equivalent resistance, Req = R1 + R2
b) The current I is the same in all parts of the circuit , I = I1 = I2
c) The voltage drop at each resistor, VA, VB and VC are different, depends on the value of the resistor.
d) The sum of the voltages VA, VB and VC is equal to the total applied voltage, V i.e. V = V1 + V2
 Series Circuit
Voltage Division

• Voltage drop at each resistor that connected in series can be found by using the voltage divider rule.

• As a general rule for N resistors in series:

 Parallel Circuit
• In a parallel circuit:

a) The equivalent resistance is

b) The voltage drop at each resistor is equal to the voltage source, V = V1 = V2

c) The sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current, I = I1 + I2

Current Division

• Current flow through at each resistor that connected by parallel can be found by using the current divider rule

• Generally:
 Series - Parallel Circuit
• Tutorial

Find the equivalent resistance in the circuits below: (Req = 14.4 Ω) (Rab = 11.2 Ω)

Determine the current through R4 in the circuit if VS = 5 V. (I4 = 3.45 mA)

 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Nodal Analysis

• Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node or datum node. The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to
have zero potential

2. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

3. Find Element Voltages in Terms of the Node Voltages

4. Apply KCL to each of the n−1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages

• Note that : Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Nodal Analysis
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Nodal Analysis

Tutorial

Determine the voltages at the nodes in the circuit below, (v1 = 4.8 V, v2 = 2.4 V, v3 = −2.4 V)
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

• Case 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-reference node, we simply set the voltage at the
non-reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In circuit, for example, v1 = 10 V

• Case 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two non-reference nodes, the two non-
reference nodes form a generalized node or supernode (see circuit below); we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node
voltages.

For a super node between two nodes, voltage may be

obtained as:
Vsource = V+ - V-
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

• Tutorial

Find v and i in the circuit. (Answer: −0.2 V, 1.4 A.)

Find the node voltages in the circuit (v1 = 26.667 V, v2 = 6.667 V, v3 = 173.333 V, v4 =-46.667 V)
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Recall that a loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop
within it.

• In the circuit below, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.

• The current through a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are interested in applying KVL to find the mesh
currents in a given circuit.
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Steps to determine Mesh Currents:

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . . , in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

• When several mesh currents flow through one flow through one element, we consider the current in that element to be the
algebraic sum of the mesh currents.

• For consistency, we usually define the mesh currents to flow clockwise.

Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
Mesh 3:
Mesh 4:
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Use mesh analysis to find the current io in the circuit. (io =1.5 A)

• Repeat analysis using Crammer’s Rule employing matrices to obtain io

 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

• CASE 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit shown, for example.

• We set i2 = −5 A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way, i.e.

−10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 − i2) = 0 ⇒ i1 = −2 A

 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

• CASE 2: When a current source exists between two meshes: Consider the circuit (a) below, for example.

• We create a supermesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it, as shown in (b). Thus,

A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in common.

• A supermesh must satisfy KVL like any

other mesh.
• Applying KVL to the supermesh in (b)
gives
−20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0
• We apply KCL to a node in the branch
where the two meshes intersect.
• Applying KCL to node 0 in (a) gives
i2 = i1 + 6
• Solving the two equations we get
i1 = −3.2 A, i2 = 2.8 A
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

• For the circuit, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis. (Answer: i1 = −7.5 A, i2 = −2.5 A, i3 = 3.93 A, i4 = 2.143 A)
 Methods of Circuit Analysis Using Kirchoff’s Laws
Mesh Analysis

• Summary

1. Define the mesh currents flowing around each of the open areas defined by the network. For consistency, select a clockwise
direction for each of the mesh

2. Write network equations, stopping after the number o f equations is equal to the number of mesh currents. First, use KVL to
write voltage equations for meshes that do not contain current sources. Next, if any current sources are present, write
expressions for their currents in terms of the mesh currents. Finally, if a current source is common to two meshes, write a KVL
equation for the supermesh.

3. If the circuit contains dependent sources find expressions for the sources, find expressions for the controlling variables in
terms of the currents. Substitute into the network equations, and obtain equations having only the mesh currents as
unknowns.

4. Solve for the mesh currents by use of determinants or other means.

5. Use the values found for the mesh currents to calculate any other currents or voltages of interest or voltages of interest.
 Superposition Principle
• If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific variable (voltage or current) is to
determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them up. This approach is known as the
superposition.

• The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting
alone.

• To apply this principle note that:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off. This implies that we
replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit).
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

• Steps to Apply the Superposition Principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using
nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources.
 Superposition Principle
• Tutorial

• Find io in the circuit using superposition. (io = -0.4706 A)

 Thevenin’s Theorem
• A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws as we did in previous sections is that we can analyze a circuit
without tampering with its original configuration.

• A major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious computation is involved.

• To handle the complexity engineers over the years have developed some theorems to simplify circuit analysis. Such theorems
include Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems and the superposition principle.

• In this course we will mainly look at the Thevenin’s theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source V Th in series with a resistor RTh, where V Th is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the
input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• V Th is the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a-b are when they are open-circuited (by removing the load),

• RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off, the load disconnected and terminals
a-b open-circuited. If turning of a voltage source, it becomes a short circuit while a current source, it becomes an open circuit.

• It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value (especially in circuit with dependant sources). In this case, the negative resistance
(v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying power
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Note that in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh, two cases are considered, i.e.

• CASE 1: If the network has no dependent sources, turn off all independent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the network
looking between terminals a and b as seen above.

• CASE 2: If the network has dependent sources, turn off all

independent sources. Dependent sources are not to be turned
off because they are controlled by circuit variables.
• Either apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b and
determine the resulting current io then RTh = vo/io, as shown in
Fig. (a).
• Alternatively, insert a current source io at terminals a-b as shown
in Fig. (b) and find the terminal voltage vo. Again RTh = vo/io.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load are easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the
circuit at the load’s terminals is obtained, as shown below, i.e.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
Tutorial

• Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through
RL = 6, 16, and 36 Ω. (V Th = 30 V, RTh = 4 Ω, IL = 3, 1.5, 0.75 A)

• Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown below: (V Th = 8.75 V, RTh = 1.43 Ω)