Nasa SP 3070
Nasa SP 3070
A summary of equations often used in free-flight and wind-tunnel data reduction and
analysis is presented. Included are transfer equations for accelerometer, rate-gyro, and
angle-of-attack instrumentation; axes-system transfers of aerodynamic derivatives; and
methods for measuring moments.of inertia. In general, the equations are in a complete
form; for example, those terms are retained that are missing when planar symmetry is
assumed for airplanes.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
iii
PREFACE .......................................
1
INTRODUCTION ....................................
2
SYMBOLS .......................................
v
Page
SECTION Ill - TRANSFER OF AERODYNAMIC FORCE AND MOMENT
COEFFICIENTS AND DERIVATIVES TO A ROTATED AXES SYSTEM 34
DESCRIPTIONS OF AXES SYSTEMS
........................ 34
Body Axes
• " " • • " " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . _. 34
Principal Axes
• " " • " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . 34
Flight Stability Axes • " " " " • " " • " " • " " " " " " " • " ." " • • • • • • • • • 35
Wind Axes
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 35
vi
Page
vii
Page
APPENDIX B - DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS PRESENTED IN SECTION IT
FOR TRANSFER OF COEFFICIENTS TO NEW REFERENCE CENTER 8O
REFERENCES .................................... 98
viii
Page
IV - ANGLE DESIGNATIONS FOR INVERSE TRANSFORMATIONS ........ 105
V - DESIGNATIONS OF FORCE AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS FOR
DIFFERENT AXES SYSTEMS ........................ 106
ix
INTRODUCTION
The equations in this report are the coordinate transformation and motion equations
used in the various tasks associated with free-flight and wind-tunnel data reduction and
analysis. These tasks range from reducing flight data to calculating the motions on a '
digital or analog computer and to applying various techniques for analyzing the data, such
as in references 1 and 2.
While many publications contain a number of these equations, no one contains all
that are usually needed in a complicated aerodynamic analysis; even the more nearly com-
plete reports (refs. 3 and 4, for example) omit the equations for transferring aerodynamic
stability derivatives from one moment reference to another. Moreover, in most cases
the equations are simplified, when they are presented, by assumptions such as small
angles of attack, zero sideslip, and small perturbation motions. Expanded forms of many
of the equations, on the other hand, are needed in special problems that may arise. For
example, parawing vehicles, which have their center of gravity located well below the wing
surface, require the expanded forms of the axes transformations when data measured about
a point on the wing are to be transferred to the center of gravity; reentry motion studies
sometimes involve large-amplitude motions so the complete forms of the transformations,
without the assumptions of small angles of attack or sideslip, are needed. The engineer
working on any of these special problems usually has to derive these equations himself,
and this can be time consuming.
The purpose of this report is to provide the basic equations from which many of the
equations needed in a particular analysis can be generated. A comprehensive summary
of the basic axes transformation and motion equations is included, with most of these
given in their expanded, most general forms. Once these expanded forms are available,
the simpler forms can be written out fairly easily, and yet the general forms are here
when needed for special cases.
The general forms presented include axes transformations that enable transfer back
and forth between any of the five axes systems that are encountered in aerodynamic analy-
sis. Equations of motion are presented that enable calculation of motions anywhere in the
vicinity of the earth. Special problems are also considered; since flight instruments,
such as accelerometers or rate gyros, are not always alined along mutually perpendicular
axes, the procedure for correcting instrument readings for nonorthogonal alinements is
outlined.
In addition to these general forms, many of the simplified forms used frequently in
practical applications are summarized in appendix A.
SYMBOLS
Throughout this paper, symbols are defined in terms of SI Units with equivalent U.S.
Customary Units given parenthetically. Factors for converting from U.S. Customary to
SI Units are given in table I.
eneralized angle of attack, defined for various axes systems in tables III
A and IV, rad (deg)
ross-sectional area in eq. (F-11) of appendix F, m2 (ft 2)
A _ angle between surface wind vector and plane of local horizontal, measured
perpendicular to plane of local horizontal (fig. 8), rad (deg)
B generalized angle of sideslip, defined for various axes systems in tables III'
and IV, rad (deg)
S t angle between projection of wind vector onto plane of local horizontal and
component of wind velocity tangent to circle of local horizontal (fig. 8),
rad (deg)
b span, m (ft)
CA axial-force coefficient
crosswind coefficient
CC
CD drag coefficient
CL lift coefficient
Cm,o
pitching-moment coefficient in steady-state levei flight
CN normal-force coefficient
3
reference chord, m (ft)
D
erodynamic drag in eqs. (I-25) of Sec. I, N (lbf)
irection-cosine matrix defined in eq. (E-2)of appendix E
Fr,x,Fr,y,Fr,z forces due to jet control (not main rockets) along X,Y,Z vehicle
reference axes, respectively, N (lbf)
h altitude, m (ft)
I' - Iy
q_oS6
4
Ic
mounting-cradle moment of inertia about vehicle roll axis, kg-m 2
(slug-ft2)
reference axis; positive with boom inclined above X-axis, rad (deg)
Kt,1 'Kt,2 constants, determined from Ks, 1 and Ks,2, used in measuring moments of
inertia in eqs. (C-6) and (C-7) of appendix C, N/m (lbf/ft)
(ft)
ength used in nondimensionalizing moments, m
haracteristic length, m (ft)
m (ft)
istance between knifefore edgeand toaftsupporting
from weighing scales
spring in eq.
in eq. (C-1)
(C-5) appendix
of appendix C,
C,
m (ft)
M Mach number
mVoo
m T
q_S
7
q
ngular-velocity component (see p,q,r)
uaternion in eq. (E-9) of appendix E
R 1 ,R2 ,R 3 forces at supports in setups for determining c.g. location in eq. (C-l) of
appendix C, N (lbf)
eqo
T N (lbf)
Iotal vehicle thrust in eq. (V-36) of Sec. V and in (A-13d) of appendix A,
emperature in eq. (F-9) of appendix F, K (OF)
TD component of thrust along flight path, N (lbf)
To
lrnitial thrust in eq. (V-36) of Sec. V
epresentative temperature of flow in eq. (F-10) of appendix F, K (OF)
t time, sea
x,y,z distances measured from X,Y,Z vehicle reference axes, respectively, m (ft}
10
distances from c.g. to another point on vehicle, m (it)
x,y ,Z
difference between angle of attack and trim angle of attack at time tl, rad
difference between angle of attack and trim angle of attack at time t2, rad
11
S a
increment in angle of attack caused by boom bending under static air load,
measured with respect to boom center line; positive for upward deflection
of boom, rad
s 0 angle between X body axis and X flight stability axis (fig. 3), rad (deg)
S u
change in angle of attack caused by upwash from mounting boom, measured
with respect to free-stream velocity; positive for upwash (upward flow
normal to free stream), rad
f
.ngle
in-1 v.._
ofb sideslip,
= sin -1 Vbrad- Vy_
(deg)
b - Wy_ b
V V
fa
increment in sideslip angle caused by boom bending under static air load,
measured with respect to boom center line; positive for boom deflected
to right, rad
fib change in sideslip angle caused by bending of mounting boom under inertial
loads, measured with respect to boom center line; positive for boom
deflections to right, tad
12
change in sideslip angle caused by vehicle rotation, measured with respect
_d
to vehicle reference axis, rad
_u
change in sideslip angle caused by sidewash from mounting boom, measured
with respect to free-stream velocity; positive for positive sidewash, rad
appendix A
angle between Xp principal and X body axes (fig. 35, rad (deg5
angle between Xp principal and Xs flight stability axes (fig. 3), rad (deg 5
13
X geocentric longitude of vehicle, positive counterclockwise looking in direction
of positive Ze inertial axis (fig. 4), rad
/2
kinematic viscosity in eq. (F-9) of appendix F, la/p, m2/sec (ft2/sec)
(7
ange angle in eq. (V-21) of Sec. V, rad (deg)
urface tension in eq. (F-7) of appendix F, N/m (lbf/ft)
Euler angles defining angular alinement of one axes system with respect
to another axes system, rad (deg)
_Pg,Og,_bg Euler angles defining alinement of X,Y,Z vehicle reference axes, respec-
tively, with respect to gravity-axes system (fig. 5), tad (deg)
Euler angles describing alinement of engine-thrust axes (fig. 9), rad (deg)
_PZ,6Z,q_ z Euler angles of Z-axis accelerometer or rate gyro, measured with respect
to X,Y,Z vehicle reference axes at c.g., respectively, rad (deg)
¢o
resultant angular velocity in Sec. I, rad/sec
requency of oscillation in appendix D, rad/sec
14
_X' '_Y' '°_Z' angular-velocity components along X',Y',Z' vehicle reference axes,
respectively, usually measured with respect to gravity-axes or
inertial-axes system, rad/se c
Subs cripts:
b body axes
0 initial conditions
P principal axes
w wind axes
Notation:
' (Prime) unless otherwise specified, a primed quantity is one referred to axes sys-
tem located at point x,y,z and/or alined at angles _,0,_ with respect
to initial reference axes system
c_ with respect to c_
with respect to
15
v with respect to v/V_
V with respect to V/V_o. This derivative, for a force such as the X-force, is
_C x
equal to 2Cx + _(V/Voo)' where the term 2C x represents the change in
8C x
X-force due to changes in free-stream velocity and the term
O(V/V_)
represents the change in CX due to effects such as Mach number or
aeroelastic effects. If these effects are negligible, then CXv = 2Cx,
16
SECTION I
This section summarizes some of the relationships used in working with basic £1ight
measurements. Included are general equations for transferring accelerations, linear
velocities , and angular velocities between any two axes systems on a flight vehicle that
are related by a @,0,q5 Euler rotation sequence; the simplified forms that are frequently
• t
used to correct accelerometer and rate-gyro readings for instrument displacement and
misalinement are given as equations (A-5) to (A-16) in appendix A. Also included are
the correction equations for angles of attack and sideslip, equations for determining flight
Mach number from measurements of static and impact pressures, and equations for deter-
mining vehicle forces and moments from accelerometer and rate-gyro readings.
ANGULAR VELOCITY
The general equations given here transfer between the two axes systems shown in
figure 1, where the "instrument-axes" system represents any system displaced and/or
misalined with respect to the vehicle reference axes at the c.g. It should be noted that the
Xi,Yi,Z i components of the instrument-axes system need not be mutually perpendicular
(orthogonal) nor referred to the same origin. This would be the case, for example, if
accelerometers were used to measure the separate components of acceleration but the
accelerometers were not orthogonally alined and were located at different points on the
vehicle. Hence, three separate instrument axes have to be considered. For the equa-
tions developed here, one instrument is assumed to be alined along the X-axis of a sys-
tem located at point :_X,_X,_,X and alined at Euler angles _PX,_X,q5 x with the vehicle
reference axes; a second instrument is assumed to be alined along the Y-axis of a sys-
tem located at point _y,:_y,_y and alined at Euler angles _y,0y,_y with the refer-
ence axes, and so on. Nine displacement coordinates and nine Euler angles in all are
needed to define the locations and alinements of the three instruments.
Both axes rotation and axes translation can be performed by using these
equations (in the acceleration equations, axes-translation terms are of the form
-- dV
ainertial = _ + w × V; in the velocity equations, they are of the form
..-" dE
Vinertial = -_- + × r). The transformations from the vehicle reference axes to the
instrument axes are given in equation form; however, those from the instrument axes
17
SECTION I - Continued
to the vehicle reference axes are given only in matrix form, since they involve a matrix
inversion which becomes long and complicated unless certain simplifying assumptions
are made. Two simplified cases, in which (1) instrument axes are orthogonal and (2)
misalinement angles are small, are given as instrument-correction equations in equa-
Acceleration. -
cos _by)
+ EgAy,cg + _pq+ _,):_y _(p2 + r2)_y+ (qr- _)_y_(Sin d/y sin 0y sin qby+COS _y
(I-2)
+ _Az,cg + (pr -_l)_z + (qr+ _))Yz- (q2+ p2)_z]COS 0y sin _by
gAz, i = _Ax,cg_ (r2 + q2)iX+ (pq- r)YX + (rp + q)ZX_ (cos _Z sin 0z cos _bZ + sin _Z sin _bz)
÷ _Ay,cg + (pq + _)iy _(p2 + r2):_y + (qr-_)_y_ (sin @Z sin 0 z cos qSZ - cos _PZ sin qbZ)
(I-3)
+ _Az,cg + (pr- 51)Xz+ (qr+ _))Yz- (q2+ p2)_z]CO s 0Z cos q5z
Linear velocity.-
_ :(_+_x- r_x)C°S
Oxcos_x+(_+r_-_)cosOX_ _X
(I-4)
-(_ + PYz - qXZ) sin Ox
18
SECTION I - Continued
(I-5)
+ (W + P:_ z - q_zlsin ,y cos ey
+ ('_ + r.Xy- pZy)(sin _hz cos *Z sin 0 Z - cos _hZ sin *Z)
(I-6)
+(_+_z _z)c°s_z co_0z
Angular velocity.-
(I-7)
Pi = p cos 0x cos _X + q cos 0X sin _X - r sin 0X
If the axes along which data are measured are not orthogonally alined, the following
procedure must be used to transfer instrument readings to the vehicle reference axes
at the c.g.:
gAx,cg gAx,i
(I-10)
= _nonorthogonal_ -1 gAy ,i + K2
gAy ,cg
gAz,cg gAz ,i
u
19
SECTION I - Continued
angular velocities, by
by
-1
Er']
qi
i
(I-11)
where
Iil- - _- -1 . (I-12)
K 5=p_Y - r:_y
K6 = q:_z - PYz
J
cos J/y sin _y sin Oy sin _y sin q_y sin Oy sin qSy cos Oy
(I-14)
_nonorthogonal_ = - sin _y cos qSy + cos _y cos _by
cos _/Z cos _bz sin Oz sin _Z cos _Z sin OZ cos Oz cos _Z
2O
SECTION I - Continued
Angle of Attack
For a vane-type sensor, the true or corrected angle of attack (referred to the vehi-
cle reference axes at the c.g.) is given by
s = s i - s a - s u + s v - K o - s b+ s d +As (I-15)
where AS is the position error, the error due to the location of the sensor in the flow
field of the body, and the other corrections are those due to boom bending, misalinement,
and flow-field effects (see the list of symbols).
Angle of Sideslip
2_ r_ 2£ pl_
(I-18)
_d = _ 2Voo + _ 2V_o
For flight tests of high-speed aircraft or missiles, the following relationships are
used to determine Mach number from onboard measurements of impact pressure qc
and static pressure 15: For subsonic conditions (M < 1.0),
qc _ - 1 _-1
(I-19)
-_-= 1 +-_M - =(1 + 0.2M) 7/2- 1
For supersonic conditions (M > 1.0), the equation is modified to include the loss in total
pressure behind the shock wave and becomes
21
SECTION I - Continued
The indicated Mach number M is determined from tables or plots, based on equa-
The components of the total force acting on the flight vehicle can be determined by
multiplying the corrected accelerometer reading (i.e., corrected for displacement and
misalinement) by vehicle weight. In coefficient form
= WAx,cg-_
CX qooS
WAy,cg_
Cy q_o S _ (I-21)
cz WAz,cg|
qoo S
The total force thus determined includes the static and the dynamic aerodynamic forces,
the engine thrust, the jet damping force, and the reaction and other control forces. It
does not include the components of vehicle weight, however, since gravitational effects
appear as accelerations that are measured directly by the accelerometer; that is, the
products of the weight and the corrected accelerometer readings are
The total moments are determined from the rate-gyro readings according to the
equations
22
SECTION I - Continued
_Mx = _)Ix- _tIxy - _'Ixz + q(rI z - PIxz- qIyz ) - r(qIy - rIyz- PIxy )
V" Mx
C/ = qooSb
My
(I-24)
Cm = _ qooS-'--
_ >
Cn = q_Sb
(Although b and c are commonly used to nondimensionalize the moments, these lengths
are arbitrary and any convenient length can be used.)
Methods by which the total forces and moments are broken down into trim, static,
and cross-coupling components so that longitudinal and lateral coefficients can be deter-
mined are quite complicated and beyond the scope of this paper. The simplified method
for determining basic static- and dynamic-stability derivatives from oscillatory flight
motions is developed in appendix D. In this and in most methods, linear systems are used
to represent transient flight data; these linear systems are obtained by assuming small
angles, constant aerodynamic coefficients, constant free-stream conditions, rigid-body
mass and inertial characteristics, and separation of the longitudinal and lateral modes.
For data that do not fit these limitations, exact methods of simulation based on the equa-
tions of motion for six degrees of freedom are used. Other methods that are now becom-
ing popular involve parameter identification in which linear and quasilinear estimation
techniques are used. (See, for example, refs. 2 and 6.)
Lift and drag components for an airplane can be measured directly by using flight-
path accelerometers which differ from body-fixed accelerometers in that they are oper-
ated by a vane or pressure sensor that rotates the sensor into or normal to the stream
direction. Accelerometers measuring parallel and normal to the flight path measure
23
SECTION I - Concluded
vehicle thrust minus drag and lift, respectively, if the component of thrust in the lift
direction can be assumed negligible. In equation form the lift and drag are
TD - D = -WAD_
L = WAL _ _(I-25)
where TD is the component of thrust along the flight path. The accelerations should be
corrected for the usual boom-type errors as described in correction with equation (I-15)
for the angle of attack measured from a boom. Details of this flight-testing technique
are given in refereace 7.
24
SECTION II
The equations in this section are the general forms for transferring aerodynamic
force and moment coefficients and stability derivatives from a coordinate axes system
with origin at the c.g. to a parallel axes system with origin at a point x,y,z away from
the vehicle c.g. (Simplified forms obtained by assuming zero angles of attack and side-
Slip and neglecting aerodynamic cross derivatives are given as equations (A-17) to (A-43)
in appendix A.) In these general equations, unprimed coefficients are referred to the c.g.;
primed coefficients are referred to the point at x,y,z shown in figure 2.
The transformations are given for both systems of variables used in aerodynamics.
Equations for the _,/3,V,p,q,r system are given by equations (II-l) to (II-40); those for
the u,v,w,p,q,r system are given by equations (II-41) to (11-76). (The relationships
between the two sets of variables are given in table II.) The equations are derived in
appendix B. They are general in that no assumptions are made as to angle of attack or
sideslip and in that all transfer distances, lateral as well as vertical, are included; how-
ever, they are still not complete in that, for the purposes of these transformations,
second-order derivatives with respect to time are assumed negligible and are omitted.
Also, the transformations given for the static forces and moments (derivatives with
respect to _ or _) are the simplified forms that apply only when the body is not under-
going any significant rotation and p, q, and r are essentially zero. The transforma-
tions for static-stability derivatives that apply when there is significant vehicle rotation
can be derived as indicated in appendix B.
Cx = Cx (II-1)
C T
Xot Cx_ (II-2)
= (II-3),
Cx& Cx&
(II-4)
T
(n-s)
25
SECTION II - Continued
C T
sin (2 cos _)
(n-6)
COS (2 + + 2C x cos (2 -
sin sin
cos _ CX(2
(II-7)
+ 4C x sin (2 - _ cos (2 cos
C T
Xr = CXr - 2Cx(2 _ sin
cos (2 2Cx_ [ cos _ +
c_ --
cy
1
Cy(2* %(2 /
' C
(H-9)
Cy_ = y_
c_: c_ |
C_ = Cy_
cos---V _
(II-lO)
'
Cyq = Cyq + c-_s-_\_ cos (2 + _ sin (2 + 2Cyfl cos (2 - _ sin (2 sin
26
SECTION II - Continued
(II-12)
+ 4Cy cos ol cos ¢1 - _- sin
Cz = Cz
C' = C
Z_ Z_
C T = (II-13)
z_ Cz_
T
Cz& = Cz&
c_ - CZ_ _
(II-14)
+ 4Cz/_- sin _ - _- sin _ cos _)
C T
Zq = CZq
_cz_c_ _ _)_cz_(_
+ c---_\_ cos el + 7 sin +
£
cos _ - [ sin sin
(II-15)
+ 4C z sin ol - _ cos cos t3
. coscos (iI-16)
(II-17)
,
C l = C l +_ _ Cy - Cz
C' z § (n-18)
l_ = Cl_ + _ Cy_ - [ Cz_
27
SECTION II - Continued
C' =
l& Cl& + _" Cy& - _ CZ& (II-20)
:2
(II-2i)
ctk : cl_ + [ cy_- _ Cz_
c':
Ip C/p +_ _'
Cyp - _ CZp __cos
£ cos _(c
/7 lot + _ -_CzD
_ Cyot
, _
C m=C m+_.c z -_-Cx (II-25)
C' x
mo t = Cmo t + _ Czot - _ Cxot (II-26)
28
SECTION II - Continued
, 9` (II-27)
Cm_ = Cm_ + _ Cz_ - _ Cx_
C' = 9` (II-28)
m& Cm& + [ CZ& - [ CX&
, 9` £ (IIL29)
Cm_ = Cm_ +[ CZ_ -[ CX_
C'
rap= Cmp+_CZp
9` _
-_CXp
_ cos a (C mot + _- Czot - _- CX
- 2 _ cos_
cos+ o
+2(} +9`i-Cz¢ _
- _Cx _)
(n-3o)
_
_c z - _c x_ )
C' = Cmq + 9`
[ CZq z CXq + 2 (_ cos ot + [_' sin ot)(c mot + [Czot - [c x
ot_9`
+ 2 sin/3 (} cos _ sin ot) (CI/3 +_Cz_ - 9. Cx_)
(II-33)
,
Cn = C n + _Cx x
- _ Cy
C' 9, (II-34)
not = Cnot + _ Cxo t - _Cyot
29
lea _D L"- co o
I i I i i I I !
I,iI l,iI I=M I.IM I-..4
lit I,iI
v I..,,.q I-q I.,,..I
v v v v
I N I_,_
!
b4
D
+
C) L)
INI,_ eD 'NI'_
I
I r/l
D D
N _NI'_ _NI'_ D N 'NI,_
C)
I r/1 I ,NI,_ I
_NI'_
I_l,_
co_ I
I '_1,_ qo_ !
+ + N + N
N N c.)
(D
@ L.)
_1'_ '_1'_
°,iI @ + I I:_1_
o +
i _1,_
@ +
'_I_
+ + + c_
O qo_ qo_
r_
D ,N I,_
o
@ "_1 _ V
I .P-I
o
IiI O °_,,,I
r/1 r/1
._.,4 o O ._=4
I r/1 o + o ! r/1 r/1 r_
O O
I,iI "qo_ ,NI,_ r_
I I r/1 ! O
r_ ._=4 D r..) O
I,=,4
,NI,_
'NI'_ 'N I'_ I NI,_4 r/l O
I
,_I_ r_ r/l O
I I I I
O .liI I ©
+ + o
"cO_ I o
N
N
c) N # INI,_ I>4 O
r/1
°r-I
qo..
o r/1 r/1
_1'_ i I>,1,_ 0 O o
i _1'_ ' _,1'_ o r/1 ' _I_ r/l _I_1'_ !
+ N
+ + + _ I,_ IN I,_4 + © +
-qo..
L.) D L_ + + + 0 r..)
÷ I +
II II II II II II II 11
qo_ ._ f-i
.N _.
L.) r..) D
o
SECTION II - Continued
C T (II-43)
Xw CX w
(I1-44)
CXp=CXp +KCXv -_CXw
(ii-_5)
C_q = Cxq - K Cxu + _ Cxw
(II-46)
CXr = CXr + CXu - _ CXv
(II-47)
Cy u CY u
(II-48)
Cy v CY v
(II-49)
Cy w CY w
, g _ _ CY w (II-50)
Cyp = Cyp + [ CYv
, _
(II-51)
Cyq= Cyq -[CYu÷[CYw
(n-52)
Cyr = CYr + CYu - _ CY v
C ! (II-53)
Zu CZu
C T = (II-54)
ZV CZv
C t = (II-55)
Zw CZw
C' = + _ (II-56)
Zp CZp [ CZv - _CZw
C' = C (II-57)
Zq Zq - _"Cz u +[ CZ w
C' = C + (II-58)
Zr Zr CZ u - K CZv
31
SECTION II - Continued
C'lv = Clv+[CYv
z - _ CZv , (II-60)
C' (II-61)
lw= C/w+[Cy w-_cz w
C'lp = C/p + _-
_ Cyp -_ C Zp +[t_C lv +_CYv
_ -} CZv )
C'
lq = C/q + _ Cyq -_
tc Zq-[ 1u +ICY u -£Cz u )
+_ (II-64)
C T =
mu Cmu + C zu - [ Cxu (II-65)
C' = _i (II-66)
mv Cmv +_-CZv -[CXv
C' mp = Crop x
+[CZp z
-_'CXp +_-z (C m v + _ c Zv - _ Cxv
32
SECTION II - Concluded
C T
m r = Cmr + _- CZ r - _- Cx r + mu ?" Cz u - _-Cx u )
- (Cmv
+:_ _ _. Cxv ) (n-7o)
C T
= Cnu + _ CXu - _- CY u (II-71)
n u
C' (II-72)
nv = Cnv + _ Cx v - _ CYv
C' +_Cxv
np = Cnp + CXp -[Cyp +[ nv _ _ CYv )
(II-74)
-_(Cnw + _ CX w - _ CYw)
+ _:_"(Ca w + _ Cx w - CYw )
(ii-75)
C'
n r = Cnr+_CXr [CYr+ (Cnu + _ CXu _ x CYu )
_ X(Cnv
_ + _ CXv _ -_
:_ CYv )
(ii-76)
33
SE CTION III
The equations in this section are the general forms of the axes transformations for
aerodynamic force and moment coefficients and stability derivatives that can be used to
transfer between any two of the five axes systems used in aerodynamic analysis. (Par- ,
ticular forms for transfer between body and wind-tunnel stability axes are given in
appendix A.) Transformations are presented for both _,_,V derivatives and u,v,w
derivatives. (For the relationships between the two sets of derivatives, see table II.)
The equations are developed in terms of a generalized angle of attack A and generalized
sideslip angle B; transformations between any two axes systems can be obtained by sub-
stituting specific angles for A and B in these equations. (See tables III and IV.)
The five axes systems considered are those shown in figure 3. While three of
these systems, body, principal, and wind axes, are clearly defined in the literature, there
is some confusion concerning the definition of the stability axes. The stability axes
described in some reports are vehicle or flight stability axes about which the equations
of motion are written; in other reports they are wind-tunnel stability axes about which
aerodynamic data are measured in the wind tunnel. The differences between the two are
pointed out in these brief descriptions of the axes systems.
Body Axes
The orthogonal body-axes system is fixed within the vehicle with the X-axis along
the longitudinal center line of the body, the Y-axis normal to the plane of symmetry, and
the Z-axis in the plane of symmetry. This is the axes system about which aircraft
instruments are usually mounted, Its main advantage in motion calculations is that vehi-
cle moments of inertia about the axes are constant, so that the I terms can be omitted
from the equations of motion. It is the logical system to which to refer velocities, accel-
erations, and stability and control parameters in the study of aircraft handling qualities
because the pilot's orientation with respect to this frame is fixed.
Principal Axes
The principal axes are an orthogonal body-fixed system for which the products of
inertia are zero. The X and Z principal axes lie in the plane of symmetry; the angle
34
SECTION III - Continued
between the X body axis and the X principal axis is usually small so that in many
cases the body axes can be assumed to coincide with the principal axes.
The flight stability axes (sometimes referred to as vehicle stability axes) are _n
orthogonal body-axes system fixed to the vehicle, the X-axis of which is alined with the
relative wind vector when the vehicle is in a steady-state trim condition but then rotates
with the vehicle after a disturbance as the vehicle changes angle of attack. This system
is preferred in many stability studies because, as with other body-fixed axes, the moments
of inertia about the axes remain constant and also because the motions defined are pri-
marily those about the flight path rather than about body reference lines.
The wind-tunnel stability axes are the system about which most wind-tunnel data
are obtained. For this system the X-axis is in the same horizontal plane as the relative
wind at all times (fig. 3). The angle ol between the X-axis of this system and the X
body axes is variable. (It is a constant s 0 for the flight stability axes.) This means
that vehicle moments of inertia about the X-axis change. It also means that additional
terms are required in the transformation equations for static-stability derivatives and
for u,v,w derivatives when data are transferred to or from the wind axes or the wind-
tunnel stability axes. These additional terms are designated (1), as in equation (III-7),
for example.
Wind Axes
The wind axes are the system generally used in calculating motions of the vehicle
as a point mass. The X-axis for this system is alined with the relative wind at all times
so that vehicle moments of inertia about this axis change. As with the wind-tunnel sta-
bility axes, additional terms, designated (1), are required in the transformations to or
from the wind axes and either the body, principal, or flight stability axes, since the angle
A between the X wind axis and the X-axis of either of these systems is variable. Also,
since the lateral angle B between the X-axes is variable, there are additional terms,
designated (2), as in equation (III-13), required in the transformations for some of the
lateral derivatives between the wind axes and either of the other axes systems.
! T t
35
SECTION III- Continued
X',Y',Z' and X,Y,Z axes systems; specific designations to use with each axes system
are given in table V. Two types of transformation are given: "Direct" which include
those defined in table III and "inverse" which include those defined in table IV. Trans-
formations between any two axes systems are obtained by selecting the proper angles for
A and B from table III or IV and then the proper coefficient designations from table V.
For example, in transferring from flight stability axes to body axes (a direct transforma-
tion, according to table III), angle A is replaced by a 0 and angle B equals zero; the
transformation for CX then becomes, by using equation (III-1) and table V,
As a second example, in determining the C/p about the wind-tunnel stability axes
from derivatives given about the body axes (an inverse transformation according to
table IV), equation (III-82) and tables IV and V are used to obtain
tions for u,v,w derivatives, the terms designated (1) are included only in transferring
from either wind or wind-tunnel stability axes to either body, principal, or flight stability
axes and not in other transformations. For example, terms (1) are includedwhen the
body-axes derivative CXa (eq. (III-7)) is determined from data given about wind-tunnel
stability axes as in
but are not included when CXs is determined from data about flight stability axes as in
The terms designated (2) are included only in transferring to or from wind axes.
For example, in transferring from wind axes, the body-axes derivative Clfl (eq. (III-16))
is given by
If the need arises, derivatives with respect to s,[3,V can be converted to deriva-
tives with respect to u,v,w by using the relationships given in table II.
36
SECTION III - Continued
DIRECT TRANSFORMATIONS
C T
X_ = CX_ cos A cos B - Cy_ cos A sin B - CZ_ sin A
(1)
where the terms designated (1) are included only in transferring from either wind or wind-
tunnel stability axes to either body, principal, or flight stability axes and not in other
transformations.
Cy_
T ,...
CX_ sin B + Cy(_ cos B (III-8)
C T
Z_- CX_ sin A cos B - CYo _ sin A sin B + Czo l cos A
(1)
1 Equations for control derivatives and velocity derivatives have this same form;
for example,
37
SECTION III- Continued
(m-lo)
- C 1 sinAcos B +C m sinAsinB - C ncos A.2
(1)
'
Cm_
=
Cl_
sin B +
Cm_
cos B (m-11)
C T _-
n_ Cl_ sin A cos B - Cm(_ sin A sin B + Cn_ cos A
(III-13)
-%C xcos A sinB - Cy cos A cos B
_J
(2)
where the terms designated (2) are included only in transferring to or from wind axes.
(III-15)
-_C X sinA sin B - Cy sinA cos BJ
g
(2)
sin A
Cl/_ cos A cos B - Cmfi cos A sin B - Cn/_
(III-16)
-%C1 cosAsinB - C m cosA cos BJ
(2)
(I!I-17)
= Cl_ sin B +Cm/_ cos B+Ckl cos B - C m sin BJ
(2)
38
SECTION III - Continued
t
(21
cos A (III-19)
+ CZr sin 2 A - E(CXr + CZp) cos B - (CYr + CZq) sin B] sin A
C£r = (CXr cos B- CYr sin I3)cos 2 A- (CZp cos B- CZq sin ]3)sin 2 A
cos A (III-21)
+ECXp c°s2 B + Cyq sin2 B - (CXq + Cyp) sin B cos B - CZr_ sin A
+Ec_cos_
_-c_ s_n_
_+(Cx-c_sin_co_._s*nA (III-24)
C !
Zp (CZp cos B- CZq sin B)cos 2 A -(CXr cos B- CYr sin B)sin 2 A
cos2
o+c, +c, ls ncos
o-CZ s n cos A (III-25)
39
SECTION III- Continued
C t __
Zq (CZq cos B + CZp sin B)cos A
C Y
lr = (C/r cos B- Cmr sin B)cos 2 A -(Cnp cos B- Cnq sin B)sin 2 A
C !
Cmq = Cmq cos 2 B + Clp sin 2 B + (Clq + Cmp )sin B cos B (111-32)
C !
m r Cmr cos B + Clr sin B) cos A
40
SECTION Ill -- Continued
(Cap cos B- Cnq sin B)cos 2 A -(C/r cos B- Cmr sin B)sin 2 A
+ _C/p c°s2 B + Cmq sin2 B- (C/q + Cmp)Sin B cos B- Car]Sin A cos A (111-34)
C T
n r
= Cn r cos 2 A + _Clp cos 2 B + Cmq sin 2 B - (C/q + Cmp ) sin B cos A
B] sin 2
CX u =_CXuC°S2B sin 2 A
-(CXv+CYu)SinBcosB+Cyvsin2B]cos2A+CZw
+ ¢Cxw
+ +/C +Cz
w s,o
js,o cos.
+l(c_cos----'_ X sin2A cos B - Cy sin 2AsinB+C z sinAcos
(1)
+
_X c°s2 A sin 2 B + Cy cos 2 A sin B cos B (111-37)
J
(2)
C t
Xv = [CXv cos2 B - CYu sin2 B + (CXu - Cyv)Sin B cos B] cos A
(2)
(111-38)
41
SECTION III- Continued
cos A
+ ECXucos2 B + CYv sin2 B- (CXv + CYu)Sin B cos B- CZwJSin A
(1)
t
+sin A sin B(C x cos A sin B + Cy cos A cos B)j
(III-39)
(2)
(2)
t
+
k(Cx cos B - Cy sin B)cos Bj (III-41)
v
(2)
T _
+ECYuCOS2B-CXvSin2 B+(CXu-CYv)SinBcosB_sinA
(2)
=(CZu cos B- CZv sin B)cos 2 A -(CXw cos B- CYw sin B)sin 2 A
cos A
+ [CXu cos2 B+CYv sin2 B-(CXv +CYu)SinB cosB- CZw_SinA
(1)
+%(C xsinAsinB +Cy sinA cos B) cosAsinB (III-43)
J
(2)
42
SECTION III Continued
C _ ___
Zv (CZv cos B + CZ u sin B_/cos A
(III-44)
-k(Cx sin B + Cy cos B) sin A cos B
_2
(2)
C t
= CZw cos2 A + ECXu cos2 B + CYv sin2 B - (CXv + CYu)Sin B c°s B_sin2 A
ZW
+ _(CXw+CZu)COSB-(CYw+CZv)SinB_ sinAc°sA
(i)
+
(in-45)
\(C x sin A sin B + Cy sin A cos B) sin A sin BJ
(2)
Ct
lu = _C/uCOS2 B-(C/v+Cmu)sinBcosB+Cmvsin2B_c°s2A
(1)
(III-46)
+iC 1 sin B + C m cos B)cos 2 A sin B
_2
(2)
(III-47)
-(Cnv cosB+CnusinB)sinA- (ClSinB+Cmc°sB)c°sAc°sB
(2)
43
SECTION HI -- Continued
(C_w
cos
__Cmvs_n
_)cos_
_-<Cnu
cos'-_nv
_n_>s_n_
_
•_C,u
cos_
_*Cmv
sin_
_-<C,v*
Cmu>_n
_cos
O-Cn_S_n
_cos
-_C l sinA cos B - C m sinA sinB +C n cos A) C°S A
cos B}
(1)
(2)
(2)
C T
(2)
C T
(2)
44
SECTION III- Continued
cos A
+ _C/u cos2 B+Cmv sin2 B -(C/v+Cmu)sinBcos B- Cnw_sinA
(1)
(III-52)
+ +C m sinA cos B) cosA sinB_
L(C sinA sinB
(2)
(III-53)
- \(C l sin B + Cm cos B) sin A cos BJ
(2)
C !
nW =CnwCOS2
A+_CluCOS2B+CmvSin2B
-(Clv+Cmu)sinBc°sB_
sin2
A
+_C_,_*_nu)CO_
_-ICm_
+Co_-_n
_3_n_cos
_
+ (C l cosA cos B - Cm cos A sinB - Cn sinA) C°S A
cos
(1)
(III-54)
+
(C/ sin A sin B + Cm sin A cos B) sin A sin BJ
(2)
45
SECTION ]II- Continued
INVERSE TRANSFORMATIONS
T t
C l= (_
C cosA+C ,
nsinA )cos B+C ,
m sinB (III
- 58)
C m= - (c;cosA+C '
nsinA )sinB+C ,
m cos B (III-59)
? T
(1)
(i)
(1)
1 Equations for control derivatives and velocity derivatives have this same form;
for example,
Cx5 a
=
(Cx0 '' cos A+C
Z5 a
sinA
) cos B +
% sin B
(III-64)
-(C' l sinA- C ncosA
' ) cos B
v J
(1)
cos B
Cmo / = lc _ cosA+ n_ sin sinB+Cmc _
(III-65)
+ C' 1 sinA - C n' cos A) sinB
(I)
I._T T t t (III-66)
Cn_ = -Ul_ sinA+Cnc _ cosA- C l cosA- C nsinA ,)
(1)
Cx_ = x_
C' cos A + CZ/_ sin A 1 cos B + C'Y/3 sinB
(m-67)
l
C xcos
T
A+C T
z sinA /
sinB+Cy !
cos B
2
Cy/3 = - (cx_
' cosA+ c'Z/3 sinA ) sinB + cos B
(m-68)
xc°sA+C z sin cos B - CysinB
• j
(2)
(III-69)
C Z _ = -Cx_ sinA+ C' Z_ cosA
(111-7o)
-(c' l cosA +C' n sin A) sinB ' cos
+C m BJ
(2)
47
SECTION III- Continued
(2)
t
(III-72)
Cn_ = -Cj /3 sin A + Cn; 3 cos A
(III-73)
+ C_q sin 2 B + [(CXq + Cyp) cos A+ <Cyr + C'Zq )sinAlsinBcos B
- C'Xp (III-74)
c°s2 A + C'Zr sin 2 A + C'X r + C'Zp sin A cos A - Cx sin B cos B
CXr __[.,
co..A_c,
('-"rl A]
Xr Zp sin2 A - CXp Z sin A cos cos B
+ E C'
X r
cos 2 A +
c, Zp
sin2 A +
(Cx -C'r)
£ Z
sin A cos sin B (in-78)
48
SECTION III - Continued
B
CZp =_2' Zp cos2A - CXr
' sin2 A - (C Xp
' - C' Z r)Sin A cos A]cos
(III-79)
+ ¢2' Zq cos A-C_q sin A)sin B
CZr =C' Zr c°s2 A + Ckp sin 2 A - (C£r + C' Zp )sinA cosA (III-81)
B
Clp = C'lp cos 2A+C'nr sin 2A+ ( C_r + C' np) sin A cos A] cos 2
(III-82)
+C' mq sin2B+[(C' lq +Cmp)cosA+I
r' C' m + C _q) sin A] sin B cos B
B cos B (III-83)
-_flp cos2A+C'nrSin2A+ IC'lr+Cnp)sinAcosA'
" - Cmq]Sin'
(III-85)
-_]'lp cos2A+C'n r sin2A+(C'lr +Cnp)SlnAc°sA-Cmq]sinBc°sB'
" '
Cmq = Cmq
' cos 2 B + C'lp cos 2A+Cnr ' sin 2A+ I r +Cnp ,) sinA cos A] sin 2
B
49
SECTION III- Continued
Cnp =_:' Up cos 2A- C'Ir sin2 A- I C' Ip - C' nr 1 sin A cos A_cos B
B (III-89)
+ _C' np cos2A+C' lr sin2A+(C' lp - C'nr) sin A cos A_ sin
(III-90)
Cn r = C' nr cos2A+ C/p' sin2A- (C ir
' + Cnp ) sin A cos A
+
xsinA - C z cos A) sinA
,,, _fl
(1)
L J
(2)
CXv =(' CXv cosA+ c' Zv sinA ) cos 2 B - (c' Yu cosA+ '
CywSin A) sin 2 B
5O
SECTION III Continued
(I)
+ C cosA+C
'
Z sinA
1sin B - Cy
' cos sinA sinB
J
(III-93)
(2)
"_ C' yuC°SA+Cyw ' sinA)cos 2 B- ( C' Xv cosA+ C' Zv sin A) sin 2 B
CYu=I
sin Asin B
- k(C' X sin A - C z cos A)
cos B s
(1)
(III-94)
+ cos A+C Z sinA cos B +Cy sin cos A sinB
2
(2)
(III-95)
- cosA+C_ sinA cos B+Cy sin cos B
J
(2)
+
_.(C L sinA - C 'Z cos A) cos cosB
A sin Bi
(I)
+ sin B (III-96)
X
T cos
k.[<C A + C z sinA cos B+Cy sin sinA
J
51
SECTION III- Continued
sin A
+
C' cos A - CXv sin sin B + cos A + C z sin (III-97)
Zv "'v- cos
(1)
- IoLcos ,
A + C z sin cos Bs
(III-99)
(1)
B
C/u = _'lu c°s2A+ Cnw' sin2A+ (c,lw + Cnu)
2' sin A cos A] cos
,l sinA - C n cosA/sinAI
(i)
(2)
52
SECTION III - Continued
(11
Cmu = (Cmu
t cosA+Cmw v sinA) cos 2 B _ (C lv
t cosA+ C nv
t sinA ) sin 2 B
(1)
(2)
) o]
T T
(2)
53
SECTION HI -- Concluded
Crow-- t
C!
mw cos A - Cmu ' sin A ) cos B
+ sin ,
A - C n cos c-_s'B .j
(1)
(2)
+ (III-106)
QJ nv cosA-C' lv sin A1 sinB + L( C l' cosA+ C n' sinAlSinAcos B2
v
(1)
+ '
Cnu cos 2A+ C'lw sin 2A+ C' lu - C n sinAcos sinB (III-107)
(1)
54
SECTION IV
This section gives equations for transferring moments of inertia to a rotated ames
system in a general form, similar to that used in section HI, so that transformations can
be made between any two of the five axes systems used in aerodynamic analysis. As in
section III, these transformations are defined as direct and inverse in tables III and IV,
respectively, and can be performed between any two axes systems by selecting proper
,, angles for A and B from these tables.
where ,r is the transformation matrix given in appendix A and is applied to the aerody-
namic axes by setting _=-B, O=A, and _b=0.
The most commonly used forms of these transformations, those for transfers among
body, principal, and flight stability axes, are given in appendix A.
Ix= IX cos 2 B +2Ixy sinB cos B+Iy sin 2 cos 2A+I z sin 2 A
Ixy= s n2 cos A
- (I_z cos_ ÷Ixz _n _)s_nA (IV-5)
55
SECTION IV - Concluded
t
Iy= Iy cos 2 B+ (I_ cos 2 A+ I_. sin 2 A-2I_z sin A cos A)sin 2 B
! T t
Ixy '
= ( Ixy cos A+Iyz ' sin A) cos 2 B ("Ixy cos A + Iyz
' sin A) sin 2 B
+ I cos 2 A+I ,
z sin 2 A - 2Ixz , sinA cosA - I' sin B cos B (IV-11)
56
SECTION V
The equations presented here are the general forms that include the variables ,
likely to be of interest in computing motions in the vicinity of the earth (moon and sun
perturbations are ignored). The terms of each equation are grouped so that various
effects (for example, oblateness of the earth) can be accounted for by adding or omitting
certain terms. Linearized equations and the wind-axes equations for a point mass are
given in appendix A.
The general equations apply to any of the five systems of vehicle reference axes
shown in figure 3. The Euler angles _g,0g,_)g are referred to the gravity-axes sys-
tem, with origin located at the surface of the earth, which rotates with the earth as shown
in figure 4. (The relationship of these gravity axes to the vehicle reference axes is
shown in fig. 5.)
FORCE EQUATIONS
Equations for the forces along the X,Y,Z axes are given in general form as equa-
tions (V-l) to (V-3), respectively. Equations for specialized cases can be obtained from
the general forms as follows:
(1) For an oblate earth, equations (V-43) to (V-45) of auxiliary equations are used
in place of term (2) in X,Y,Z force equations, respectively.
(2) If mass of vehicle is constant (zero thrust is also implied), terms (3) to (5) are
omitted.
(3) For flight outside the atmosphere, terms (6) to (8) are omitted.
X-Axis Forces
• " - + = - r
1 2 + ¥ _. &t • _ilL.
+ _pV_S(Cx,o Cx_a + CXv V'oo
--+_X & _*CXq2v_oj
2Voo
(6)
(v-l)
+ yXl 3#9+ CX_ 2Voo + CXp + CXr 2--_, + CXsaSa + CXse6e + CX6rSr + 0
57
SECTION V - Continued
(2) Component of vehicle weight (for a more nearly complete weight component,
one that includes earth-oblateness effects, see auxiliary eqs. (V-43) to (V-45))
Expansions of the aerodynamic forces and moments (terms (6) to (9) in force equa-
tions and terms (11) to (14) in moment equations) neglect all aerodynamic partial deriva-
tives with respect to rates of change of velocities and angles except those with respect to
a and /L The forces are expanded in terms of the independent variables ol,/_,V,p,q,r
but could as easily be expanded in terms of the variables u ,v ,w ,p ,q ,r. The X-axis aero-
dynamic force, for example, could also be written as
"1 2 / P_ q_
X = _pV_oS _Cx, o + CXuU + CXvV + CXwW + CXp _ + CXq 2V_o
+ CXr r t + _
2Voo CX65 + Higher order terms]
Y-Axis Forces
_ sin_ _ -kmCrdx-Pdzt+_
C6)
(V -2)
+ Cyaa + Cy& _ + Cyq
\ -._ ,. - - %M
58
SECTION V- Continued
Z-Axis Forces
v &_ +
+ _pV_S Z,o + CZ_a +CZv_+Cz& 2V_ CZq2v_j
(6)
MOMENT EQUATIONS
Equations of motion involving moments about the X,Y,Z axes are given in general
form as equations (V-4) to (V-6), respectively. Equations for specialized cases can be
obtained from the general forms as follows: _:: .....
(1) If vehicle mass is constant, terms (2) to (4) and (7) to (9) are omitted
(2) If principal £xes are used, terms (3) to (6) are omitted
(3) If vehicle has a plane of symmetry (X-Z plane) but principal axes are not used,
terms (3) and (5) are omitted
+ -_ _ k _ )
= rn_pldy2+dz21+dx(qdy+rdz))_
_ -%(Tydz_+_ + t_
Lrrn
v _h_ + r_
+ Cla_ + Cl& _
&_
+ C/q
q_
2Vooj
+ CI/3;3+ C/V _ + Cl# 2Voo + CZP 2V_ Clr 2--_j
\ v
v
(i2)
(11)
(V-4) .
+ C/6aSa + C/sr6r) + 0
(13) (14)
59
SECTION V - Continued
(ill
Ak P_ r_ \
1 See statement following equation (V-l) about terms (11) to (14) in expansion of
aerodynamic forces and moments.
6O
SECTION V - Continued
dxl+ _ Nrm
= l:n_r(dx 2 +dy21 +dz(P_ dx + q dY)j1 - v( TX dY LTY +
p_ r_ &_ q_
lpv2sl[ Cn,o + + V + Cnp _ + Cn r 2---_z + Cn_ + Cn_ _ + Cnq 2Vooj
\k Cn/_ Cnv _ + Cn_2V_o k
(117 (12)
(V-6)
vc)
(13) (14)
AUXILIARY EQUATIONS
General equations that take into account various relationships and effects in develop-
ing the equations of motion are given as equations (V-7) to (V-45). Equations for special-
ized cases may be obtained as follows:
The Euler angles specifying vehicle alinement with the gravity-axes system can be
determined from the angular velocities p,q,r by the equations
61
SECTION V - Continued
P = _g- _g sin 0g- f_ cos 0g cos _g-(_e + _)(cos L cos 0g sin _Pg
q = _g cos qSg + _g sin _g cos 8g- I_(sin Og cos _g sin qSg sin _g cos _g)
r = -_g sin _g + _g cos q_g cos 0g - f_ (sin 0g cos _g cos _bg + sin _g sin qSg)
-(_2 e + _)cos L(sin Og sin _g cos _g- cos _Pg sin qSg)
Vehicle Coordinates
Vehicle coordinates can be computed from the X,Y,Z axes velocity components
and vehicle Euler angles by integrating the equations
_g
: u cos _g cos 0g + v(cos _g sin 0g sin _g- sin _g cos _g)
_g = u sin _Pg cos Og + v(sin _g sin Og sin qSg + cos _hg cos _g)
_.g = -u sin Og. + v cos Og sin qSg + w cos Og cos qSg (V-15)
62
SECTION V - Continued
Flight-path angle, longitude, and latitude can be determined from the equations
Y = tan-1 h (V-17)
_g
_2e (V-18)
R e cos L
"1_= -_'g
R--/ (V-19)
The range for a spherical earth is
-= o)cos,oy (V-21)
Angle of attack, sideslip, and resultant relative velocity are related to components
of velocity along the vehicle body axes by
= tan -1 Wb
fi"_" (V-24)
fi = sin -1 _7__b
V (V-25)
63
SECTION V - Continued
(V-29)
w--
b= V sin o_ cos _ =w b- VZ, b - WZ, b
V z = Re_2 e cos L(sin _g sin _hg + sin 0g cos qSg cos _hg) (V-32)
Surface winds.- Components of the surface winds along the X,Y,Z vehicle refer-
Wy = W_os A' sin B' (sin qSg sin 0g cos _hg- sin _g cos qSg)
- cos A' cos B' (sin _g sin 0g sin ¢>g + cos _g cos @g)
WZ= W_os A' sin B' (cos @g cos qSg sin Og + sin _g sin qSg)
- cos A' cos B' (sin @g cos q_g sin 0g- cos @g sin qSg)
Vehicle thrust and moment can be resolved into components along the vehicle refer-
°Tu+ 8T (V-36)
T=To+- _- 05Rp M 5RPM
(v-37)
T X = T cos 0rm cos @rm
sin _rm
(v-38)
Ty=T cos 0rm
64
SECTION V - Continued
Tz = -T sin 0rm (V-39)
Nrm = Irm_2rm(P cos 0rm sin _rm - q cos 0rm cos _rm) (V-42)
important, terms (2) in the X,Y,Z axes foree equations (V-l) to (V-3) should be replaced,
respectively, by the following X,Y,Z axes weight components:
- _5
2
J4 ( sin3
.7 L - 3 sinL) cos L - . . ._cos 0g sin _g
- _5
8
J4 (35sin4 L - 30 sin 2 L+ 3)- . (V-43)
• I sin 0g}
._52 J4l-_ 4
) (7 sin 3 L- 3 sinL) cos L- . . (sin _hg sin 0g sin q_g + cos _Pg cos q_g)
+ _3
j2( )2(3
s,n2 L-i)-2J3(_----e13(5 sin 3 L-3 sin L)
65
SECTION V - Concluded
-5J4(-_)
cOsL-'2 4(Tsin3L-3sinL) " t (sin_gc°s _gsin0g-cOs _g_in_g)
where
GE = 398 601.2 + 0.4 km3/sec 2 ((14 074 901.1 + 14) X 109 ft3/sec 2)
and J2, J3, and J4 are the second, third, and fourth zonal harmonics. The values
from reference 8 are
J2 = 1082.7(1 + 0.1) × 10 -6
J3 = -2.56(1 + 0.1) × 10 -6
J4 = -1.58(1 ± 0.2) × 10 -6
In equations (V-43) to (V-45), which were derived from the gravitational potential
given in reference 8, oblateness terms through the 4th order are considered and the
earth's longitudinal oblateness is neglected.
66
APPENDIX A
For two orthogonal axes systems, an initial X,Y,Z reference system and an
X' ,Y ',Z' system obtained by rotating the initial system through Euler angles _,8,_
(in that order), the transformations between the two systems are given by these
relationships.
Direct Transformation
! t
The transformation from the initial X,Y,Z system to the X' ,Y ,Z system alined
Y' = r (A-l)
where
Inverse Transformation
67
APPENDIX A - Continued
where m
RATE-GYRO MEASUREMENTS
These equations are simplified forms of the general inverse transformations for
accelerations and angular velocities given in section I; however, they can be used in most
practical applications to correct accelerometer and rate-gyro readings for displacement
and misalinement. For cases that do not fit the assumptions made, the general forms in
section I must be used.
Case I
Acceleration corrections.-
gAx,cg = gAx, i cos O cos _h + gAy,i(sin q5 sin 0 cos _ - sin _ cos _b)
gAy,cg = gAx, i cos 0 sin _ + gAy,i(sin _ sin 0 sin qS'+ cos @ cos gb)
68
APPENDIX A - Continued
(A-10)
r= -Pisin 0+qisin q_ cos 0+r icos 0 cos _b
Case II
If X,Y,Z axes accelerometers or rate gyros are not orthogonally alined but the
misalinements with the vehicle reference axes are small, then these correction equations
can be used. It should be noted that, in equations (A-11) to (A-16), the angles _,0,q5
are in radians.
Acceleration corrections.-
gAx,eg = g(Ax, i - _xAy,i + 0xAz,i ) + (q2 + r2)_ x _ (pq_ r)Yx- (pr + q)ZX (A-11)
gAy,cg = g(,yAx, i + Ay,i_ _byAz,i) _ (pq + _)_y +(p2 + r2)_y _ (qr- f_)_,y (A-12)
(A-13)
gAz,cg = g(-0zAx, i + qSzAy, i + Az,i) - (pr- q):_Z- (qr + P)Yz + (q2 + p2)_ z
Angular-velocity corrections.-
(A-14)
P = Pi - _xqi + 0xri
(A-15)
q = _yPi + qi - _yri
(A-16)
r= -0zp i+ _zqi+ ri
69
APPENDIX A - Continued
These transformations are the simplified forms obtained from the general equa-
tions of section II by assuming zero angles of attack and sideslip and neglecting aerody _-
namic cross derivatives.
X-axis force coefficients and derivatives.-
!
Cx = C x (A-17)
C_ = CX_ (A-18)
Cx q : Cx q + q-
2_ Cx_ - 4_
7- Cx (A-20)
Cy = Cy (A-21)
CT =
yfi Cyfl (A-22)
t
%-- % *_ % (A-24)
, %
Cyr = _mCyfl+ 49 Cy (A-25)
Cz = Cz (A-26)
C_ =
Z_ Czol (A-27)
cz + cz
?cz (A-29)
7O
APPENDIX A - Continued
(A-30)
C 1 = C 1 + [Cy - Cz
(A-._)
cz_ = ct_ + [ Cy_
' Zc • (A-32)
,
(A-33)
C/p = C/p + _ Cyp + _ C1/_ + C Z _ + _-
2_ 2 Cyfi
, _ 2 _A q + 4__ Cy (A-34)
C/r = C/r + _- CYr - Cl/3 _2 Cy/_ + _ _2
Cm Cm + x7Cz _. (A-35)
TCx
C' = x (A-36)
m_ Cm_ + _- Cz_ - [ Cx_
(A-37)
Cm& = Cm& + [ CZ& - _-CX&
2_ 2
' :_ z CXq + _ Cm_ Z_
Cmq = Cmq + _ CZq- _" -_ C
2_ 4_
4:_ C z + 4g2 Cx (A-38)
Cxo l - -_- Cm -
_2 _2 _2
,
C n = C n +_C z - _-Cy (A-39)
,
(A-40)
Cn/_ = Cni3 - _-CYi3
(A-41)
Cn_ = Cn_ - [ Cy_
:_ 2_ 2_ 2
C t +4Yc n 4x-_ Cy (A-43)
n r = Cnr - _- CYr - -_- Cn/3 + 7 Cy/_ - _2
71
APPENDIX A - Continued
Cy = Cy (A-45)
Cm = Cm (A-48)
C t ____
Dot -CXo l cos ot - CZo t sin _ + CL (A-50)
)
sin
CD& = -Cx& cos _ - Cz& (A-51)
= (A-53)
)
72
APPENDIX A - Continued
Cm6 = Cm 5 (A-64)
(A-65)
Cn/3,wt = -Cl_ sin a + Cnfl cos ol
(A-66)
Cn_,wt = -Cn_ sin ot + Cn_ cos
(A-69)
Cn6,w t = -C/6 sin ot + Cn6 cos
Cy, CD, etc., into coefficients about body axes CX, Cy, CZ, etc. They can be
obtained from the general direct transformations in equations (III-1) to (III-36) of sec-
tion III by replacing the angle A by o_ and letting the angle B equal zero.
Cy = Cy (A-71)
Cm = Cm (A-74)
= C' (A-76)
Cxcg - D_ cos a +CLa sina + C N= -CAa
T
73
APPENDIX A - Continued
= (A-78)
= (A-79)
= C t
Cz_ - D_ sin _ - CL_ cos c_ - C A = -CN_ . (A-80)
___ --C t
sin
Cl_= Cl_,w t cos _ - Cn/_,wt
Cl_ = C 1 /_,wt
. cos _ - Cn_,wt sin (A-83)
Cm&=Cm& (A-88)
Cm5 = Cm 5 (A-90)
Ol COS OZ (A-94)
Cn r = Cnr,wt cos 2 _ + Clp,wt sin 2 _ + (C/r,wt + Cnp ,wt) sin
Cn 6 = C/5,wt (A-95)
sin a + Cns,w t cos
74
APPENDIX A - Continued
(A-99)
IXZ,s=(Ix-Iz)sino_0cos °10+Ixz(C°S2 o_0 -sin 2 o_0)
(A-100)
IxY,s = Ixy cos s 0 +Iyz sin s 0
(A-101)
Iyz,s = Iyz cos c_0 - Ixy sin s 0
(A_I02)
Ix, P =I xcos 2 e +I z sin 2 e - 2Ixz sin e cos e
(A-103)
Iy,p = Iy
(A-104)
iz,p =I z cos 2 e +I xsin 2 e +2Ixz sin e cos e
(A-105)
IX = iX,s cos 2 c_0 + Iz, s sin 2 s 0 + 2Ixz,s sin c_0 cos c_0
(A-106)
Iy = Iy, s
(A-107)
iz = iX,s sin 2 c_0 + Iz, s cos 2 s 0 - 2Ixz,s sin s 0 cos s 0
(A-109)
Iyz = Iyz,s cos s 0 + IxY,s sin c_0
(A-110)
Ixy = IxY,s cos s 0 - Iyz,s sin s 0
(A-ill)
Ix,p = Ix, s cos 2 7/+ Iz, s sin 2 _ + 2Ixz,s sin 77 cos 7?
(A-112)
Iy,p = Iy, s
(A-113)
Iz, P = IX, s sin2 _?+ Iz, s cos 2 _?- 2Ixz,s sin _?cos _?
75
APPENDIX A - Continued
Iy = Iy,p (A-115)
These are the linearized equations that describe the small perturbation motions of
a vehicle about a steady-state flight condition. In steady-state flight, the components of
thrust, aerodynamic force, and other forces in a given direction are balanced by the com-
ponent of vehicle weight and, hence, the initial components do not appear in the equations.
Other specific assumptions made in deriving these equations are
(1) Total-velocity components, angular rates, and angles are equal to a steady-
state value plus a small perturbation value; for example, the velocity com-
ponent along the X-axis is u = U o + Au, where u is the total-velocity
component, Uo is the initial steady-state velodity, and Au is the per-
turbation velocity
(4) Pitch and roll perturbation rates are given in terms of the initial pitch and roll
angles Oo and q_o and not in terms of the total pitch and roll angles
Oo+Ao and 4o+Z_; that is,
76
APPENDIX A - Continued
and
sin 0o sin 0o
,+ Ar COS qbo
_i = Ap + Aq sin q5o cos OO cos 00
These equations are written about the body axes but can be converted to the flight
stability axes by letting Wo = 0 and 0o = Yo" Also, to reduce the number of variables
to six, the incremental velocity components Au, Av, and AW can be expressed in
terms of resultant velocity and incremental angle of attack by using the following equa-
tions (the alternative would be to expand the aerodynamic forces on the right-hand side
AV = Voo Aa
Au = AV
AV = V_o Aot
AW = Voo A01
A5
+ _A&_ + CX V -- + CXq CX 5 +...) (A-122)
2m (C X_ As CX& 2Voo AV
Voo A_q_
2V_o, + _
2 +
= pV,.___S
2m C Y_ A_ + Cy_ 2Voo + Cyp 2V_ CYr 2V_o
Ar
(A-123)
77
APPENDIX A - Continued
2m
PVo_S(c Za Aa + CZ& 2V_
A&_+ CZv _AV + CZq 2V---_
Aql[ + _ CZ6 A6+ " " .) (A=124)
The linearized equations of motion can be uncoupled (lateral motions made inde-
pendent of longitudinal motions) by assuming that the vehicle is in straight and level flight
and that there are no components of initial velocity except Uo, Wo, and Qo in the
initial steady-state condition (i.e., V o = Po = Ro = _o = _bo = 0). Under these assump-
tions, longitudinal equations contain only the variables Au, _0, and Aw (q = 0); and
lateral equations contain only the variables Av, Ar, and Ap.
Longitudinal equations.-
AV
A_ + Qo Aw + W o Aq + gOg cos Og,o + Cxv
As + CX& 2Voo
÷ Cxq 2V----_+
Aq_ _ CX6 A _) (A-128)
78
APPENDIX A - Concluded
2
pv£s / _& _ _v
Avv - Q0 Au - U o hq + g0g sin 0g,o
= _ _Cza aa ÷ Cz& _ + Czv v--_
(A-129)
+ CZq _Aq_ + _ Cz 5 A6 /
A_ Iy P S_ Aa + __ + + + A (A-130)
- ma Cm& 2Voo Cm v_ Cmq _ Cm 5
Lateral equations.-
(A-131)
/
_ ___._. + Ap
2 (cl/3 ,,/3÷ Cl_ 2Voo C/p + C/r _Ar_ + _ C/5 _61 (A-132)
_ pv2s {c + + Ap
+ Cnr 2V--'-_ Cn5
2 \ n/3 Cn_ 2Voo Cnp 2Vo_ Ar_+_ A6) (A-133)
The wind-axes equations used in ballistic trajectory studies in which the vehicle is
considered to be a point mass are, along the flight path,
mV dy = pV2_____S
CL _ W cos y (A-135)
dt 2
These equations assume a constant thrust acting parallel to the flight path and
neglect jet damping and reaction control forces.
79
APPENDIX B
REFERENCE CENTER
The aerodynamic forces and moments acting on a flight vehicle can be considered
to be functions of six independent variables: _,/3,V,p,q,r in one system, or u ,v ,w ,p ,q _r
in the alternate system. To evaluate force and moment derivatives at a new reference
center, such as at a new c.g., the derivatives at the new center, which represent changes
in forces or moments with changes in the independent variables, both evaluated at the new
center, are written, for example,
(B-I)
f m f _Y _f m f mT
where the forces X ,Y ,Z and moments L ,M ,N at the new reference center are
X =X L =_+_Y -
__, __ __, 9Z ]
(B-2)
Y_, =_Y M M +_Z- _Xl
The variables _,t3,V,p,q,r evaluated at the original reference center can now be
expressed as dependent functions of the independent variables _',/3',V',p',q',r' of the
new system through the equations
8O
APPENDIX B - Continued
= tan. 1 __
w = tan-1 V' sin a' cos _' - py + cl:_
u V' cos c_' cos/3' - q_ + r_
V' = Vu2 + v 2 + w 2
:V(V' cos ol' cos fl' -q_. +r_) 2 +(V' sin/3' = rz_+p_)2 +(V' sin or' cos /3' -p:_+q_)2
q q' (B-4)
r r
0 0 0 0 0 0
Since from equations (B-4) --7
8p = ap' 0q' = _q' Or' = 0-'r' and derivatives such as
813 = _ = 0 (they are derivatives of one independent variable with respect to another)
aq, aq,
the derivatives in equations (B-l) can be evaluated from equations (B-3) and (B-4) as
a___.a
=1 _ = 2y_v= ap = __ag_
- = ___r= 0
D_ w D_ t 8_ _ D_ t Da t D_ T
bo_ _ -:_ cos o_ _ = z cos _ + y sin el sin _ o__V = E sin/3 - y sin oz cos /3
ap' V cos/3 ap' V ap'
b__ = 1 _ = b_ff_r
=o (B-5)
ap' _p, op'
8q = I 8p = 8__Er=0
aq' aq, _I'
bet = -_ sin et 0/3 = -x cos _ - y cos ot sin _ b._V =_ cos et cos /3 - z_ sin /3
br' V cos t3 br' V br'
2_.L
=i 2E=___= o
Or' br t br'
81
APPENDIX B - Continued
Substituting equations (B-5) and (B-2) into equations (B-l) and nondimensionalizing yields
the transformation equations given in section IX.
The transformations for the u,v,w derivatives (eqs. (II-41) to (II-77) of Sec. II)
are derived in the same way except that in this system the derivatives are of the form
Jt
aX 0X _u 0X av 0X _ 0X 8p 0X aq_ @X Or
---c=
au 8u au'+ av au'+ _w au'+ _p au'+--_--_u '+ Or au'
o••e•••o•ee•••e•••oe•o•ee•ooo (B-6)
OX oX 8u oX 8v + 0x aw + ox 0p + ox aq_ + OX Or
--F
Or = hi Or' + Ov Or' Ow Or' _p Or' _l Or' Or _r'
The derivatives in equations (B-6) are evaluated from equations expressing velocity com-
ponents at the original reference center in terms of those at the new reference center as
u=u' -q_+r:_
k
v = v' - rx + pz} (B-7)
-I
w=w' -py +qxJ
au av _¢¢ ap ___ Or ;
_u' " av' _V' 8p' 8q' Or'
au av 8w
ap, = 0 _p, = _ = -_
(B-8)
au_ _ --_-_=o --_-_=:_
at' aq, at'
_--_--
= :_ --_-_= -_ _----=o
Or' Or' Or'
Substituting these derivatives from equations (B-8) along with equations (B-2) into
equations of the form (B-6) and nondimensionalizing then yield the transformations for
as CXv, CYv , and Cmv, are written in terms of static forces and moments by making
use of the following relationship:
82
APPENDIX B - Concluded
= {pV2SCx
therefore,
-- = pVSC
8__XX x + { pV2S aCx
8--_ (B 9)
aV
a_X_X
= pVSC x (B-10)
aV
The transformations given in section II for the static force and moment coefficients
and the static-stability derivatives (derivatives with respect to _ or _) are simplified
forms that apply only if there is no vehicle rotation and p, q, and r are zero. Although
it probably is not practical to use such forms, more general forms can be derived that
account for significant rotation; for example, it can be shown that the complete form of
a_/8_' from equations (B-3) is
and, by similarly evaluating 8_/8_' and 8V/8c_', it can be shown that the more com-
C'=x_ Cx_Ii(q_-ry)
c°s_+(PY-q'q)sin"_+ V cos
83
APPEND_ C
The methods presented here are a summary of methods used at the Langley
Research Center to measure moments of inertia of rocket-propelled models and the
methods presented in reference 3 for determining c.g. locations and moments of inertia,
of full-scale airplanes. In these methods all oscillations are assumed to be small.
Some other limitations and precautions that must be taken in using these methods, and
which apply to all methods, are discussed in reference 3.
CENTER-OF-GRAVITY LOCATION
The longitudinal c.g. location can be determined by mounting the aircraft or rocket
on weighing scales. For a typical aircraft installation, two scales measuring the forces
R 1 and R2 are located at wing jack points and a third scale measuring the force R 3
is located at some distance _ forward or aft of the jack points. The longitudinal dis-
tance from the jack points to the c.g. is then given by
= R3_
R1 + R2 + R3 (C-l)
In order to determine the vertical c.g. location the vehicle is mounted on a knife
edge as shown in figure 10. The weighing cradle has a weight Wc and a centroid _c,
and the vehicle is supported in various roll and pitch attitudes by a vertical reaction
force R1 acting at a distance Yl" The distance from the knife edge to the airplane c.g.
is obtained from measurements of R1, Yl, and q_ by using the equation
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
This method is used mainly to determine pitch and roll moments of inertia on small
models that can easily be mounted with a single attachment point. The moment of inertia
of the model about an axis through the model c.g. is given by
84
APPENDIX C - Continued
The subscript M+S refers to the model plus the supporting hardware, S to the sup-
from the knife
porting hardware alone, and M to the model alone. The distance zM+S'
edge to the c.g. of the model plus supporting hardware, is obtained from
WS_ s + WM_ M
(C -4)
ZM+ s = WM+S
Spring Method
This method is usually used to measure pitch and roll moments of inertia when the
model is so large that more than one support is needed. The model is mounted on a knife
edge and springs are attached at equal distances on both sides of the knife edge, as shown
in figure 12. The moment of inertia canbe determined from the equation
This method, which is described in detail in reference 3, uses two sets of springs
with each set having a different spring constant, so that both the moments of inertia and
the vertical c.g. location can be determined. The springs are arranged as shown in fig-
ure 13. The moment of inertia about the point axis through the knife edge is given by
The vertical distance from the knife edge to the c.g. of the model is then determined from
\P2)J w
where Wc and _c are the weight and c.g° vertical displacement (measured from the
knife edge) of the weighing cradle that is used. The constants Kt, 1 and Kt, 2 are
determined from the constants for the springs shown in figure 13 by the equations
85
APPENDIX C - Concluded
Kt, 1 = 2Ks,las 2
Kt, 2 = 2Ks,2as 2
Torsion-Pendulum Method
Used for measuring yaw moments of inertia, this method involves mounting the
model on a torsion shaft as shown in figure 14(a). The moment of inertia about the lon-
gitudinal axis of the shaft is given by
I = kp2+S kPS2
(C-8)
4y 2 4_ 2
Multifilar-Pendulum Methods
Essentially the same as the torsion spring method except that the vertical wires or
rods provide the restraining spring moment, an example of a bifilar pendulum is shown in
figure 14(b). The moments of inertia are determined from
p2
I = WM+S M+S 5.2 WS PS 2 5.2 (C-9)
16_2 _' 16_2 _'
where 5. is the diameter of the circle around which the wires or rods are attached and
_' is the length of one of the wires or rods. A system with two wires is called a bifilar
pendulum; a system with three is called a trifilar pendulum. In using these methods, the
wires or rods must be centered about the system mass center.
86
APPENDIX D
Perhaps the simplest and most direct method of analyzing transient flight data is to
determine static- and dynamic-stability derivatives from the frequency and the time to
damp to half-amplitude of transient motions, such as the damped angle-of-attack oscilla-
tion shown in figure 15. This method has been used effectively to determine the control
response characteristics of rocket-propelled models in reference 9. Even when a more
sophisticated analysis is planned, this method can provide, before the detailed analysis
is begun, a fairly accurate quick-look assessment of the vehicle characteristics from the
basic flight records.
(i) The forward velocity and the Mach number of the vehicle are constant
(2) The longitudinal aerodynamic forces vary linearly with angle of attack a, pitch
angle 8, elevator deflection 5e, da/dt, and d_/dt; lateral aerodynamic forces are
assumed to vary linearly with sideslip angle /_, yaw angle _h, rudder deflection 6r,
d/_/dt, and d_/dt
(3) The vehicle is in level flight before the control deflection is applied
(4) Longitudinal and lateral motions are independent of each other (all aerodynamic
da (D-I)
mV_° dI_ _-) = CL, o + CLaa + CLSe 5e
where CL, o and Cm, o are the values of lift and pitching-moment coefficient in
trimmed level flight. The solution to equations (D-l) and (D-2) is of the form
87
APPENDIX D - Continued
Cma 6 CmqCLa
(D-5)
- I' 2V_ I'm' (a')2
and
m' = --
mVj
qooS
(D-6)
I' = Iy
qooSc
The damping constant a' and the frequency co are determined from measured quanti-
ties; a' can be calculated from the rate of decay of the oscillation (see fig. 15) as
Ao_2
where tl/2 is the time for the oscillation to damp to one-half its initial amplitude. The
frequency co can be calculated from the period of the oscillation P as
2_
(D-8)
P
Equation (D-5) can be rewritten as
CmqCL a
(D-9)
Cma=-I'_a')2+ w2]- _2_oo m t
The last term of equation (D-9) is usually very small compared to the first term (usually
less than 1 percent) and may be omitted in most cases. (See ref. 9.) Omitting this term
and substituting equations (D-7) and (1)-8) give the equations for the longitudinal static-
and dynamic-stability derivatives in terms of the period and the time to damp to half-
amplitude of the oscillation as
88
APPENDIX D - Concluded
(D-12)
(Cm_
+Cm_)--
--_\_ w_c,._
Similar equations for the lateral derivatives can be developed as
(D-13)
of Cn_ and (Cnr - Cn_) given by equations (D-13) and (D-14) are those about the stabil-
ity axes.
It should be noted that the mean values of angle of attack or sideslip do not neces-
sarily correspond to the trim value, so that the mean value that is used to determine
tl/2 (eq. (D-7)) must be obtained by selecting positive and negative amplitudes from the
angle-of-attack or sideslip envelopes and determining the mean of these positive and
negative amplitudes.
89
APPENDIX E
IN MOTION CALCULATIONS
In the equations of motion and throughout this report, vehicle orientation with
respect to given axes is specified in terms of the Euler angles ¢,,0,c>. Two other
methods can be used, however, to specify alinement. One is to give the alinement in ,
terms of direction cosines; the other is to specify alinement in terms of "Euler param_
eters," which are components of a four-parameter quantity called a quaternion. Whereas
there is no particular advantage in one of these methods over the other, both have certain
advantages over the use of the Euler angles. Both eliminate the singularities that occur
when vehicle attitudes approach +90 ° (a condition known as gimbal lock) and, whereas the
equations relating Euler angles to angular rates are nonlinear (eqs. (V-7) to (V-9) of
Sec. V), those relating direction cosines and Euler parameters to angular rates are linear,
so that the computational procedure is simplified, particularly in analog computations.
Either method is preferred to the Euler angle method, therefore, in certain applications.
The basic equations needed in applying these two methods are given here.
DIRECTION-COSINE METHOD
In the direction-cosine method, the axes transformation for any vector has the form
e' =D (E-l)
Z'
_XY
90
APPENDIX E - Continued
_XZ = -sin 0
It can be shown that D can be determined from the angular velocities by using equa-
0 co
Z' -coy,
0 (E -4)
-w Z, coX' D
0
L_wy, - coX,
which is a linear (matrix) differential equation. The angular velocities ¢°X' 'coY' 'coZ'
are those of the pri:ded axes system (see eq. (E-l)) with respect to the unprimed axes
system. In motion calculations where the primed axes are considered as the vehicle
body or other reference axes and the unprimed axes are taken as the gravity-axis sys-
tem (see fig. 5), coX, ,coy, ,W Z, can be determined from the body-axes angular velocities
p,q,r by
-L
coX' !-P-
(E -5)
coy, = q
-D + )cos
L
-(_e + i)sin L
coZ' r
m
coX' = Pl
(E -6)
coY' = _l
coZ'
91
APPENDIX E - Continued
QUATERNION METHOD
Y' - G
(E-7)
G
2(ele 2 - e0e3) e02 - el2 + e22 - e32 ) 2(e0e I + e2e3) (E -8)
where eo,el,e2,e 3 are real numbers and the vectors i,j,k satisfy the following
conditions:
-h
i 2 = j2 = k 2 = -i
jk = -kj = 1_
(E-10)
ij = -ji = k ki -ik
The quantity e0 is the real or scalar part of the quaternion; the terms eli + e2J + e3k
make up the imaginary part. The length or norm of the quaternion is defined as
The transformation in equation (E-7) can also be written in terms of the quaternion and
its Conjugate as
(E-13)
92
APPENDIX E - Concluded
!e
-'0_ --el -e 2
_/.
-e 3
el =i_. (E-14)
e2 2 e3 e0
-e 2
e0 e I
-el_
e0_-
iI r]-G
-
(£e
u__e
+ X)c°s
O O
eI cos 2_ cos _ sin _ - sin _ sin _ c°s
CE-15)
2(e0e 1 + e2e3)
tan _ =
2(o:e2 +e0e3)
e02 - el2 - e22+e
93
APPENDIX F
SCALING PARAMETERS
This appendix summarizes parameters for the three types of scaling used in aero-
dynamic testing: dynamic, aerodynamic, and aeroelastic. These parameters establish
the requirements for a given type of scaling in that each significant parameter must have
the same value for both model and prototype if the simulation is to be valid. In most
cases, it is impossible to satisfy all the scaling requirements at the same time and com_
promise techniques have to be worked out. A knowledge of the scaling parameters is
essential to understanding and applying these techniques.
DYNAMIC-SCALING PARAMETERS
In addition, the scaling assumes geometric similarity between model and prototype
as well as similarity in mass distribution. The scale factors given in table VI were
obtained by satisfying all these requirements.
AERODYNAMIC-SCALING PARAMETERS
Aerodynamic-scaling parameters must have the same value for model and proto-
type if the flow field around the model and, hence, the aerodynamic force and moment
94
APPENDIX F - Continued
The pressure force considered in Much number (eq. (F-5)) is that due to the pres-
sure differential across a shock wave in compressible flow. The pressure-force param-
eter considered in incompressible flow is
The Euler number is usually not important because usually the resultant body forces are
measured; however, it becomes important when body forces are determined from mea-
surements of pressure distribution.
fluid, and
where AT is the temperature difference between two representative points in the fluid •
and To is a representative temperature.
95
APPENDIX F - Continued
Aeroelastic-Scaling Parameters
The basic aeroelastic-scaling parameters to be satisfied in simulating deforma-
tions caused by aerodynamic loads are
For structural elongation:
EA _ (F-11)
pV2_ 2
For structural bending:
EI
(F-12)
pV2_ 2
in whieh it is assumed that the strains in the model structure are the same as for the
It is also assumed that neither model nor prototype materials are stressed beyond their
elastic limits and that the ratios of shear-to-tensile stress and of shear-to-elastic
modulus are the same for model and prototype. A more thorough discussion of elastic
scaling is given in reference 11.
Dynamic Scaling
Aerodynamic Scaling
96
APPENDIX E- Concluded
to one in which only two of the parameters, Reynolds number and Mach number, are
important. In most problems, the effect of the fluid gravity on the motion is negligible,
and so the Froude number and the Grashof number of the fluid can be neglected. It can
be shown that the Prandtl number is the same for model and prototype if the ratio of
specific heats Cp//C v is the same for both, and this condition is automatically satisfied
if air is used as the fluid in the model tests. A still further simplification is possible
because Reynolds number effects are limited to the narrow boundary-layer region at the
body surface and the flow outside the boundary layer is practically without the influence
of viscosity. Thus, Reynolds number and Mach number effects can be considered sepa-
rately. Most wind-tunnel tests at transonic and supersonic speeds are made at the full-
scale Mach number. The Reynolds number effects, called scale effects, are accounted
97
REFERENCES
1. Breuhaus, Waldemar O.: Resum6 of the Time Vector Method as a Means for Analyz-
ing Aircraft Stability Problems. WADC Tech. Rep. 25-299, U.S. Air Force, Nov.
1952.
2. Taylor, Lawrence W., Jr.; Iliff, Kenneth W.; and Powers, Bruce G.: A Comparison of
Newton-Raphson and Other Methods for Determining Stability Derivatives From
Flight Data. AIAA Paper No. 69-315, Mar. 1969.
4. Thelander, J.A.: Aircraft Motion Analysis. FDL-TDR-64-70, U.S. Air Force, Mar.
1965.
7. Alien, Willie L.; and Weight, Robert H.: The Use of Flightpath Accelerometers in
Performance Flight Testing. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Air Force Science
& Engineering Symposium, Vol. II, U.S. Air Force, Sept. 1966.
8. Melbourne, William G.; Mulholland, J. Derral; Sjogren, William L.; and Sturms,
Francis M., Jr.: Constants and Related Information for Astrodynamic Calcula-
tions, 1968. Tech. Rep. No. 32-1306 (Contract NAS 7-100), Jet Propulsion Lab.,
California Inst. Technol., July 15, 1968.
9. Gillis, Clarence L.; and Mitchell, Jesse L.: Determination of Longitudinal Stability
and Control Characteristics From Free-Flight Model Tests With Results at Tran-
sonic Speeds for Three Airplane Configurations. NACA Rep. 1337, 1957.
10. Wagner, William E.; and Serold, Arno C.: Formulation on Statistical Trajectory
Estimation Programs. NASA CR-1482, 1970.
12. Pankhurst, R. C.; and Holder, D.W.: Wind-Tunnel Technique. Sir Isaac Pitman
& Sons, Ltd. (London), 1965.
13. Braslow, Albert L.; Hicks, Raymond M.; and Harris, Roy V., Jr.: Use of Grit-Type
Boundary-Layer-Transition Trips on Wind-Tunnel Models. NASA TN D-3579, 1966.
14. Mechtly, E.A.: The International System of Units - Physical Constants and Conver-
sion Factors (Revised). NASA SP-7012, 1969.
98
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON METHODS OF ANALYZING FLIGHT DATA
Breuhaus, Waldemar O.: Resum_ of the Time Vector Method as a Means for Analyzing
Aircraft Stability Problems. WADC Tech. Rep. 25-299, U.S. Air Force, Nov. 1952.
$
Breuhaus, W. O.; and Segel, L.: Notes on Aircraft Dynamic Stability Testing and Analysis
Techniques. Rep. No. CAL-51, Cornell Aeronautical Lab., Inc., Apr. 9, 1953.
Charters, A. C.: The Linearized Equations of Motion Underlying the Dynamic Stability
of Aircraft, Spinning Projectiles, and Symmetrical Missiles. NACA TN 3350, 1955.
Doetsch, K.H.: The Time Vector Method for Stability Investigations. R. & M. No. 2945,
Brit. A.R.C., 1957.
Dolbin, Benjamin H., Jr.: A Differential Correction Method for the Identification of Air-
plane Parameters From Flight Test Data. Proceedings of the National Electronics
Conference, Vol. XXV, 1969, pp. 90-94.
Donegan, James J.: Matrix Methods for Determining the Longitudinal-Stability Deriva-
tives of an Airplane From Transient Flight Data. NACA Rep. 1169, 1954.
Donegan, James J.; and Pearson, Henry A.: Matrix Method of Determining the
Longitudinal-Stability Coefficients and Frequency Response of an Aircraft From
Transient Flight Data. NACA Rep. 1070, 1952. (Supersedes NACA TN 2370.)
Donegan, James J.; Robinson, Samuel W., Jr.; and Gates, Ordway B., Jr.: Determination
of Lateral-Stability Derivatives and Transfer-Function Coefficients From Frequency-
Response Data for Lateral Motions. NACA Rep. 1225, 1955. (Supersedes NACA
TN 3083.)
Duncan, W.J.: The Principles of the Control and Stability of Aircraft. Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1952.
Eggleston, John M.; and Mathews, Charles W.: Application of Several Methods for Deter-
mining Transfer Functions and Frequency Response of Aircraft From Flight Data.
NACA Rep. 1204, 1954. (Supersedes NACA TN 2997.)
Etkin, Bernard: Dynamics of Flight. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., c.1959.
Gates, S. R.; and Lyon, H. M.: A Continuation of Longitudinal Stability and Control
Analysis. Pt. II. Interpretation of Flight Tests. R. & M. No. 2028, Brit. A.R.C.,
Aug. 1944.
99
Greenberg , Harry." A Survey of Methods for Determining Stability Parameters of an
Airplane From Dynamic Flight Measurements. NASA TN 2340, 1951.
Lasdon, L. S.; Mitter, S. K.; and Waren, A.D.: The Conjugate Gradient Method for
Optimal Control Problems. IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr., vol. AC-12, no. 2, Apr.
1967, pp. 132-138.
Milliken, William F., Jr.: Progress in Dynamic Stability and Control Research.
J. Aeronaut. Sci., vol. 14, no. 9, Sept. 1947, pp. 493-519.
Mueller, R.K.: The Graphical Solution of Stability Problems. J. Aeronaut. Sci., vol. 4,
no. 8, June 1937, pp. 324-331.
Perkins, Courtland D.; and Hage, Robert E.: Airplane Performance Stability and Control.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., c.1949.
Rampy, John; and Berry, Donald T.: Determination of Stability Derivatives From Flight
Test Data by Means of High Speed Repetitive Operation Analog Matching.
FTC-TDR-64-8, U.S. Air Force, May 1964. (Available from DDC as AD 440 785.)
Schumacher, Lloyd E.: A Method for Evaluating Aircraft Stability Parameters From
Flight Test Data. USAF Tech. Rep. No. WADC-TR-52-71, U.S. Air Force, June
1952.
Shinbrot, Marvin: A Least Squares Curve Fitting Method With Applications to the Cal-
culation of Stability Coefficients From Transient-Response Data. NACA TN 2341,
1951.
Shinbrot, Marvin: On the Analysis of Linear and Nonlinear Dynamical Systems From
Transient-Response Data. NACA TN 3288, 1954.
Swanson, Robert S.; and Mastrocola, N.: Survey of Methods for Determining Stability
Derivatives in Free Flight. U.S. Naval Air Missile Test Center, Aug. 2, 1948. •
i00
Wolowicz, Chester H.: Time-Vector Determined Lateral Derivatives of a Swept-Wing
Fighter-Type Airplane With Three Different Vertical Tails at Mach Numbers
Between 0.70 and 1.48. NACA RM H56C20, 1956.
Young, Peter C.: Process Parameter Estimation and Self Adaptive Control. Theory of
Self-Adaptive Control Systems, P. H. Hammond_ ed., Plenum Press, 1966,
pp. 118-140.
Zbrozek, J.K.: On the Extraction of Stability Derivatives From Full-Scale Flight Data.
AGARD Rep. 190, Apr. 1958.
i01
TABLE I.- CONVERSION OF U.S. CUSTOMARY UNITS TO SI UNITS
Multiply by to obtain
Physical quantity U.S. Customary Unit conversion factor SI Unit
(a) (b)
Angle deg 0.01745329 rad
Length ft 0.3048 m
Area ft 2 0.09290304 m 2
Temperature OF (c)
oc (c)
OR (c) K
kilo(k) 103
hecto (h) 102
deka (da) i0
deci (d) i0-I
K=_ 5 (o F + 459.67)
K = oc + 273.15
f_=5°R
9
102
TABLE II.- RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN o_,_,V AND u,v,w DERIVATIVES
sin a sin
CX_ = -CXu cos _ sin fi + CXv cos _ - CXw
sin
CXu = -Cxa cos Cx_ cos a sin _ + CXv cos a cos
sin a cos
CX w = CX v cos
COS _a Cx_ sin a sin _ + CXv
103
TABLE III.- ANGLE DESIGNATIONS FOR DIRECT a TRANSFORMATIONS
l
Angle designation
Axes conversion I
From To A B
(Unprimed coefficients) (Primed coefficients)
b 0
Principal Body 6
Wind Principal OZ - 6
bAngles e and _/ between the principal axes and the body and flight stabil-
tan 2e = 2Ixz
I z - IX
2Ixz
tan 2_/= ,s
IX, s - Iz, s
104
TABLE IV.- ANGLE DESIGNATIONS FOR INVERSE a TRANSFORMATIONS
From To A B
(P rimed coefficients) (Unprimed coefficients)
C 0
Body Principal
0
Body Flight stability a0
Wind-tunnel stability 01 0
Body
Body Wind
nb 0
Principal Flight stability
o_ - e b 0
Principal Wind-tunnel stability
Wind 0l - E
Principal
0
Flight stability Wind-tunnel stability a = a0
(table III and eqs. (III=l) to (III-54)) and represent rotation of primed axes system,
through angle -A about Y-axis and then through angle +B about Z =axis, until
axes coincide with original unprimed system.
105
TABLE V.- DESIGNATIONS OF FORCE AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
Component
Body or Flight Wind -tunnel
Wind
principal stability stability
(a)
t
X-axis force Cx or -C A Cx,s -C D -C D
Y-axis force Cy Cy,s Cy CC
Z-axis force CZ or -C N -C L -C L
CZ,s
X-axis moment (roll) Cl C1 ,s Cl ,wt C1 ,w
Y-axis moment (pitch) Cm Cm,s Cm ,wt Cm ,w
Z-axis moment (yaw) Cn Cn,s Cn,wt Cn,w
106
TABLE VI.- SCALE FACTORS a FOR DYNAMIC SCALING
b Definitions of symbols:
Rl = Model length
Prototype length
107
Vehicle moment reference center
P Xi
Instrument center
Y
q
r
Yi
Zi
108
Center of gravity
JS- x,
y,_.r _.New reference center to which
data are to be referred
Z_
Figure 2.- Axes systems for transfer from vehicle c.g. to new reference center
by equations of section If.
Yw
Yb ,YP, Ys, Yw t
Figure 3.- Systems of vehicle reference axes, including body, principal, wind,
flight stability, and wind-tunnel stability.
109
X
/ Xg
\
Xe
Z
Z e
Ye
110
. , -. • .
X
Vertical velocity of vehicle
nocrceo
ocoue
y Xe
Ye
Ze
112
Xb
Figure 7.- Resolution of relative velocity into components along vehicle body axes.
113
Tangent to circle of local latitude _--_i /
_ __ Xe
Ze
Figure 9.- Alinement with respect to vehicle reference axes of thrust and torque
dueto rotating mass of engine.
(_ Cradle
RI
Pivot point
115
Pivot point
k
>
_ Pivot
point
/// /t/// / _'1 II /; ///
116
Figure 13.- Determination of vertical location of center of gravity and rolling moments of inertia
for full-scale airplanes. (Reproduced from ref. 3.)
Iii111
!
_ Vehicle c.g.
_ _'__
118
a
Time ,seconds ._