ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K.

Mwangi
LOSSES FROM PRECCIPITATION
Precipitation loss is the difference between precipitation and stream flow. It equals evaporation,
transpiration, interception, depression storage and infiltration. However, evaporation is the major loss.
It is the quantity of water unavailable for, HEP generation, Irrigation or domestic / industrial use.
EVAPORATION
Is a continuous process by which liquids change to gaseous state at the free water surface below boiling
point through heat energy transfer. It occurs when water molecules are sufficiently energized to break
through the surface and escape into the atmosphere. For evaporation to occur, a source of heat and a
water vapor concentration gradient between the evaporating surface and surrounding air are required.
Water is also lost from the soil surface and from vegetation through transpiration. The combined loss of
water from the soil, water surfaces and vegetation is known as evapotranspiration.

As evaporation occurs, the surrounding air becomes saturated with moisture, slowing down
evaporation unless saturated air is removed continuously which requires fast moving wind. Wind speed
therefore affects evaporation rate. In evaporating soil surfaces, evaporation is affected by degree of
shading by crop canopy and amount of water available at the evaporating surface. Although evaporation
takes place in all phases of the cycle it is most pronounced in the land phase of the cycle.

Evaporation data is useful in assessment of water loss in reservoirs and computation of crop water
requirements used in design of irrigation systems. Evaporation is one of the components of the water
budget and is key in addressing water management issues especially in ASALs. Direct measurement of
evaporation is difficult because existing instruments cannot accurately simulate natural conditions.
However, methods exist of estimating evaporation and correlating it with field data. These include: direct
measurement using evaporating pans, use of empirical equations that account for factors controlling
evaporation using standard observations of temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation wind speed
and air pressure. Water balance, Energy budget and mass transfer methods are also used.

TABLE 1: ILLUSTRATION OF AVERAGE EVAPORATION RATES FOR DIFFERENT CONTINENTS

Continent Precipitation Evaporation % Loss by evaporation Runoff
(mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr.) (mm/yr)
1 2 3 4 5
Africa 690 430 62.3 260
Asia 600 310 51.7 290
Australia 470 420 89.4 50
Europe 640 390 60.9 250
North America 660 320 48.5 340
South America 1630 700 42.9 930
Land Area 730 420 57.5 310

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

Meteorological
Air temperature:
Water surface temperature governs the rate at which water molecules leave the water surface and
enter the overlying air. Saturation vapor pressure of water also depends on air temperature. An increase
in air temperature increases kinetic energy and decreases surface tension. All other factors remaining
constant evaporation rate increases with rise in air temperature though not proportionately.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
Solar radiation:
Change of state from liquid to gaseous requires energy input, hence the process is faster under direct
sun’s radiation. Obstructions to solar radiation such as cloud cover that reduce energy input slows down
evaporation. Evaporation is directly proportional to solar radiation.

Wind velocity:
Wind removes evaporated water vapor from the surrounding air there-by creating space for
more vapor. In the absence of wind above the water body and evaporated water vapor in a still
condition, further evaporation ceases. If wind speed is large enough to remove all evaporated water
vapor (critical speed), further increase in wind speed has no effect on evaporation rate.

Relative humidity: Evaporation rate is proportional to the difference between actual humidity and
saturated humidity at any given temperature. As air humidity increases, its ability to absorb more water
vapor decreases thus slowing down evaporation and unless the boundary air is replaced by air drier than
the one being displaced, evaporation ceases.

Nature of evaporating surface: Colour/reflective properties of the evaporating surface (albedo),

surface cover, exposure and water table depth all affect evaporation rate. Under the same temperature,
evaporation from saturated soil surface is the same as that of adjacent water surface. Presence /
absence of vegetation cover also affects evaporation.

Atmospheric pressure and altitude:

The number of air molecules per unit volume increases with pressure. Under high pressure chances are
that vapor molecules escaping from the water surface will collide with air molecules and rebound back
into water thus decreasing evaporation. All factors remaining constant, a decrease in air pressure as in
high altitudes, increases evaporation. At high altitude however, temperature is also low which reduces
evaporation. An Increase in atmospheric pressure decreases evaporation as in deep valleys.

Water Quality (salinity and dissolved solids):

Soluble salts reduce evaporation rate depending on the % of salts present (higher for fresh water). When
a solute dissolves in water, the vapor pressure of the resultant solution is less than that of pure water
which causes a reduction in evaporation rate corresponding to increase in specific gravity of the
solution. Under similar conditions evaporation from sea water is 2-3% less than that from fresh water.
Turbidity reduces evaporation. Black cotton soils evaporate soil water faster than red soils because of
their ability to absorb incoming radiation. Deep water bodies evaporate slower than shallow ones in
warm seasons but faster than them in cold seasons because of their ability to retain heat.

Estimation of evaporation: This is of utmost importance in many hydrologic problems associated with
planning and operation of reservoirs and irrigation systems. In ASALS this estimation is particularly
important in order to conserve the scarce water resource.

Methods of estimating evaporation:

Empirical equations: These include Water balance, Energy balance, Mass transfer and combined mass
transfer methods. Although they provide fast estimates, their application is limited by data
requirements as required parameters are often difficult to measure. Most of them are based on Dalton’s
law with modifications to account for factors that affect evaporation. Common ones include:
Dalton’s law:

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Meyer’s Equation (1915):

Rohwer’s Equation (1931):

Lake Mead’s equation:

  
E= 0.0331V es  ea 1  0.03 Ta  Tw  where Ta and Tw are average temperatures (⁰C) of air and
water surfaces respectively.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
Although these equations estimate evaporation quickly, they should be used with caution. Constants in
the equations vary for different areas and watersheds. Difficult to apply if required data is not available.

Water balance (budget) Method:

This is based on continuity of flow and involves drawing a balance sheet of water entering, leaving and
stored in a water body over a period of time. Evaporation is estimated in its simplest form as:

 Inflow   outflow  Change in storage + Evaporation Loss (which is the unknown)

OR
E = P + I – O + Ou + ∆S where
P = total precipitation
I = total inflow
O = total outflow
Ou = total underground inflow (+) or outflow (-)
∆S = change in storage (+) for an increase and (-) for a decrease.
NB: for the equation to apply, all parameters should be in the same units.

Note:
Evaporation is computed as a residual term and its accuracy is subject to errors from the other terms.
Accuracy can be improved by increasing the time interval for which the equation is applied e.g. from
month to year. The equation is good for theoretical considerations or when applied in water
tight lakes / reservoirs.

Example:
A reservoir with a surface area of 2.4 km2 receives 1,270 mm of rainfall over a 12-month period. During
the same period mean stream inflow to the reservoir was 0.15m3/s, outflow 0.13m3/s and increase in
storage 1.2x105m3. Estimate the evaporation from the reservoir in mm. Ignore seepage losses.

Energy balance method: This method lists all sources of thermal energy (net radiation income) and
balances it with thermal energy expenditure, leaving E as the only unknown. It Involves measurement of
many hydro-meteorological factors that require sophisticated equipment hence used only in specialised
studies like in research laboratories. Has little practical application in the field.

Mass transfer (Aerodynamic) Method: is based on the determination of the mass of water vapor
transferred from the water surface to the atmosphere. The approach is based on Dalton’s aerodynamic
law that gives relationship between evaporation and vapor pressure as:
E   (es  ea ) where E- direct evaporation, k a coefficient which depends on wind velocity,
atmospheric pressure and other factors, es and ea are saturation vapor pressures corresponding to air
temperature and actual vapor pressure in the air above respectively. The formula can be modified by
multiplying with a function of wind speed f (u) and k, defined as a constant, E  f (u )(es  ea ) .

Penman’s Method: Energy-balance and mass-transfer methods have drawbacks in terms of practical
application. PENMAN combined the two methods to derive an equation that estimates evaporation on
the basis of meteorological data routinely collected at meteorological stations such as:
i. Average daily atmospheric pressure
ii. Average daily temperature

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
iii. Average daily vapor pressure (humidity)
iv. Actual number of sunshine hours
v. Average daily wind velocity (measured at 2m) above the water surface. He gave the equation:

H E a
PET   Where
   
PET- Daily potential evapotranspiration in mm/day
∆- slope of the curve of saturation vapor pressure versus temperature at mean air temperature, in mm
of Hg per ⁰C.
γ- Psychometric constant whose value is assumed as 0.49mmHg when temperature is expressed in ⁰C.
Ea-Parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit
H-Net radiation exchange measured in mm of evaporable water per day (same as used in energy budget
method)

Example:
The following observations were made at a dam site on a day when mean air temperature (T) was 20°C,
average water spread area 2.7km2 and effective net radiation 6.4mm/day.
 0.66
The dimensionless factor  (1  ) 1
 [0.00815T  0.8912]
Factor Ea. = 2.8mm/day
Using Penman’s equation, calculate the reservoir evaporation in ha-m.
Solution

 0.615 , Taking T as 20⁰C, γ = 0.626∆ and substituting in Penman’s expression

E = 0.615(6.4) + 0.626(0.615)2.8 = 5.014 mm/day
Taking reservoir area as 270ha and evaporation depth as 5.014 x 10-3m, evaporation loss in ha-m is
1.354ha-m (Familiarize yourselves with use of the various forms of expressing evaporation loss).

Measurement of evaporation from free water surfaces using evaporation pans:

This is the most reliable of the available methods. Measurement is done using a USWB Class A
evaporation pan installed as either a surface, sunken or floating pan. A floating pan is used to study
evaporation in lakes and reservoirs and is set afloat to simulate characteristics of a large reservoir with
water level in the pan kept the same as that in the lake. Measured evaporation closely matches that of
the lake. Its main disadvantages include high cost of installation, maintenance and difficulty in taking
measurements. A sunken pan is buried in the ground such that the water level is just above the ground
surface. Radiation and aerodynamic characteristics of the pan are expected to closely match those of a
reservoir. Expensive to install and difficult to detect leaks because of lack of exposure on the surface.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Sunken Pan
Standard evaporation (Surface) pan
For purposes of comparison evaporation pans should be of the same size, shape and be exposed to the
same conditions. The following instrument and exposure has been adopted as standard for East Africa.
Interior is painted black to absorb incoming solar radiation and exterior including the protective mesh
grid with aluminium to reduce radiative loss. It is mounted on 4 lengths of timber 4.5ft long and 4 by 4
inches in cross-section to ease air circulation and leak detection. The pans are supplied with a wire
mesh bird guard to prevent access to the pan by birds and other animals and reduce
maintenance requirements (figure 1).

Water is filled to a depth of 20cm and level measured daily with a hook gauge in a stilling well located
inside the pan. Measurement is taken once daily by adding water to the pan using a calibrated
cylindrical glass jar to bring the water level to that of the previous position which gives evaporation
depth directly over the time lapse. If there was rainfall exceeding the depth of Evaporation, then water
is taken out of the pan in the same way and using the same measuring jar. Knowing the depth of rainfall
is indicated by the rain gauge evaporation depth is found by subtraction.

USWB CLASS A EVAPORATION PAN

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Figure 1: USWB Class A Evaporation pan as used in Kenya

Installation
The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:
 The pan is installed in an open field
 Filled with a known quantity of water (Pan surface area known and water depth measured).
 Water allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (24 hours).
After 24 hrs. Measurement is taken and rainfall, if any, recorded simultaneously.
 Evaporation (difference between the two measured water depths) is calculated. This is the
pan evaporation, E pan in 24 hours.
See additional notes provided on the same.

Observation procedure:
The depth of evaporation during any interval is measured as the drop-in water surface level in the pan in
that interval corrected for water added through rainfall / artificially. Water level variation is measured
by adding / removing water to/from the pan up to the constant water mark. Evaporation is given by:
E = P ± ∆H
Where E = evaporation (mm), P = rainfall depth (mm) and ∆H = depth of water added (+) / removed (-)
from the pan. ∆H is computed using a standard cup (0.5mm depth) of rainfall.

∆H = No. of cups added / removed x 0.5 mm.

If P = 0, then E = ± ∆H or E = 0 when there is no change of water level.

Example:
Rainfall recorded in a certain month was 183.2mm. In the same month, 250 standard cups of water
were taken out of the pan and 116 cups added. Calculate evaporation for the month.
Solution:
E = 183.2 + (116-250) x 0.5 mm

Pan coefficient- Pan Evaporation data cannot be applied to free water surfaces directly but must be
adjusted for differences in physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is large and deep and
may be exposed to different wind speeds compared to a pan. The volume of water in the pan is also
greatly affected by temperature fluctuations compared with that in a lake because of differences in size.
Evaporation data recorded by a pan is therefore corrected to obtain actual lake / reservoir evaporation
by multiplying with a pan coefficient defined as:

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

Pan Coefficient = Actualevaporationfromreservoir  And varies from 0.67 to 0.82, average 0.7
Measuredevaporationfrompan
Evaporation recorded by a pan differs from that of a lake / reservoir due to:
(1) Depth of exposure of the pan above ground (2) Colour of the pan (3) Height of the pan rim
(4) Heat storage and transfer capacity with respect to reservoir (5) Pan Diameter (6) Variation
in vapor pressure, wind speed and water temperature.
Evaporation from a lake is considered the same as that from a vegetated saturated soil.
Example:
During a daily routine observation, 10.8litres of water were added to bring the water level in the pan to
the stipulated level while a nearby rain gauge recorded 3.6mm of rainfall. Determine the daily
evaporation if the ɸ of the pan is 122cm.

Solution:
Pan diameter = 122 cm and area 3.14 *612 = 11689.87 cm2
Volume of water added = 10.8 litres = 10,800 cm3
Depth of water added 10,800/11,689.87 = 0.924 cm
Rainfall, recorded = 3.6 mm = 0.36 cm
Evaporation E= P±∆H = 0.36 + 0.924 = 1.284 cm (12.84 mm)

Installation requirements for an evaporation pan:

 Level ground free from obstructions such as trees, tall buildings etc.
 Natural ground representative of area; no aggregates or other platforms below pan
 Installed level
 Away from any obstruction. A distance = 4 x height of obstruction measured above the pan.
 Fenced for protection and to prevent animals from drinking the water
 Ground cover around station similar to natural cover for the area
Installed together with a standard rain gauge or as part of a MET station. The instruments are used to
establish relationships between pan measurement and other meteorological data so that in the absence
of direct measurement, evaporation can be estimated using theoretical approaches. For purposes of
comparison evaporation pans should be of the same size, shape and be exposed to similar conditions.

REDUCING EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES

Evaporation reduction is of great economic importance in arid climates since evaporation from storage
in these regions is substantial. Evaporation control is an important way of conserving water because it
requires little new construction and additional water becomes available without construction delays. In
general, prudent management of water requires that evaporation be kept to a minimum.
Methods of reducing evaporation
 Reducing surface area
 Use of Mechanical covers e.g. rafts and polyethylene
 Suppression of evaporation using surface films
 Provision of Wind breakers
Reducing surface area
The volume of water lost through evaporation is directly proportional to the exposed water spread area
Suggested methods for reducing evaporation include:
 Constructing reservoirs with minimum area to storage ratio (deep but small in size)
 Storing water in one large reservoir instead of several small reservoirs
 Proper selection of reservoir sites
 Straightening stream channels to reduce meandering of surfaces areas of water.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
i. Mechanical covers
These are ideal for small reservoirs only. Suggested covers include:
 Roofs
 Floating rafts
 Floating wax blocks
 Floating light weight concrete blocks
 Polyethylene especially in agricultural ponds

ii. Suppressions of evaporation through surface films

 Chemicals such as acetyl-alcohol and stearyl-alcohol can act as evaporation suppressors
Applying thin films of these chemicals on the water surface reduces evaporation by as much as
40%. However, the films applied must be:
 Strong and flexible to avoid destruction by waves
 Pervious to oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Colourless, odourless and non-toxic

The chemicals are cheap reduce evaporation by 20-50% and have been found to have no negative effect
on water quality. However, because of destruction by wind, oxidation and birds they require regular
replenishments. The alcohol is attached to water on one side and repels water on the other side so that
It allows rain drops into the reservoir while preventing water molecules from escaping.

iii. Creating forests around reservoir area to retard the speed of wind, provide a cooling effect which
Effectively reduces evaporation.
iv Storing water in underground reservoirs which have little exposure to the atmosphere and hence
Minimum evaporation.
v Removing aquatic plant life near water surfaces to reduce loss through transpiration.

Example
Average water spread areas likely to be maintained during the operation of a reservoir after its
completion and the observed monthly pan evaporate rates at proposed reservoir site are given below:
Month Average water spread area (ha) Pan Evaporation (cm)
January 872.0 10.2
February 797.0 15.3
March 757.5 25.4
April 739.5 30.5
May 726.0 28.0
June 717.5 17.8
July 735.0 15.8
August 765.0 14.0
September 807.5 14.0
October 850.0 15.3
November 891.0 12.7
December 917.0 10.2

Estimate the annual evaporation loss from the reservoir in m3. If 75 per cent of this loss can be
prevented and the water saved utilized to irrigate a crop with a requirement of 57cm of water,
how many Hectares of the crop can be irrigated? Take pan coefficient as 0.70.

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi
Solution:
Month Average water spread Monthly Pan Monthly lake Monthly evaporation
area in Hectares Evaporation (cm) evaporation (cm) loss ha-cm
January 872.0 10.2 7.14 6226.6
February 797.0 15.3 10.71 8535.87
March 757.5 25.4 17.78 13415.01
April 739.5 30.5 21.35 15788.33
May 726.0 28.0 19.60 14229.60
June 717.5 17.8 12.46 8940.05
July 735.0 15.8 10.71 7871.85
August 765.0 14.0 9.80 7497.00
September 807.5 14.0 9.80 7913.50
October 850.0 15.3 10.71 9103.50
November 891.0 12.7 8.89 7920.99
December 917.0 10.2 7.14 6547.38
TOTAL 113,989.16

Annual evaporation loss = 114,000 ha-cm = 114,000 x104 x10-2 = 11.4 x 106 m3.

Depth of irrigation water = 57cm = 0.57 m

11.4 x106 x0.75
Area of crop that can be irrigated = = 15,000,000m2 = 1500 Hectares.
0.57

TRANSPIRATION:
Process by which plants dissipate water in form of vapour from their leaves / body into the atmosphere
during growth. Like evaporation it depends on energy supply, vapour pressure gradient and wind speed.
Radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind are used to assess transpiration. Soil water content
and ability of the soil to conduct water to the roots also determine transpiration rate as do water
logging and soil water salinity. Though evaporation loss is restricted to moisture losses on bare soil and
water bodies, natural ground is covered by vegetation. Difficult to separate evaporation from
transpiration.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the collective term for all processes through which water in liquid/solid
form becomes atmospheric water vapour. It includes evaporation from bare soil, water and vegetative
surfaces and transpiration which is evaporation from within plant leaves through the stomata.
Factors that affect evapotranspiration:
 Climatological factors (solar radiation, air temperature, humidity, wind speed)
 Crop factors (crop type, no. of stomata, depth of active root zone, % growing season)
 Soil factors (Soil physical properties e.g. moisture level)
 Potential evapotranspiration (PET): Is the maximum loss of water under given conditions of
plant cover and climate assuming all the water required by the plant is available. It is the upper
limit of ET for a crop in a given climate.
 Actual evapotranspiration (AET): It is the true and observed quantity of ET which decreases
in rate as the soil moisture becomes depleted.

Environmental factors that affect transpiration rate:

Climatic Factors:

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 ECE 2402: Hydrology I Lecture notes Dr. J.K. Mwangi

a. Temperature
A high temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells. When the
temperature is high the rate of transpiration is high. A high temperature increases the capacity of the
atmosphere for water vapor.

b. Humidity
A high humidity leads to a low transpiration rate because plant surrounding will already be saturated
with water vapor.

c. Wind
When there is wind, the rate of transpiration is high because wind blows away water vapor from around
the leaves creating more room for evaporation. When there is still air then the surroundings of the leaf
will be saturated with water.

d. Light Intensity
Light affects stomata aperture (opening and closing).

e. Atmospheric Pressure
When the pressure is low, the rate of transpiration is high.

Plant Factors:

a. Root - shoot ratio:

If all other conditions are favorable for transpiration, the water absorption capacity of root surface and
transpiring capacity of the leaf surface regulate the rate of transpiration. If transpiration is greater than
absorption, a water deficit results, causing reduction in transpiration rate.

b. Leaf area:
The greater the leaf area, the higher will be the water loss due to transpiration.

c. Stomatal frequency:
Stomatal frequency is the total number of stomata per unit leaf area. Stomatal frequency varies with
species. Greater the frequency of stomata, faster is the rate of transpiration.

d. Leaf structure:
Presence of thick cuticlc, wax layers and trichomes on the surface of leave reduce the rate of
transpiration.

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