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Chandler 2000

The document discusses the geotechnical cycle that affects the properties of clay sediments in depositional basins. The cycle includes deposition, consolidation/compaction, diagenesis, tectonic disturbance, weathering, and erosion. These processes shape the structure and mechanical behavior of clay soils over geological time. As an example, the cycle in the London Basin involves subaqueous deposition, consolidation under increasing stresses, uplift and erosion, and subaerial weathering. The complex geological history determines the properties engineers encounter in natural soils.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views33 pages

Chandler 2000

The document discusses the geotechnical cycle that affects the properties of clay sediments in depositional basins. The cycle includes deposition, consolidation/compaction, diagenesis, tectonic disturbance, weathering, and erosion. These processes shape the structure and mechanical behavior of clay soils over geological time. As an example, the cycle in the London Basin involves subaqueous deposition, consolidation under increasing stresses, uplift and erosion, and subaerial weathering. The complex geological history determines the properties engineers encounter in natural soils.

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dayo.cardozo
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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The Third Glossop Lecture

Clay Sediments in Depositional Basins: the Geotechnical


Cycle
R. J. Chandler
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine,
London SW7 2BU, UK

Introduction
he cycle of events and natural processes that The understanding of the mechanical behaviour of

T affect the geotechnical properties of clay sedi-


ments in a depositional basin (the ‘Geotechnical
Cycle’) includes: deposition, consolidation/
compaction, diagenesis, tectonic disturbance, weather-
ing and erosion. Some of these processes can occur in
natural (‘real’) soils is central to the disciplines of
engineering geology and soil mechanics. Much of what is
known of soil behaviour comes from studies of artificial
soils prepared in the laboratory, a necessary step as only
in this way can consistent sample reproducibility be
parallel; their combined effects control the mechanical attained. The civil engineer has, however, to work with
behaviour of clay sediments. Processes involved in the natural soils with all their variability, in turn a legacy
Geotechnical Cycle are reviewed, using case studies of their often complex geological history. This paper
chosen where possible from the London Basin; examples examines in some detail the mechanical behaviour of a
from other depositional basins emphasize the many major group of soils, sedimented clays, in the context of
common elements that control the behaviour of clay the various stages and processes of their geological
sediments. history. The many geological processes all play a part in
A simple soil behaviour model (based on the ‘sensitivity the formation and evolution of soil structure, which
framework’) is described that combines the consolidation in turn controls the mechanical behaviour of the soil.
(geological compaction) and strength behaviour of natu- The ‘structure’ of a soil is regarded as the combination
ral clays, both during loading (deposition) and unloading of ‘fabric’, the arrangement of the component particles,
(erosion). This model enables the mechanical conse- and ‘bonding’, those interparticle forces that are not of
quences of soil structure (including the effects of diagen- a purely frictional nature. The structure of any soil
esis) to be quantified. Its merits are that it describes real thus depends on the physical and chemical conditions
soils, thus aiding ground characterization, and also al- that applied during its formation. For a natural soil,
lows an assessment of such factors as sample distur- these conditions will have applied during deposition,
bance, while providing a realistic and straightforward consolidation, ageing, unloading and weathering. The
geotechnical framework. range of structure exhibited by natural soils is thus
The effects of tectonic events on the geotechnical considerable. Soils prepared in the laboratory, even if
behaviour of clays are reviewed in the particular context completely remoulded, will still possess structure since
of flexural slip, and its influence on stability problems. they have a fabric resulting from reconstitution, but are
Uplift, then erosion, results in basin sediments becom- unlikely to have significant bonding, though limited
ing overconsolidated; the history of the London Basin is bonding may develop if samples are allowed to age.
used to emphasize both what is known and, in particular, The geological stages during which the soil structure
what is not known, of these phases of basin history. is first formed, and then modified, are part of a cycle
Following erosion, weathering processes further modify (Fig. 1): (1) subaqueous sedimentation, typically in a
the mechanical properties of clays. The most obvious reducing, oxygen-deficient environment; (2) consoli-
indicator of weathering is oxidation, with its associated dation (geological compaction) under the increasing
colour changes. The depth of oxidation in the London stresses of continuing deposition, followed by (3) uplift
Clay Formation is reviewed, and shown to relate to relative to sea-level, which leads to (4) erosion,
topographic position and former groundwater conditions. with consequent unloading of the remaining clay,
Finally, the sensitivity framework is used to examine the accompanied by subaerial weathering. The eroded
effects of weathering on the mechanical behaviour of material is then transported to another area of depo-
clay, particularly the reduction of yield stress in one- sition, signalling the start of the next cycle. Erosion
dimensional compression. can also occur under submarine conditions, though not
often at the scale of subaerial erosion. Since we are
Keywords: clay, compressibility, mudstone, strength, concerned with the consequences of these events on the
tectonic shearing, weathering
soil structure, and thus on the geotechnical properties of
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 33, 7–39. 0481-2085/00 $15.00  2000 The Geological Society of London
8 R. J. CHANDLER

its sediments have been widely studied. However,


acknowledging the wide variety of basin sediments,
examples are chosen to include sediments from other
depositional basins. The paper is in three main sections,
dealing with various geotechnical aspects of some of
the major elements of the Geotechnical Cycle: (1)
sedimentation, (2) tectonic processes, and (3) erosion
and weathering.

1. The sedimentation stage

The Geotechnical Cycle commences with deposition:


Fig. 1. The ‘Geotechnical Cycle’ of clay sediments in sedimentation of individual clay or silt particles, and
depositional basins. often flocs of particles, at the mudline of the sea-bed.
Measurements of the water content from just below the
sea-bed shortly after deposition have been reported by
Skempton (1970), and by Buchan & Smith (1999); their
the basin sediments, the sequence of events will be findings are shown in Fig. 2. The data all relate to
termed the ‘Geotechnical Cycle’. samples taken from 0.25–0.3 m below the mudline.
Numerous geological processes accompany the vari- Buchan & Smith indicate an upper bound water content
ous stages of the Geotechnical Cycle. Tectonic events close to 1.8wL (wL is liquid limit), somewhat higher than
can occur throughout the cycle, in either subaqueous the value of 1.5wL suggested by Skempton’s data. A
or subaerial conditions, as can diagenesis, a complex lower bound to the water content of subaqueous
suite of processes which often results in the growth of deposition is observed with intertidal mudflats, which
inter-particle bonds. Skempton shows are found at about liquid limit. Buchan
After uplift the environment becomes subaerial. The & Smith’s data, which refer to seabed samples from the
formation of quick clays (e.g. Bjerrum 1954) as a result whole of the North Atlantic, range down to this lower
of leaching of the saline marine pore water (which is limit, though doubtless a number of their cases will
most likely to be a subaerial process) may perhaps be include samples overconsolidated by local sea-bed ero-
regarded as diagenesis. The various weathering pro- sion. The Gibraltar samples (Fig. 2(b)) perhaps involve
cesses that have a significant effect on the engineer- submarine slides. The considerable range of water con-
ing behaviour of soils are most active in subaerial tent, even at this early stage in the history of the
conditions, since this environment promotes oxidation. sediment, shows that there must be a corresponding
Where possible, aspects of the Geotechnical Cycle are range of soil structure. As will be seen, the original soil
illustrated by reference to the London Basin, since both structure is retained as the soil element is buried, though
its geological history and the geotechnical behaviour of with some modification with increasing depth and stress.

Fig. 2. Depositional and mud-line water contents: (a) Skempton (1970); (b) Buchan & Smith (1999).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 9

(=(w0 wP)/IP), Skempton demonstrated that his data


converged to a relatively narrow band, and noted that
the position occupied by the various clays appeared to
depend on sensitivity, the more sensitive clays lying to
the right. A more formal representation of this is given
in the NAVFAC Design Manual (1982), where sensi-
tivity contours are shown on a diagram relating IL and
‘preconsolidation’ pressure. This idea is explored further
below.

Void index and the intrinsic compression line


Burland (1990) took Skempton’s ideas as his starting
point, but used ‘void index’, rather than liquidity index
Fig. 3. Sedimentation compression curves for natural clays, as used by Skempton (1970). Void index (Iv) is defined
from Skempton (1970). The average values of liquid limit for using void ratio, e, rather than water content, w, so that
the various clays are shown. The dashed lines are
interpolations for the indicated liquid limits. Iv =(e0 e*100)/C*c (1)

Post-sedimentation behaviour in which the void ratio e0 is the current or in situ value,
e*100 is the void ratio of a reconstituted sample of the
Sedimentation compression curves same soil one-dimensionally compressed to a vertical
The mechanical behaviour of clay sediments as an effective stress, v, of 100 kPa, and the compression
immediate consequence of marine deposition in the early index C*c applies to one-dimensional compression
stages of the Geotechnical Cycle has received consider- between *v of 100 kPa and 1000 kPa. The asterisk is
able attention, notably by Skempton (1970) and Burland used to denote ‘intrinsic’ properties, that is related to the
(1990). In this state the clay is regarded as ‘normally behaviour of reconstituted soils prepared from a slurry
consolidated’, with the current in situ vertical stress mixed at about 1.25liquid limit.
being the maximum to which the clay has been sub- Void index is preferred to liquidity index since it
jected. Initially, discussion will be confined to such clays, relates directly (through e) to the proportion of voids
considering the geotechnical consequences of the process in the soil (not indirectly, as given by w), while the
of natural sedimentation. The more complex behaviour oedometer defines C*c directly, rather than relying on an
resulting from diagenesis and, in particular, from un- implicit relationship between geotechnical properties
loading by erosion or excavation (‘overconsolidation’), and plasticity, as does liquidity index.
will be considered later. A comparison of void index and liquidity index is
Both Skempton and Burland examined the changing shown in Fig. 4. The data (Burland 1990; his figure 2),
void ratio of natural clay sediments with increasing for six clays one-dimensionally compressed from a
depth of burial. Early work by Terzaghi (1941) had slurry, show that a unique relation results with respect to
shown that, in situ, with the slow sedimentation rates of void index (Figure 4(c)). This relationship is the ‘Intrin-
geological time, the profile of reducing water content sic Compression Line’, or ICL. As with liquidity index,
with depth was rather different from that followed at the the void index normalizes for differences in soil type, the
much higher loading rates of a laboratory oedometer presumption being that C*c is defined uniquely by the
test. The difference was greater still when in situ states compression procedure, the soil mineralogy and the pore
were compared with the oedometer compression of a water chemistry. It can also be seen from Fig. 4 that at
sample reconstituted at the liquid limit. The in situ water IL =1.0 (liquid limit), Iv]1.0, and at IL =0 (plastic limit),
content (w0), plotted against the logarithm of vertical Iv]1.0, the relationship between Iv and IL being given
effective stress, was referred to by Terzaghi as the approximately by
‘Sedimentation Compression Curve’ (SCC). This term is
used here to describe the path followed by a clay element Iv =2.0IL 1.0. (2)
in situ as it is compressed by continuing sedimentation.
Skempton (1970) examined the SCCs of a range of An important practical point is that, if Iv is to be
natural clays in situ in terms of water content, showing calculated with reasonable accuracy, particularly with
that the position of different SCCs depended, inter alia, low plasticity clays, water content should be measured
on the liquid limit of the clay (Fig. 3). The more-or-less to 0.1%.
constant position of each of the clays relative to the lines The ICL was used by Burland (1990) as a datum
of equal liquid limit shows that each clay maintains its against which to compare in situ values of Iv. The ICL
own basic structure with increasing depth of burial. will be used here as the basis of similar comparisons,
Expressing the water content as liquidity index, IL though it is necessary to extend its range to vertical
10 R. J. CHANDLER

Fig. 4. Relationships between void ratio, liquidity index, void index and effective stress; (a) and (c) from Burland (1990).

1997), and two sets of London clay data (both obtained


at Imperial College), taken to vertical stresses of 10 and
20 MPa. All three tests were carried out using a constant
rate of strain oedometer, with careful correction for
machine compliance. These results are shown in Fig. 5,
where they are compared with the position of the ICL
suggested by Burland (1990). The solid points in Fig. 5
show the extended ICL, over the range of vertical
stresses from 0.4 kPa to 40 MPa, which requires a modi-
fication to the empirical equation given by Burland
(1990). This equation is given in Fig. 5 and in Appendix
A, and has been used in all the analyses presented in this
paper.

Sedimentation compression line, SCL


Another relationship established by Burland (1990: his
figure 13) is the ‘Sedimentation Compression Line’
(SCL). This is the average best-fit relationship, in terms
of Iv and v0, for a number of the sedimentation
Fig. 5. The intrinsic compression line; the points fit the compression curves given by Skempton (1970). This
equation given. relationship is replotted in Fig. 6. With reasonably
uniform sedimentation conditions, continuous relation-
ships of reducing Iv with increasing depth can be ex-
stresses both lower and higher than considered by pected, as shown, for example, by the Oslofjord and
Burland, as shown in Fig. 5. ocean core B-87 data. Since this plot is equivalent to
Burland (1990) established the position of the ICL Skempton’s relationship between IL and v0, it is to be
over a range of vertical stress from 10 kPa to 4 MPa. expected that it, too, will show that clays with higher
Extending the ICL beyond the limit of Burland’s data, values of sensitivity lie to the right. This is seen to be the
necessary so as to interpret soil behaviour at higher case; the sensitivity (where known) is obtained from field
stress levels, is complicated by two factors. The first is vane tests (Bjerrum 1967; Skempton 1970; Wu 1958).
that the calculation of Iv uses C*c defined over the range
e*100 to e*1000, which results in some scatter of the ICL
data at stresses above 1 MPa. The second is that there The sensitivity framework
are very few oedometer tests on reconstituted clay taken
to higher stresses: those used here are Pappadai clay, The ‘sensitivity framework’ has been proposed by
consolidated to v =20 MPa (Cotecchia & Chandler Cotecchia & Chandler (2000) as a means by which to
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 11

Fig. 7. Troll field oedometer tests (Burland 1990). Samples


at 6.5 m and 21.2 m are from the upper clay, at 28.4 m
and 41.2 m from the lower clay. Yield stress ratio,
YSR,=vy/v0.

The yield stress ratio, YSR (Burland 1990), is the ratio


of the yield stress measured in the oedometer (vy) to the
in situ vertical stress, v0, as shown in Fig. 7. A number
of authors have implied or suggested that the yield stress
Fig. 6. The sedimentation compression line (Burland 1990); provides a measure of the strength of the structure of the
numbers indicate sensitivity where this is known. soil (e.g. Lerouiel & Vaughan 1990). In the sensitivity
framework, the yield stress expressed as a ratio of the
corresponding stress on the ICL (i.e. at the same void
compare the mechanical behaviour of natural and index), is referred to as the ‘stress sensitivity’, S (=vy/
reconstituted clays, with sensitivity (as defined later) *ve). For natural clays S is a measure of the strength of
being a direct measure of the structure of the clay. Some the soil structure in excess of that possessed by reconsti-
of the ideas that emerged in the development of the tuted soils. The stress sensitivity of reconstituted soils is,
Sensitivity Framework are developed further here to by definition, 1.0.
provide a simple, though approximate, method to aid
both soil characterization and the understanding of Intrinsic strength line, ISuL
natural soil behaviour, particularly as a means for Just as the ICL may be used as a ‘datum’ with which to
comparing in situ states and undrained strength. compare in situ stress states in terms of Iv (or e or w) and
vertical effective stress, so a corresponding intrinsic
In situ states and oedometer compression relationship is required with which the strength of
Undisturbed samples of a clay compressed in the oed- natural samples may be compared. By far the most
ometer from stress levels less than the in situ state will general measure of strength is that in undrained triaxial
either yield as they approach the SCC of the clay, or compression, which will be used here. The closest com-
may cross the SCC to yield at vertical stresses higher parison with the ICL, which is defined using one-
than the soil element carried in situ. Examples of such dimensional compression from a slurry, is provided by
tests, from the Troll oil-field in the North Sea where the undrained strength also determined on samples
there are upper and lower clays with considerably dif- one-dimensionally consolidated from a slurry, S*K0u. A
ferent properties (Burland 1990), are shown in Fig. 7. similar soil structure can be expected in both cases,
The upper clay is sensitive, its SCC lying well to the right measured by the peak strength. It could be argued that
of the ICL, and oedometer tests carried out on this clay the critical state, or the completely remoulded strength,
yield to the right of their SCC, falling post-yield towards would be a more fundamental measure of ‘intrinsic’
the ICL. The lower clay yields close to the ICL, which it strength, but such samples do not have the intrinsic
then follows. The behaviour of the upper clay is typical compression structure. The use of S*K0u is also appropri-
of most sensitive clays, which will often yield to the right ate since triaxial strength measurements on natural
of their corresponding SCC, but the behaviour of the samples, with which it is to be compared, have been
lower clay is similar to a reconstituted clay, which will consolidated in situ under K0 conditions.
yield at the ICL. Note that yield in this context is A literature review of measurements of S*K0u provides
regarded as the onset of significant plastic strains in the a range of results for soil samples of plasticity index
oedometer test. between 12 and 60, and values of Iv between about 0 and
12 R. J. CHANDLER

Table 1. Summary of clays used in Figs 8(a) and 9; parentheses indicate assumed values

Soil S*u/*v0 wL % wP % Gs eL e*100 C*c Reference

AHPC 0.357 90 30 (2.70) 2.448 1.70 0.89 Smith (1992)


Boom clay, Mol 0.278 67 20 2.71 1.816 1.35 0.48 Coop et al. (1995)
Bothkennar 0.460 67 29 2.68 1.800 1.135 0.415 Allman & Atkinson (1992)
Lower Cromer Till 0.291 25 13 2.65 0.663 0.503 0.154 Gens (1982)
Pentre 0.226 34 22 2.80 0.952 0.716 0.104 Connolly (1999, pers. com.)
Magnus clay 0.299 35 17 2.73 0.956 0.76 0.27 Jardine (1985)
Montemesola yellow 0.401 49 22 2.72 1.333 0.87 0.296 Cafaro (1998)
Montemesola grey 0.431 51 23 2.71 1.381 0.95 0.30 Cafaro (1998)
Thames alluvium 0.288 95 42 2.66 2.527 1.66 0.66 Pickles (1989)
Pappadai 0.441 63 28 2.75 1.720 1.27 0.494 Cotecchia (1996)
Winnipeg 0.273 82 — (2.70) 2.214 1.560 0.790 Graham & Li (1985)

Fig. 9. Data defining the intrinsic strength line (see also


Table 1).

Fig. 8. Relationships between undrained strength ratio For present purposes the single value of R*su =0.33 will
R*su =S*u/v and plasticity index. (a) This paper; (b) be used to establish the intrinsic strength line, ISuL,
Jamiolkowski et al. (1985). shown in Fig. 9 plotted as Iv against S*K0u, where
1, summarized in Table 1. Figure 8(a) shows the
results in terms of undrained strength ratio, R*su =S*K0u/ S*K0u =0.33*ve (3),
v, where v is the vertical effective stress to which the
sample was consolidated prior to shear. It might be *ve being the corresponding value of v on the ICL.
expected that there would be a trend for R*su to be related Hereafter, S*K0u will be written as S*u. Note the absence
to plasticity index, but the present data are apparently of data at values of Iv >0, the consequence of the
independent of plasticity index, with a mean value of R*su difficulties in handling such soft samples; further
of about 0.34. Data presented by Jamiolkowski et al. research is required to confirm the position of the ISuL
(1985) (Fig. 8(b)) also show R*su to be independent of in this region.
plasticity index, with a mean value of S*K0u/v =0.32. Other intrinsic strength lines with differing values of
Similar conclusions may be drawn from results given by R*su could be used if required. For example, when the
Hight et al. (1987). Interestingly, corresponding data value of R*su is known for the particular clay, or if
for simple shear and triaxial extension given by processing simple shear or triaxial extension data when
Jamiolkowski et al. do show variation with plasticity the ISuL may be related to plasticity, using the equations
index; the corresponding equations are given in given in Fig. 8(b). The position of the ISuL for R*su =0.33
Fig. 8(b). is given in Appendix A.
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 13

Fig. 10. Intrinsic compression and intrinsic strength lines, and other definitions; in situ stress state to the right of ICL.

The ISuL allows a more rigorous definition of sensi- unloaded by mild erosion; the latter will usually have
tivity, St, the ‘Strength Sensitivity’ than that generally been unloaded quite considerably by erosion.
used: namely, the ratio of the peak undrained strength in The in situ state of the clay is defined by the vertical
triaxial compression of the natural clay in situ to the stress, v0, and by the in situ void ratio, e0. The in situ
peak strength of the same clay reconstituted one- state is separated from the ICL (at the same value of e)
dimensionally to the same value of Iv. As with the by a distance equal to IsSR, the ‘in situ stress ratio’, the
reconstituted clay, the reason for the use of peak ratio of the in situ stress to the intrinsic compression
strength for the undisturbed clay is to include structural stress. Thus, IsSR=v0/*ve.
components of strength. It follows, therefore, that the However, if an oedometer test is carried out on
undisturbed strength applies to intact samples, free from the same soil element, in most cases (as has been
discontinuities. seen) yield occurs at a vertical stress vy in excess of
v0, defining a yield stress ratio which is greater than
The sensitivity framework: definitions unity.
For present purposes, namely examining the in situ The ‘stress sensitivity’, S, for stress states to the right
states and strengths, the main elements of the sensitivity of the ICL, is a measure of the structural resistance (that
framework as developed here are shown in Figs 10 and is the structural strength of the soil) in excess of that at
11, for clay whose in situ states lie to the right or left of the intrinsic state
the ICL, respectively. The former will generally be soils
which are either normally consolidated or have been S =IsSR . YSR (4)

Fig. 11. Intrinsic compression and intrinsic strength lines, and other definitions; in situ stress state to the left of ICL.
14 R. J. CHANDLER

where S represents the distance, at the same void ratio, Both Equations (6) and (8) are approximations. In
of the ICL from the yield stress. The corresponding terms of the normalized boundary states (Hvorslev plot),
undrained undisturbed strength, Su (at e0), will lie to the Equation (6) implies that there is geometric similarity,
right of the ISuL since it will be greater than the given by the ratio S =St, between the natural clay and
equivalent strength (S*u) on the ISuL by an amount the intrinsic state boundary surfaces. This is in good
proportional to the extra structural strength of the in situ agreement with the behaviour of contractant clays
soil element. (Cotecchia & Chandler 2000). Similar assumptions
Strictly, it would be better to measure YSR at the are implied by Equation (8), but more variables are
slightly lower value of e at which the yield stress is involved, including the degree of dilation exhibited in
reached, so as to reflect the corresponding soil structural shear, which are not entirely allowed for.
changes, which is of course possible with the oedometer
test since changes of e are known. In the corresponding
undrained compression test, most natural clay samples Methods
develop a shear plane, so there is an unknown degree of For soft clays, the hypothesis expressed by Equation (6)
local drainage within the sample, and the void ratio at will be tested against the case studies provided by either
failure is not known with any certainty. There cannot, Skempton (1970) or Burland (1990), for which corre-
therefore, be exact correspondence between YSR and sponding undrained triaxial compression strength
Su. In this review, most of the values of YSR are taken measurements are available. To ensure objectivity, all
from depth-effective stress plots, the usual vehicle for the relevant data presented by these two authors are
presenting these data, so that, de facto, the majority of used. In a number of the cases the original source has
the present comparisons of YSR and Su are made with been consulted to obtain necessary information.
respect to e0. Professor Burland was kind enough to place his data
For stress states to the right of the ICL, the hypothesis at the writer’s disposal, so that many of the soft clay
is that the undisturbed undrained strength, Su, is equal results presented here, particularly the values of Iv, are
to the corresponding intrinsic strength multiplied by S. those used by Burland (1990). Where possible, both
In this way the soil’s structural resistance to the vertical Burland (1990) and the writer have computed values of
stress in the in situ state (IsSR), together with the extra Iv using data from one-dimensional consolidation tests
resistance in loading the sample to the yield stress, can on clay reconstituted at about 1.25liquid limit, with
be combined to give the strength of the natural sample. void ratios (e) calculated from measured values of the
Thus, referring to Fig. 10, specific gravity, Gs. Where oedometer test data were
not available, Iv was calculated using Burland’s (1990)
Su =S*u . IsSR . YSR. (5) correlations of e*100 and C*c with liquid limit. It must
be emphasized that direct measurement of C*c is to be
Rearranging gives preferred. The correlations with liquid limit are given in
Appendix A; at very high values of liquid limit (>170%),
Su/S*u =St =IsSR . YSR=S (6) a linear regression extrapolation of the data is more
satisfactory than the cubic equations given by Burland
where St is the strength sensitivity as previously defined.
(1990).
Similar ideas may be used to develop a comparable
Throughout this discussion the strength used is the
expression for clay having an in situ state lying to the left
undrained shear strength in triaxial compression, Su.
of the ICL, as shown in Fig. 11. Again, St, IsSR, YSR
For consistency, all the oedometer yield stress data
and S may be identified, defined as previously. How-
are taken from incremental load tests; however, a more
ever, in this case *ve >v0, while S*u may be >Su, so that
precise estimate of yield stress can often be made using
IsSR will have values less than unity, St can take values
constant rate-of-strain tests, a procedure that also better
>1.0 or <1.0. For this situation, the hypothesis is that
matches the triaxial test procedure, where constant
the equivalent strength S*u has (i) to be factored up (by
strain rates are generally used.
S) to account for the structural resistance required to
generate the yield stress, and (ii) factored down (by IsSR)
to correspond to the reduced in situ stress
Individual cases: soft clays
resulting from erosion. Thus
Data from Skempton (1970). The data given by
Su =S*u . S . IsSR. (7) Skempton for which there are corresponding strength
measurements (with values of Iv from Burland 1990)
Rearranging gives have been used directly, with just two exceptions. The
first is the ocean core A-31 for which the strength data
Su/S*u =St =S . IsSR. (8) were not measured in triaxial compression. The
strengths quoted by Skempton are rather high, and,
This expression applies whether St >1.0 or <1.0. though plotted (Fig. 13), are not used subsequently. For
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 15

Fig. 12. In situ stress states for sedimentary clays; data from
Skempton (1970) and Burland (1990).
Fig. 13. Undrained strength, Su, for sedimentary clays
the Tilbury case the data from Skempton & Henkel shown in Fig. 12.
(1953) are more complete than in Skempton (1970).
two types of sample, the piston samples being generally
Data from Burland (1990). The in situ values of Iv more compressible and showing lower yield stresses
for the post-glacial soft clay at Bothkennar, near than the Sherbrook samples. This presumably reflects
Grangemouth, Scotland, are taken from Burland (1990), the greater disturbance caused by piston sampling.
while oedometer yield stresses and undrained strength Triaxial testing was carried out on samples anisotropi-
results are from Hight et al. (1992). These latter data all cally consolidated to the in situ effective stresses, a
relate to Laval samples, so sample disturbance in both process that results in a small compressive volume
types of tests is likely15 to be similar; for consistency change. The block samples gave undrained strengths
with data from other sites, yield stresses are based that were 10 to 33% higher than the piston samples,
on incremental load tests. Strength data are from uncon- but smaller differences were noted with the non-quick
solidated undrained (UU) triaxial tests, on 100 mm Onsøy clay. It is of interest to note that unconfined
diameter samples; the samples were not reconsolidated compression (UC) tests from block samples of the
to the estimated in situ stresses. Emmerstad clay, which were not reconsolidated prior
Data on three Norwegian marine clays, one sensitive to shear, gave substantially higher values of Su than
(Onsøy) and two quick (Ellingsrud and Emmerstad), did any of the block samples.
come from Lacasse et al. (1985), with additional infor- Two of Burland’s cases, Sault Ste. Marie 1 and
mation from Burland (1990). The paper by Lacasse Detroit, both North American soft clays, come from Wu
et al. examines the effect of sampling disturbance, com- (1958), whose paper was consulted to obtain undrained
paring Sherbrook samples (Lefebvre & Poulin 1979), strengths for both sites. Unfortunately, Wu’s paper is
which are block samples from the base of a borehole, ambiguous as to whether compressive or shear strength
with NGI 95 mm fixed-piston samples. Oedometer is quoted (this is particularly evident in his figure 15); in
incremental loading tests were carried out on both the two cases used here it has been assumed that Su is
Sherbrook and piston samples. Only with the most in fact twice the value quoted by Wu.
sensitive of the clays, Ellingsrud, was there a significant A particularly interesting case, already discussed, is
difference in the one-dimensional compression of the the Troll oil-field (Burland 1990). Though the strength
16 R. J. CHANDLER

profile (not shown here) appears to be continuous with points in Fig. 12, plotted against strength sensitivity, St,
depth, the void indices of the two strata are quite from Fig. 13. The majority of the data lie to the right of
different (Fig. 7), as are the corresponding oedometer the line of equality, as expected from Equation (6), since
compression curves. allowance has not been made for YSR. The data shown
in Fig. 14 suggest that values of YSR should lie between
Sensitivity framework: behaviour of soft clays 1.0 and 2.0. Including YSR, by rewriting Equation (6) as
The data from Skempton (1970) and Burland (1990)
relating to the in situ stress state are plotted in Fig. 12 as IsSR=St/YSR (6a)
in situ vertical effective stress, v0, versus void index, Iv,
and in Fig. 13 as undrained strength in triaxial compres- enables the data in Fig. 14 to be plotted as IsSR versus
sion, Su, versus Iv. In Fig. 12 the data are compared with St/YSR (Fig. 15). This is done using the measured values
the intrinsic compression line, ICL, and in Fig. 13 with of YSR. To improve clarity, Fig. 16 shows the same
the intrinsic strength line, ISuL. Figure 12 also shows the data, but plotted as average values. It is seen that the
sedimentation compression line (from Fig. 6) and the data now scatter about the line of equality, confirming
range of states expected at a depth of about 0.25 m Equation (6). Some of the points, however, (Ellingsrud,
below the sea bed (or mudline), taken from Fig. 2(b). Emmerstad, Onsøy and Troll field upper) lie further to
The spread of data in Fig. 12 is considerable. The the left than expected. In each of these four cases the
sedimentation compression line is seen to be represen- undrained strengths were measured using samples recon-
tative of several of the cases, but other cases lie both to solidated to the estimated in situ stresses prior to shear.
the left and right. Those lying to the right at high values Given the high sensitivities of all these clays, it is
of Iv (e.g. Ellingsrud; Emmerstad) are the highly sensi- possible that the triaxial reconsolidation process has
tive Norwegian clays. The process of leaching of sodium damaged the structure of the clay, resulting in the
chloride which develops the sensitivity of these clays has measurement of a reduced strength. Note, too, that
resulted in an increase in void index to a value compar- though the sensitive upper Troll field clay lies in a
able to or even higher than just below the mudline, position suggesting that the strength has been under-
though the structure of these clays is able to support a recorded, the low sensitivity Lower Troll field clay shows
considerable vertical stress. Clearly, these clays have a quite a good fit. This point will be returned to later.
high IsSR (v0/*ve), and thus a high sensitivity; though
not shown, the remoulded strengths recorded by field
vane tests on these clays are practically zero (Lacasse Compression and strength behaviour of stiff and
et al. 1985). Strictly, the relations between Iv and v0 hard clays
shown in Fig. 12 for these clays are not sedimentation
compression curves, since leaching has modified the The forgoing discussion relates to early phases of the
value of Iv post-deposition. Geotechnical Cycle, involving geologically young clays
The two clays lying closest to the ICL are Tilbury and of late Pleistocene and Holocene age, which are nor-
Troll field lower, the latter more-or-less coincident with mally or only lightly overconsolidated, and whose stress-
it. Tilbury, an estuarine clay, is an example of a low states lie to the right of the ICL. Their geologically
sensitivity clay, similar to the Gosport and Shellhaven recent origin and shallow depth of burial has enabled
clays discussed by Burland (1990; see his figure 15), on them to retain a relatively high void ratio, and dia-
which oedometer tests (as with Troll field lower) yield at genesis, apart from that due to ageing (e.g. Bjerrum
the ICL, and then follow it. Behaviour of this type is 1967) and leaching, will have been slight.
expected of clays of low sensitivity; confirming this, the In contrast, geologically older clays in later stages of
average value of strength sensitivity, St, for the Tilbury the Geotechnical Cycle are likely to be, or will have
clay is 1.3 (Skempton & Henkel 1953). been, more deeply buried. Consequently, not only are
The corresponding undrained strength data for these they more compact, but diagenetic processes, given the
soft clays, shown in Fig. 13, lie in similar positions greater stresses and perhaps elevated temperatures at
related to the ISuL as do the in situ states related to the depth, will have had greater opportunity to occur. The
ICL in Fig. 12. However, careful comparison shows that result is that bonding, including that resulting from the
in many cases (though not all), the strength data in fact redeposition of such minerals as calcite and pyrite, may
lie slightly further to the right of the ISuL than do the have taken place, controlled by, for example, the miner-
in situ states relative to the ICL in Fig. 12. Those alogy of the sediment and its pore water chemistry
clays lying to the right exhibit considerable strength during and post-deposition. Changes in clay mineralogy
sensitivity, St, (=Su/S*u). are also possible. Moreover, there may have been more
The most direct test of the hypothesis expressed by than one phase of diagenesis. Whatever the processes or
Equation (6) would be to plot S against St for the data time scales, it is clear that significant changes are likely
in Figs 12 and 13. A less direct approach will be taken to have occurred to the structure of such clays, whose
here; Fig. 14 shows values of IsSR (=v0/*ve) for all the natural water content is often reduced to, or below, their
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 17

Fig. 14. In situ stress ratio (IsSR) versus strength sensitivity (St); data from Figs 12 and 13.

plastic limit (Iv < 1.0). In addition, erosion will change cases chosen are all clays for which the yield stress is
the in situ state of the clay. Thus clays subjected to deep known from high-pressure oedometer tests. All are
burial will exist at much lower void ratios, have a either heavily overconsolidated, or exist at considerable
structure that reflects their greater age and burial depths, depths. They may have undergone more than one cycle
and may have a stress-state to the left of the ICL, of erosion/unloading, followed by further compaction
depending on the extent of unloading. They can be under the increasing stresses of renewed sedimentation.
expected to exhibit high yield stress ratios reflecting the Throughout the following discussion, unless otherwise
often substantial strength of the soil structure. stated, it is assumed that the vertical effective stress is
In the examples that follow, the sensitivity framework given with sufficient accuracy by the multiple of depth
is examined in the context of stiff and hard clays. The and effective unit weight,  ,=10 kN/m3.

Fig. 15. IsSR versus St/YSR; data from Figs 12 and 13.
18 R. J. CHANDLER

level, the liquid limit and natural water content were


measured on a large number of samples, so that the
computed values of Iv are regarded as reliable. The
values of Iv for all six levels are plotted in Fig. 17,
together with the result of a triaxial K0-consolidation
test on a sample from level E at a depth of 34.8 m. Many
strength tests were also carried out, particularly at level
E, including both unconsolidated undrained (UU) tests
and effective stress testing. The position of the six in situ
stress states, well to the left of the ICL, clearly indicates
their geologically overconsolidated state.
The K0-consolidation test on the sample from level E
is interesting, but, sadly, not definitive. The sample was
allowed to swell from its in situ state before being
recompressed, which must have resulted in some damage
to its structure, and the test was completed close to the
yield stress, and not continued sufficiently far to define
yield unambiguously. However, following Burland
(1990), the compression curve has been extrapolated,
Fig. 16. IsSR versus St/YSR; averages of data sets in Fig. 15. suggesting a yield stress of about 3.2 MPa. At level E
this gives a yield stress ratio (YSR) of about 12,
compared to the estimated OCR of about 6.
Individual cases: stiff clays
The average strengths measured in UU compression
London Clay Formation: Ashford Common. The detailed tests at the six levels are plotted in Fig. 17, and are
experimental study on the London clay carried out by assumed to be the intact strength since they were
Bishop et al. (1965) at the site of an excavated shaft at small (38 mm) diameter samples from depths where
Ashford Common, Middlesex, is well known. Sampling discontinuities will be widely spaced. They lie to the left
was undertaken at six different levels, A to F, from 9.2 to of the ISuL, though proportionally closer to the ISuL
42.1 m. The geological evidence (King 1981; Sumbler than the in situ states are to the ICL. Values of YSR
1996) suggests that perhaps 200 m of the upper part of can be estimated using Equation (8), noting that
the ]55 Ma age London Clay Formation, and over- YSR=IsSR . S (Fig. 11). These values are shown in
lying deposits, have been eroded at this location, fol- Fig. 18, together with the estimated geological overcon-
lowed by further minor loading by the deposition of solidation ratios. The values of YSR are considerably
about 5 m of gravel. This suggests geological over- greater than the values of OCR.
consolidation ratios (OCR) ranging between about 18
(at 9.2 m) and 5 (at 42.1 m). The geological uncertain-
ties are such that these OCRs are, of course, only Boom Clay: Mol, Belgium. The Boom Clay, of middle
approximations. Oligocene age (]30 Ma), has been studied in some
Values of Iv are computed from the correlations detail in connection with a proposed radioactive waste
between liquid limit, e*100 and C*c (Burland 1990). At each depository near Mol, Belgium. At Mol, the Boom Clay

Fig. 17. In situ states and strength, London Clay Formation, Ashford Common. Data from Bishop et al. (1965).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 19

pliance. There was a single unconfined compression test,


whose strength is used here; this strength was consistent
with a series of effective stress triaxial tests. At both
depths values of Iv were computed from the correlations
with e*100 and C*c (Burland 1990), the consistency of the
index test data leading to the expectation of reliable
values of Iv for these samples.
Figure 19 shows the in situ stress states, high-
pressure oedometer tests, and undrained strengths at
the two depths. The stress states, lying to the right of,
but close to the ICL, confirm the low geological
OCRs. The oedometer tests show YSRs of about 2.0
and 1.7 at 223 m and 247 m respectively, considerably
greater than the corresponding OCRs, which are 1.18
and 1.16. The undrained strengths, lying to the right of
Fig. 18. Ashford Common: estimated values of geological
the ISuL, are consistent with the in situ stress states.
overconsolidation ratio and yield stress ratio.
Not surprising, given the depth, samples from 223 m
were reported to have been affected by stress relief,
lies at depths between 160 m and 270 m: geological
which could have resulted in damage to the soil struc-
evidence suggests that there has been about 40 m of
ture, and the measured strengths could be low. Similar
erosion, which occurred during the Pleistocene
problems were encountered with the oedometer test
(Horseman et al. 1987).
samples, and it was found that the most clearly defined
As part of the investigations, block samples were
yield stresses were when the test commenced at about
taken from an experimental tunnel system, at depths of
overburden pressure. At 247 m depth, the single
223 m and 247 m. The tests carried out on the block
unconfined compression test is unlikely to provide the
samples are reported by Baldi et al. (1991), Coop et al.
best estimate of strength.
(1995) and Mair et al. (1992) for 223 m depth, and by
Horseman et al. (1987) at 247 m depth.
At 223 m depth the block samples had an average Sizewell, Suffolk. The geological sequence at Sizewell,
w0 =28%, Gs =2.71, wL =72% and wP =26%. High- Fig. 20, consists of 9 m of made ground and alluvium,
pressure oedometer tests were carried out, with varying 42 m of Plio-Pleistocene Crag overlying 12 m of London
degrees of apparent success, and undrained strengths Clay Formation, 12 m of Lambeth Group and 10 m of
were measured on samples reconsolidated to the esti- Ormesby Clay (formerly known as Thanet Clay), which
mated in situ stresses. At 247 m depth a number of block in turn overlies the Chalk. The strata are all more-or-less
samples were taken, all from the same horizon, for horizontally bedded. There is a major unconformity at
which w0 =23.90.8%, Gs =2.70, wL =661%, and the Crag/London Clay boundary, where 190–290 m of
wP =191%. Three high pressure oedometer tests were erosion is estimated to have occurred during the
carried out; these were corrected for machine com- Miocene and Pliocene, before the deposition of the

Fig. 19. In situ states and strength, Boom Clay, Mol, Belgium. Data from Baldi et al. (1991), Coop et al. (1995), Horseman
et al. (1987), and Mair et al. (1992).
20 R. J. CHANDLER

Table 2. Sizewell index properties (Hight & Jardine 1993) The Crag is a very dense, shelly sand; the London clay
at Sizewell is a very stiff to hard fissured grey clay with
Liquid limit Plastic limit w0 silt layers, while the Lambeth Group is composed of
% % %
very stiff fissured silty clays with silty fine sands and silt
laminae. The Ormesby Clay is a hard, very plastic clay.
London Clay Formation 107–53 58–22 50–19 Ranges of index properties, from Hight & Jardine
Lambeth Group 67–28 27–17 28–18 (1993), are given in Table 2.
Ormesby Clay 146–80 45–28 42–31
High-pressure oedometer tests were carried out at
Imperial College on rotary cored samples of the London
Clay at 56 m depth, and on the Ormesby Clay at 78 m
Crag, which does not appear to have suffered signifi- and 81 m depths (Cola & Jardine 1995). Based on
cant erosion (Hight et al. 1997). There is another effective stress testing, undrained strengths have been
unconformity at the Lambeth Group/Ormesby Clay estimated (Hight 1999, pers. comm.) at depths of 57 m
boundary, but it is difficult to estimate the amount of (London Clay), 69 m (Lambeth Group) and 80 m
erosion that could have occurred. (Ormesby Clay).
The variation of Iv with depth is shown in Fig. 20; the
suggestion is that there is a continuous relation to the
base of the Lambeth Group, with a substantial reduc-
tion in void index in the Ormesby Clay. Such a reduction
suggests that the Ormesby Clay is more heavily overcon-
solidated than the succeeding Lambeth Group and
London Clay Formation. The trend lines shown have
been used to establish the Iv values for the estimated
undrained strengths.
The relations between Iv, vertical stress and undrained
strength, together with the high pressure oedometer
tests, are shown in Fig. 21. The in situ states of the
London Clay and Lambeth Group lie close to the ICL,
consistent with comparatively low OCRs, but the
Ormesby Clay lies well to the left of the ICL at rather
low values of Iv. The undrained strength data are
similar, though lying further right compared to the ISuL
than do the in situ states relative to the ICL.
The oedometer tests indicate yield stress ratios of 2.6
for the London Clay and 3.7–2.9 for the Ormesby Clay,
higher than the corresponding geological OCRs of
Fig. 20. Summary geology and void index versus depth,
2.30.7 and 2.00.5.
Sizewell, Suffolk. Data from Hight et al. (1997).

Fig. 21. In situ states and strength, Sizewell. Data from Cola & Jardine (1995), Hight et al. (1997), and Hight (1999, pers.
comm.).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 21

Fig. 22. Harwell, Oxfordshire: simplified borehole log.


Shading indicates clay strata; points are oedometer sample
depths.

Harwell. The British Geological Survey drilled a number Fig. 23. High pressure oedometer tests on clay samples from
Harwell, Oxfordshire. Data from Horseman et al. (1982) and
of boreholes at Harwell, Oxfordshire, one of which
Entwisle et al. (1990); sample numbers are from the latter
reached a depth of 551 m (Horseman et al. 1982). The reference.
boreholes commenced in the Cretaceous (Lower Chalk),
penetrated successively the Jurassic and the Trias, termi-
nating in the Carboniferous. The clay sediments that unconformities in the sequence representing major ero-
were encountered included the Gault, Kimmeridge Clay, sion events, so that all the strata will have been unloaded
Oxford Clay, the Lower Lias and the Upper Coal and reloaded on several occasions. However, Jackson &
Measures, and in all but the last of these high-pressure Fookes (1974) estimated the maximum geological loads
oedometer and unconfined compression tests were car- on the Oxford Clay and, using these, Horseman et al.
ried out, as well as numerous index tests. A simplified (1982) suggested maximum geological stresses on the
borehole log, showing oedometer sample depths, is various Harwell strata. These values of overconsoli-
given in Fig. 22. The vertical effective stress has been dation ratio range from 3.7 in the upper levels of the
calculated using  =0.0123D+8.83, where D is depth Gault, to 1.6 in the Lower Lias, and are compared with
in metres, as suggested by Horseman et al. (1982), the measured yield stress ratios (Fig. 25). Again, it is
assuming hydrostatic pore pressures. seen that the yield stresses considerably exceed the
Results of the oedometer tests are shown in Fig. 23, estimated maximum geological stresses.
the data being from Entwisle et al. (1990) and Hobbs
(1999, pers. comm.). All the tests were commenced at the Pappadai, Italy. This is a Lower Pleistocene marine clay
estimated swelling pressure of the individual samples, in which oxidation has occurred to depths of 15 to 30 m.
though it will be seen that this was always less than the The clay has Ip in the range 27% to 38%, and is quite
corresponding vertical stresses. The results shown are strongly bonded by calcium carbonate. It is possible to
corrected for machine compliance. With the exception of estimate the maximum erosion that has occurred with
the Gault Clay sample 6, from 112 m depth, the general some accuracy, about 120 m at the location of the
trend is for the void index to reduce with increasing available test data (Cotecchia & Chandler 1995). The
depth. The low value of Iv of the 112 m Gault Clay test data were obtained from high-quality samples taken
sample is curious, suggesting a much higher degree of at four different depths (9 m; 19 m; 25 m; and 33 m,
overconsolidation than seems likely to have occurred, having OCRs from 7 to 3 respectively) from a shaft and
and contrasting with the more normal value shown by nearby rotary-cored boreholes. High-pressure oedom-
the Gault Clay sample at 147 m depth. However, the eter tests were carried out on samples at all four depths,
112 m sample is highly plastic, as is the Sizewell and, again, the yield stresses were considerably higher
Ormesby Clay, which also showed unexpected low than the geological pre-consolidation stresses, as seen in
values of Iv. Fig. 24 shows the in situ states and the Fig. 27. Corresponding undrained strengths are known
values of Su from the unconfined compression tests for from only two depths, 19 m and 25 m (Cotecchia 1996;
which there is sufficient data to calculate Iv. Cotecchia & Tria 1999, pers. comm.).
It is difficult to estimate geological overconsolidation The cementation has maintained a relatively high void
ratios in these deposits since there are a number of ratio at depth, but at shallower depths there seems to
22 R. J. CHANDLER

Fig. 24. In situ states and strength, Harwell.

have been some weathering-induced structural collapse,


so that void indices are lower as the ground surface is
approached (Fig. 26).

Sensitivity framework: behaviour of stiff clays

The forgoing data for stiff clays may be plotted, as with


the soft clays, as IsSR versus St; this is done in Fig. 28
for the Harwell borehole data, and in Fig. 29 for all the
stiff clay data combined. As with the soft clays, the data,
as expected, lie to the right of the line of equality.
Introducing YSR requires a different treatment depend-
ing on whether IsSR is greater or less than unity. If IsSR
is greater than one, then, as with the soft clays, the YSR
may be included by plotting IsSR versus St/YSR. How-
ever, if IsSR is less than unity, then, from Equation (8),
it is necessary to plot IsSR versus St/S. The data plotted
in this manner are shown in Fig. 30; again, the points
plot about the line of equality. Despite the scatter of
Fig. 25. Overconsolidation and yield stress ratios, Harwell. results, the agreement is encouraging given the problems
of sampling disturbance and natural variability, and
their effects on the measurement of YSR and Su.

Fig. 26. In situ states, oedometer tests and strength, Pappadai, Italy. Data from Cotecchia & Tria (1999, pers. comm.).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 23

Fig. 27. Pappadai: comparisons of geological over-


consolidation ratios and yield stress ratios.

Fig. 29. All deep clay data: IsSR versus St.

Fig. 30. All deep clay data: IsSR versus St/YSR or St/S.

Fig. 28. Harwell: IsSR versus St.


some degree of overconsolidation, as seen in Fig. 31.
Figure 31(a) shows clays with <30% carbonates, and (b)
Yield stress and overconsolidation ratios with >30% carbonates. Some of the samples appear to
In practically all the cases reviewed here, soft or stiff be overconsolidated by unloading, namely those with
clay, the measured YSR exceeds the overconsolidation initial values of Iv lying below the ICL; but a number of
ratio calculated from the stratigraphy. It is possible that initially high Iv samples show yield stresses substantially
the calculated values of OCR are in error; certainly they higher than the in situ vertical stress, which at a depth of
are only approximate. But, given the consistency with 0.25 m will, depending on w0, be in the range 0.8 to
which the YSR exceeds the OCR, it seems likely that 1.8 kPa. Figure 31(b) shows that the high carbonate
diagenesis is responsible for the development of struc- clays generally exhibit notably higher yield stresses, no
tural strengths that generally exceed the maximum stress doubt the consequence of the development of carbonate
applied during geological compaction. bonds.
This behaviour seems likely to develop from very
shallow depths. Buchan & Smith (1999) presented Sensitivity framework: discussion
oedometer test data carried out on samples taken from The data shown in Figures 12 and 31 allow the general
0.25–0.3 m below the mudline in the North Atlantic, the pattern of in situ states of natural clays in terms of void
majority of which were inorganic clays of medium to index to be established (Fig. 32). The SCCs of most
very high plasticity. The samples were assessed visually sedimented clays during deposition and consolidation lie
and by X-ray examination as ‘largely undisturbed’, but in a band to the right of the ICL, at IsSRs typically
about half showed compression curves which indicated between 2 and 10, within which lies the SCL of Burland
24 R. J. CHANDLER

Fig. 31. Oedometer tests for samples from just below mudline; (a) CaCO3 <30%, (b) CaCO3 >30% (Buchan & Smith 1999).

data provided by Buchan & Smith (1999) suggest that


carbonate clays may also exist at similar high values of
Iv, though they may be capable of sustaining higher
vertical stresses than would be expected for quick clays.
An interesting group is formed by those clays having
SCCs close to the ICL. While further experience is
clearly needed, the present evidence suggests that the
relatively dense state of theses clays has been influenced
either by rapid deposition (Burland 1990), by downslope
flow (Paul et al. 1998), overconsolidation by sea-bed
erosion, or as a consequence of their original deposition
as tidal flats. If the latter is the case, the tidal flat SCC
commences to the left of the ICL (Fig. 12) and, given the
evidence of the Tilbury estuarine clay, subsequently lies
close to the ICL.
With any significant degree of overconsolidation, the
in situ state will lie to the left of the ICL, though clays with
only small degrees of overconsolidation, particularly if
Fig. 32. Stress states in terms of void index for different clay quick or moderately sensitive, can lie to the right of the
types. ICL. There will be an overlap zone in Fig. 32, within which
clays may be either normally consolidated, or lightly over-
(1990), with an IsSR of about 5–6. There are some data, consolidated. Other examples of SCCs for aqueous clays
admittedly limited, that suggest that at higher stresses of various origins are given by Paul et al. (1998).
(>2000 kPa) the sedimentation compression range tends It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the use of
to converge towards the ICL, implying a reduction in the sensitivity framework to compare in situ states with
sensitivity at depth. The data assembled by Skempton undrained strength as described above is, for natural
(1970) all lie within the sedimentation compression soils with all their inherent variability, an idealization
range, and provide (Fig. 3) a valuable guide to the likely which in practice can, at best, be only an approximation.
sedimentation compression curve for sedimented clays Another important assumption is that R*su =0.33; this
of known liquid limit. too, must be subject to some variability. The framework
The void index of quick clays is increased substan- does, however, provide a logical method for quantifying
tially by the leaching of sodium chloride, which reduces the effect of the soil structure on the mechanical behav-
the plasticity and consequently, providing the void ratio iour in terms of either stress or strength sensitivity. As a
remains unchanged, results in an increase in void index. consequence, it provides a basis for estimating un-
Quick clays thus exist in a significantly higher Iv state drained strength from the yield stress (or vice versa),
than do clays consolidating in situ along their SCCs. The providing Iv and the in situ vertical stress are also
range for quick clays shown in Fig. 32 is limited by the known. For clay soils whose in situ state lies to the right
fact that the depth at which they occur rarely exceeds of the ICL, Equation (6) leads to
about 20 m. Whether quick clays can continue to exist
without collapsing at the greater stresses implied by
depths in excess of 20 m is an interesting question. The
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 25

Table 3. Influences on measurements of yield stress ratio and


undrained strength

Effect Oedometer test Triaxial test


(YSR) (Su)

Natural sample variability ✔ ✔


Disturbance: sampling ✔ ✔
Disturbance: prior to test
(swell/consolidation) ✔ ✔
Un-square ends ✔ ✔
Discontinuities ✔
Strain-rate effects ✔
Incremental load or CRS ✔
Interpretation ✔

Fig. 33. Sedimentation compression curves and pre-shear


changes in Iv, Troll field, North Sea (Burland 1990).
which may be simplified, taking R =S / =0.33, to
*
su
*
u
*
ve

vy =3Su. (10) effects will be less important with incremental-load


oedometer tests, but may be more so with triaxial tests.
For clays whose in situ state lies to the left of ICL, For comparability, both test types should be carried out
Equation (8) leads to at constant and similar rates of strain. With the oedom-
eter test, incremental loading and constant-rate-of-strain
(CRS) testing may result in the measurement of some-
what different yield stresses (e.g. Hight et al. 1992), as
will different strain rates in the CRS test (e.g. Leroueil
which, if S*u/*ve =0.33, simplifies to et al. 1983). The graphical construction used to obtain
the yield stress in the oedometer test may also effect the
value obtained.
In summary, where yield stresses and undrained
strength are to be compared, identical samples should be
These equations should be helpful for site characteriz- tested, using methods and procedures that are compar-
ation, providing a check on, for example, sample distur- able in both oedometer and triaxial tests.
bance, or an estimate of the intact strength of a fissured
clay.
The data presented suggest that the method can be Sample preparation effects
expected to yield reasonable results, providing disturb-
ance to both oedometer test sample and strength test The topic of sample disturbance is far too extensive to
sample is kept to a minimum. In practice, sampling discuss here in any detail. However, since some of the
disturbance will be the same for both types of test data presented earlier related to sensitive and quick clays
specimen; so that any differences between samples used suggest that the measured strength was affected by
in the two tests will depend on differences in sample sample preparation procedures, these will be considered
preparation, the test conditions, and interpretation. briefly. In commenting on Fig. 16 it was observed that
Given these observations, it is useful to consider the the strengths of four clays (Ellingsrud, Emmerstad,
factors that are likely to affect comparison between Onsøy and Troll field upper) were lower than expected.
the two tests and the respective sample preparation These four clays only of those shown in Fig. 16 were
(Table 3). re-consolidated to the estimated in situ stresses (CAU
Acknowledging the inherent natural sample vari- tests); the others were UU tests. In each case the
ability, and that sampling disturbance (including stress re-consolidation was accompanied by some small com-
relief to isotropic conditions at zero total stress) will pression, typically 1–2%. Burland (1990) observed that
affect similarly both types of test specimen, remaining in the case of the Troll field upper clay recompression
factors include pre-test sample preparation, such as the to stresses beyond yield (the ‘SHANSEP’ procedure)
failure to trim the specimen ends square, allowing the resulted in a substantial loss of brittleness, and the
sample to swell in the oedometer or to change volume in measurement of a significantly reduced normalized
the triaxial cell. With careful preparation, ‘tight’ discon- strength.
tinuities should not affect the oedometer test, but can This behaviour is reflected by the state changes shown
be important with strength measurements. Strain-rate in Fig. 33. Sample 10C, subjected to the SHANSEP
26 R. J. CHANDLER

volumetric strains pre-shear may be sufficient to cause


some structural damage to sensitive clays.

2. Tectonic processes
Tectonic events can have a significant influence on soil
behaviour; at any stage of the Geotechnical Cycle,
faulting and folding can occur at depth, so that later,
when exhumed by erosion or excavation, they influence
engineering works. The tectonic structures that develop
are likely to reflect not only the current deformation
mode of the basin, but also may be inherited from earlier
phases of earth movement. A portion of the London
Basin is shown in section in Fig. 35, indicating that both
Fig. 34. Effect of sample and test type, Emmerstad, Norway faulting and bedding-plane slip due to folding (flexural
(Lacasse et al. 1985; Burland 1990). slip) can be expected to accompany the formation and
development of depositional basins. Faulting and flexu-
procedure, moved from its in situ state to the right of the ral slip both involve shearing, which particularly in clay
SCL to a position much closer to the ICL, indicating a soils, is of considerable engineering significance as a
substantial loss of the original structure as a conse- result of the preferential orientation of the clay particles
quence of consolidation. In contrast, the Troll field which develops with increasing displacement along the
lower clay (sample 27E) maintained its position close to shear surface. This results in the available strength along
the ICL following SHANSEP consolidation, and exhib- the shear surface being at a residual, rather than peak
ited normalized behaviour consistent with its low sensi- condition. The two main causes of shear surface for-
tivity in situ state. Unlike the upper clay, the lower clay mation are landsliding and tectonic shearing. The
fits the sensitivity framework well, as seen in Fig. 16. former is beyond the scope of the present discussion, but
Reconsolidation pre-shear results in far less compres- the latter, the consequence of flexural slip, is an import-
sion than the SHANSEP procedure, but given the effects ant and possibly widespread features of sedimentary
of SHANSEP consolidation, even the 1–2% volumetric basins, and is considered here.
strain of the CAU tests (as with test 22C, Fig. 33) may Faulting poses obvious hazards in tectonically active
be enough with sensitive and quick clays to cause some areas, in situations where materials of differing litholo-
loss of structural strength, and result in under- gies are thrown together so that they affect groundwater
measurement of the true undrained strength. Support conditions, and, particularly in more competent rocks,
for this suggestion is provided by other Emmerstad clay may cause stability problems in quarries and natural
data (Lacasse et al. 1985; Burland 1990). As seen in slopes. In contrast to the high angles of many faults,
Fig. 34, unconfined compression (UC) tests, which were flexural slip resulting from folding (e.g. Hutchinson
not subjected to any consolidation pre-shear, yielded 1995) can occur at low angles and be quite extensive.
significantly higher strengths than the CAU tests. The Stimpson & Walton (1970) suggested that such shear
higher strengths were ascribed by Lacasse et al. to the zones may occur at constant stratigraphic horizons over
greater strain rates used in the unconfined compression distances of at least 1.6 km. As a result of their exten-
tests, but the difference seems too great for this to be sive, low-angle nature, flexural-slip shear zones are
the sole reason, and it is suggested that even small associated with the formation of landslides (e.g. Fell

Fig. 35. London Basin sediments (shaded), showing folding and faulting affecting both basement and basin (Ellison 1999,
pers. comm.).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 27

the clay was still near normally consolidated. Curiously,


the shear zone also had a slightly lower plasticity index
than the surrounding clay. Another London clay shear
zone, at nearby Wraysbury (Fookes & Parrish 1969;
Skempton et al. 1969; Chandler et al. 1998), appears to
be very similar in most respects to those at Prospect
Park, in particular having a slightly lower water content
and also lower plasticity (Petley 1999, pers. comm.).
These observations of reduced water contents in clay
shear zones appear to be unique, which is surprising
since tectonic shearing must often occur at depths where
contractant shear behaviour can be expected. In contrast
to these observations, Salehy et al. (1977) present data
for a number of intraformational shears in northern
England Carboniferous rocks, all of which showed
Fig. 36. Water contents in flexural-slip shear zones, London significantly higher water contents than the surrounding
Clay Formation, Prospect Park (Chandler et al. 1998).
material, while Seedsman & Emerson (1985) report
‘black clay’ bedding-plane shears in a Permian coal
et al. 1988). Even if landslides do not occur, the presence measures sequence whose darker colour was mainly due
of shear zones must be considered in engineering design, to their higher in situ water content. It is possible that
as with the Mangla Project (Binnie et al. 1967) and the the increase in water content in these cases reflects up-
construction of the Queen Mother Reservoir (Pawsey & take of water since exhumation, and not the conditions
Humphries 1976). that applied at the formation of the shear zone. All
The recent discovery of extensive, near horizontal the shear zones were also reported as having higher,
shear zones in the London Clay Formation, ascribed to rather than lower plasticity than the neighbouring
bedding plane slip resulting from gentle folding, has material.
provided some insight into the nature and engineering
consequences of these features (Chandler et al. 1998).
The shear zones were found to the west of London, at Engineering significance of flexural-slip
Prospect Park, in an area of gentle folding, where shear zones
deformation of the London Clay Formation appears to
conform to the shape of the underlying Chalk. Any shear zone in a clay soil must be of considerable
The near parallel shear zones had a gentle monoclinal engineering significance since its strength will be at or
structure, with an overall dip of about 1, and lay close to residual. At Prospect Park, drained shear-box
parallel to a claystone horizon, showing that they are tests on the displacement shears (which bounded the
formed along the bedding. The directions of the stria- shear zone) gave ‘peak’ parameters for the displacement
tions formed during shearing aligned closely with the shear surfaces of about c =0,  =15, which fell after
direction of maximum dip, supporting the interpretation about 1 mm displacement to c =0,  ]13.5. The latter
of the shear zones being the result of flexural slip. The strength is close to the average value estimated by
upper of the two shear zone was almost certainly Skempton (1985) for the London clay ‘field residual’
continuous over a distance of at least 300 m. strength (c =0, rf =12.3+2.5/2.2).
Overconsolidated soils dilate when sheared, so that Gentle folding sufficient to result in flexural-slip shear
when shearing occurs in situ, as in a landslide, there is an zones may be expected to be fairly frequent in the
increase in the water content at the shear surface, e.g. London basin given the deformations implied by
Henkel (1956) (discussion of Watson (1956); Chandler Fig. 35, yet engineering problems associated with
et al. (1998)). So it was with some surprise that it was possible shear zones are rarely reported. It is of interest
found that water contents of the two shear zones at to examine why this might be so. For the stability of
Prospect Park were less than, rather than greater than, London clay slopes, two situations, short- and long-
that of the unsheared clay. These observations are term, must be considered. Considering short-term
plotted as histograms in Fig. 36, showing clearly that the stability in the first instance, the undrained strength, Su,
water content of the two shear zones were about 22% on a discontinuity may be given by
and 24%, compared to 26–29% in the clay immediately
adjacent to the shear zone. These comparatively low Su =c +(n u)tan (13)
water contents imply that at the time of the formation of
the shear zones the clay was contractant in shear, and it where n is the total normal stress acting across the
was concluded that these shear zones must have formed discontinuity (Chandler & Hamilton 1999). Taking u
at a time when little if any erosion had occurred, so that during shear as zero, implying a planar discontinuity,
28 R. J. CHANDLER

Fig. 37. Assumed failure mechanism involving shear zone.

Su =c +ntan , (14)

where n is the effective in situ normal stress acting on


the discontinuity. This approach enables the short-term Fig. 38. Undrained stability predicted using mechanism of
Fig. 37; strengths shown are those used to calculate Su on
stability of slopes containing a planar shear zone to be
shear zone (see text).
considered. A double-wedge model is used (Fig. 37) for
which a horizontal (rather than inclined) shear zone is
the most critical. Assuming hydrostatic groundwater
conditions, with the phreatic surface at a depth of 3.0 m,
Su on a London clay shear zone may be calculated
taking drained strength parameters as either c =0,
 =15, or c =0,  =13.5, corresponding to the shear-
box results. The bulk undrained strength (in kPa)
between shear zone and tension crack (A–B in Fig. 37) is
taken as

Su =7+2.61H (15) Fig. 39. Development of failure surface as a result of


progressive failure (Potts et al. 1997). Strains >20% (shaded)
based on a conservative interpretation of back-analyses imply the full development of a shear surface. The rupture
surface will form as the slope collapses.
of short-term failures of clay slopes given by Chandler
(1984). The slope height, H, is in metres.
Slope inclinations at limiting equilibrium, thus
separating stable from unstable slopes, obtained in this operate in the region close to the outer surface of
manner are shown in Fig. 38. It is seen that unless slopes the slope.
are excavated at inclinations greater than 45 or to The first-time failure of slopes in plastic (and therefore
depths greater than 10 m, short-term factors of safety brittle) clays in the longer term has been shown (Potts
remain above unity. This conclusion suggests that short- et al. 1997; Cooper et al. 1998) to involve progressive
term slope failures involving shear zones will not be failure. The mechanism involves the progressive devel-
common, since it is not usual to excavate slopes to these opment of a shear surface from the toe of the slope (Fig.
depths and inclinations. 39) so that when the slope eventually collapses it does so
The situation may, in fact, be more stable than with a near horizontal shear surface already formed.
indicated in Fig. 38. Chandler & Hamilton (1999) show This situation is very similar to that which applies to a
that the undrained strength measured on discontinuities failing slope where there is a pre-existing flexural-slip
in the shear-box corresponds more closely to the mean shear zone. It seems likely that it is difficult to distin-
effective stress in the samples (m) than to the in situ guish between true first-time slope failures, and long-
vertical stress. As a consequence, the undrained strength term slope failures involving pre-existing near horizontal
measured in the shear-box on soils for which K0 >1.0 will shear zones. Certainly, the average strength mobilized at
be higher than given by Equation (14), since m >n. A collapse will be very similar in the two situations. Thus
similar unloading phenomenon to that experienced by the lack of evidence of shear zones in engineering works
the shear-box samples may well occur across a horizon- in London clay does not necessarily imply that shear
tal shear zone following the excavation of a slope, so it zones are uncommon, just that their effect on
seems likely that the undrained strength of a shear zone conventional-sized excavations is not always critical. In
in a newly excavated slope may be greater than expected. other situations, however, their presence may be of
Such an effect could, however, only be expected to considerable importance.
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 29

3. The Erosion Stage Table 4. Thames terraces: ages, altitude (central London), and
thickness of brown London clay below gravel
Following deposition, compaction and then uplift, the
Terrace Altitude Age Average depth
final stage of the Geotechnical Cycle is that of erosion,
(m) (ka) (range)
the process directly responsible for unloading of the of brown clay
remaining sediments, and, in a subaerial environment, (m)
indirectly related to the onset of weathering. Both
unloading and weathering have important influences
Flood Plain 1 10 0.05 (01.2)
on the geotechnical behaviour of clay sediments. The Kempton Park 5 50–130 0.05 (01.2)
erosion processes themselves, whether mass movement Taplow 12 250 0.1 (00.3)
or fluvial erosion, will not be considered; nor will Lynch Hill 18 350 0.3 (00.6)
periglacial processes which may also have important Boyn Hill 40 400 1.9 (1.52.1)
effects on clay sediments. Black Park 50 ?420 —
The deposition of the London Basin sediments, a total
thickness of perhaps 350 m, occupied a period of about
16 Ma, commencing in the Paleocene around 60 Ma or so of erosion have occurred in the Thames valley in
ago, with the shallow water Thanet Sand Formation the last 450 ka.
being deposited unconformably on the Chalk. The water Table 4 lists the terraces of the Thames, their altitude
depth increased, with some fluctuation, and the in the London area, and their estimated ages. These ages
Lambeth Group, the London Clay Formation (includ- relate to the lower part of the terrace deposits, and thus
ing the Claygate Beds in their upper part), the Bagshot reflect as closely as possible the erosional phase. Since
Formation, Bracklesham Beds and Barton Beds were the age of the terraces is known, however approxi-
deposited successively. mately, they provide markers which can be used to
The Barton Beds mark the end of known deposition, estimate the age of the landscape itself. Presumably
around 45 Ma ago, following which there was emer- those elements of the landscape which lie above 60 m
gence, and a period of more than 40 Ma ensued during OD, that is above the Black Park Terrace, are at least in
which an unknown, but considerable amount of erosion part older than that terrace. Of course there will have
must have occurred, which has continued to the present been more recent erosion, but this is likely to have been
day. It is possible that at the end of this period, in the more limited than during the active phase of down-
late Pliocene, there may have been renewed shallow cutting that preceded the deposition of the Black Park
water sedimentation in the east of the basin, when the Terrace. Very approximately, one may conclude that the
Crag was deposited. higher elements of the landscape above the terrace are
This briefest summaries serves to emphasize how the older, and are thus more likely to have been influ-
imprecise is our knowledge of the sequence and magni- enced by superficial weathering processes, or by peri-
tude of the loading and unloading events that have glacial processes during the succeeding Pleistocene
affected the properties of the clays that now remain. cold phases. The lower slopes will have been similarly
Though there must have been substantial earlier erosion, affected, but being younger, will have been subject to
it is not until the Middle Pleistocene, about 0.5 Ma ago, fewer cold phases.
that any detail of the progress or rates of erosion of the
London basin sediments emerge; similar degrees of
uncertainty will apply to many of the other of the Weathering
world’s depositional basins.
The present landscape in the London basin has largely Oxidation of clay sediments
been fashioned during the Pleistocene, with fluvial Where erosion rates are slow, weathering becomes an
downcutting by the Thames and its tributaries probably important phenomenon in the Geotechnical Cycle. In
being most active at the early and late stages of the many marine sediments the most obvious evidence of
various ice advances. Ice advances about 0.45 Ma ago, weathering is the colour change from the blue-grey
which reached as far south as the northern limits of characteristic of deeper water anaerobic deposition con-
Greater London, pushed the Thames southward to ditions, to the brown coloration that results from sub-
approximately its present position. The extent of the aerial oxidation of ferrous (FeO) to ferric oxide (Fe2O3).
erosion since this time can be gauged by the altitude of The London Clay Formation provides many examples
the Black Park Terrace, one of the earliest and highest of extensive oxidation, and it is not uncommon to record
terrace fragments remaining from this period, which lies up to 10 m depth of oxidation below the present ground
at around 60+ m OD in the immediate London area, surface. Various other chemical changes are associated
compared to the Floodplain Terrace, whose formation with oxidation, and these changes, combined with the
commenced around 10 ka ago, with its surface at about unloading and swelling that accompanies erosion, result
+1 m OD and its base at about 7 m OD. Thus 60 m in changes in the geotechnical properties of the clay.
30 R. J. CHANDLER

a progressive increase in the depth of oxidation of the


London clay beneath the terrace gravels with age and
altitude, as shown in Fig. 40. An additional factor to be
noted is the lateral extent of the individual terraces: the
younger terraces are more extensive than the older,
which are more dissected.
Away from the immediate vicinity of the Thames the
ground rises, and there are extensive areas where terrace
gravels were either never deposited, or have long since
been removed by erosion. In these areas the London clay
Fig. 40. Depth of weathered brown London clay beneath reaches the ground surface, and the depth of oxidation is
terrace gravels. Terrace levels refer to central London area. generally substantially greater than beneath the terrace
gravels. There is also a general tendency for the thick-
ness of brown clay to increase with both altitude and
Some of these changes will be examined later but, in the distance from the Thames. Where gravel-free slopes exist
first instance, the depth of oxidation and the conditions between the various terraces, relatively close to the
under which it occurs will be considered, commencing Thames, the depth of oxidation does not appear to
with the situation beneath the gravels of the various exceed about 5 m. For example, Buchan (1938) records
terraces of the River Thames. 3.5 m of brown London clay at Piccadilly, and 5 m at
It is widely recognized that remarkably little oxidation nearby St James Street, London, on a gentle slope
has occurred in the London clay that underlies the between the Flood Plain and Taplow Terraces, and
terrace gravels, suggestive of comparatively rapid ero- Chandler & Apted (1988) describe 5 m of brown clay on
sion prior to terrace deposition. A systematic review has the 2 slope between the Flood Plain and Taplow
not been made, though data provided by Barton (1964) Terraces at South Ockendon, Essex.
enable some general statements to be made regarding Further from the Thames, but still to the north of
the depth of brown clay below the various terrace the river, at altitudes of about 45 m OD (comparable
gravels. with the Boyn Hill and Black Park Terraces), sites at
The three lowest terraces (Flood Plain, Kempton Northolt (Henkel 1957) and Kensal Green (Skempton
Park, and Taplow, in increasing altitude and age; see 1977) show 6.5 m to 8.5 m of brown clay. Both these
Table 4) generally appear from borehole evidence to lie sites are the locations of slips in railway cutting slopes;
directly on grey clay. On isolated occasions, up to 1.2 m at Northolt it is interesting to note an apparent abrupt
of brown clay has been recorded, but of 95 boreholes transition from brown to grey clay, the basal surface of
reported by Barton, only 19 (20%) recorded any brown the landslide coinciding with this junction, and not
clay, giving an overall average thickness of only 0.07 m. extending to the base of the cut (Fig. 41. This strongly
Beneath the older and higher Lynch Hill gravels, the suggests that the oxidation of the London clay is
average thickness of brown clay increases slightly, to associated with a change of mechanical properties,
0.3 m, with 45 of 83 boreholes (54%) encountering some resulting in the brown clay being more liable to slope
brown clay. Hooper & Butler (1966) report 0.6 m of instability.
brown clay below a total thickness of 6.1 m of made At still higher levels, greater thicknesses of brown clay
ground and Lynch Hill gravel at the Barbican, London. have been recorded, the greatest depth being at Harrow
Beneath the still higher (and yet older) Boyn Hill on the Hill (author’s files), just below the outcrop of the
Terrace, Barton reports an average thickness of brown Claygate Beds, where two adjacent boreholes showed
clay of 1.9 m from 5 boreholes, in what Gibbard (1994) 12.8 m and 14.3 m of brown clay; in both cases appar-
maps as relatively small terrace fragments. There is thus ently in situ clay extended to the ground surface. All

Fig. 41. Landslide at Northolt, showing relation to depth of weathered brown London clay (Henkel 1957).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 31

Fig. 42. Thicknesses of brown London clay related to altitude, north of Thames. CB: Claygate Beds; terraces as in Fig. 40.

these sites are north of the Thames, and are summarized


in Fig. 42, their altitude being compared with the surface
levels of the various terraces.
The foregoing suggests that the thickness of brown
clay increases with altitude, and indeed this appears in
Fig. 43 to be the case north of the Thames. However,
this is a considerable oversimplification, as is seen when
the situation south of the Thames is examined. Here,
terrace gravels are less extensive, presumably the conse-
quence of the River Thames, forced south by Pleistocene
ice, resulting in terrace deposition to the north rather
than the south of the river. Four examples suffice to
highlight the apparently more variable depth of
weathered London clay south of the Thames, shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 44. A surprising case is the
14.5 m depth of brown clay observed at relatively low
altitude (45 m AOD) at New Cross railway cutting
(Gregory 1844; Skempton 1996), where a landslide
occurred in 1841, three years after the excavation of the
Fig. 43. Depth of weathered brown London clay in absence
cutting. This cutting passes through a ridge of London
of gravel cap (>=depth of brown clay greater than borehole
depth). Site abbreviations are given in Appendix B. clay; there is no cap of gravel at the crest of the ridge. As
at Northolt, the base of the slip coincided with the

Fig. 44. Thicknesses of brown London clay related to altitude, south of Thames. CB: Claygate Beds; terraces as in Fig. 40.
32 R. J. CHANDLER

Fig. 45. Landslip at New Cross, showing relation to depth of weathered brown London clay (Gregory 1844; Skempton 1996).
Excavated 1837–1838, slip 1841.

junction between the brown and the grey clay (Fig. 45).
An even greater depth of brown clay was observed near
Dulwich Village (author’s files), where a single 15 m
deep borehole remained in brown clay throughout its
full depth. Again, this site is an interfluve, lacking any
gravel cap, the borehole being at 66 m OD, with the
crest of the ridge at about 80 m OD.
The other two records from London south of the
Thames are less exceptional. At Knight’s Hill, about 8 m
of brown clay has been observed, again where there is no
gravel cap, but at a site where the slope is inclined at up
to 8, and where landsliding has occurred in the past Fig. 46. Extent of oxidation at Pappadai, southern Italy
(Skempton 1999, pers. comm.). Similarly, at a site near (Cotecchia & Chandler 1995).
Crystal Palace, just below the Claygate Beds outcrop,
a series of boreholes all show about 7 m of brown water table being at a depth of only a metre or two,
clay. Again the slope is steep enough (up to 10) for with some seasonal fluctuation. Examples of known
recent landsliding to have occurred (author’s files), but water table depths from the sites listed in Appendix B
additionally there is a superficial layer of sandy, gravelly include Potters Bar (1.6 m), Northolt (2.0 m) and South
Head at this site. In both these cases it is possible that the Ockendon (2.0 m); these are typical values. None of
landsliding has removed some of the brown clay from the these has overlying gravels. Thus the present climatic
slope. Details of all these sites are listed in Appendix B. conditions are not conducive to oxidation; this is
The development of oxidized, brown clay requires the confirmed by the nature of the discontinuity surfaces,
presence of oxygen. The lower Thames terraces, with particularly at shallow depths, which frequently reveal
their gravel deposits, result in the permanent presence of the presence of a pale grey skin—‘gleying’—indicating
water in the gravel, inhibiting oxidation of the clay; reducing, rather than oxidizing conditions. The gleying
brown clay is virtually absent, even though the time occurs only on discontinuities, the intact clay lumps
period is substantial. The higher terraces, underlain by between the fissures being brown. Oxidation to any
small thicknesses of brown clay, are more fragmented depth in excess of about 2 m must thus reflect a former
and lie at a greater altitude, and are thus more easily period (or periods) of warmer or drier climate, sufficient
drained of water, providing a greater opportunity for to allow the water table to fall. A lowered water table
oxidation to occur. However, even the Boyn Hill terrace, would be accompanied by the development of desic-
perhaps 420 ka old, has less than 2 m of oxidized clay at cation cracks and the opening of fissures, allowing
its base, suggesting that there has been water in the the entry of air and encouraging oxidation. Thus oxi-
gravel for practically all this period. dation depths in the London clay are the probable
The substantial depths of brown London clay all consequence of a former, deeper, groundwater level, and
occur in the absence of gravel, particularly at interfluve do not necessarily reflect present conditions.
sites where the topography allows the water table to be There is little information on depths of oxidation in
drawn-down. Lesser depths of oxidized clay occur on other clay sediments, though an interesting example is
low altitude inter-terrace slopes where water-table draw- Pappadai, southern Italy (Cotecchia & Chandler 1995)
down is likely to be restricted by the presence of perched (Fig. 46). In the absence of overlying gravel, and in a
water in the adjacent gravels. warmer, drier climate than in south-east England,
The present-day climate in southeast England is such depths of oxidation are notably greater than in the
that the annual balance between precipitation, infil- London clay, but still reflect the topography, with 25 m
tration, run-off and evaporation, results in the effective to 30 m on the interfluves, and about 15 m in the valley
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 33

floors. Here too, the present-day phreatic surface is


above the depth of oxidation, again suggesting a drier
climate at some earlier time.

Other weathering effects


Oxidation is accompanied by other chemical changes,
many of which will, as presumably does oxidation itself,
weaken the soil structure, with consequential changes to
the engineering properties, such as reduced stiffness,
yield stress, and strength. Typical chemical reactions are Fig. 47. Weathering profile, Upper Lias Clay, Culworth,
the oxidation of pyrite (a product of anaerobic marine Northamptonshire (Chandler 1972).
deposition conditions), leading to the formation of sul-
phuric acid which in turn reacts with the calcite present
in the clay (e.g. Morgenstern 1970; Russell & Parker
1979) to form selenite (gypsum). Selenite crystals in the
weathering zone are a feature of, for example, Lias clay,
Oxford clay and London clay.
Russell & Parker (1979) observed that the selenite
crystals are often large near the base of the weathering
zone, but that there is frequently a shallower horizon of
smaller crystals, suggestive of two methods or phases of
gypsum formation. Similar phenomena may be observed
in both the Upper Lias and in the London clay. The near
transparent selenite crystals are easily overlooked,
particularly if small. However, as pointed out by
Shearman (1979), when heated above 80C selenite
(CaSO4 . 2H2O) dehydrates, and becomes white and
opaque, making it much more obvious in oven-dried
than in fresh clay samples.
Fig. 48. Strength–water content relationships, Upper Lias
Changes in clay structure may be expected to result
Clay, Culworth (Chandler 1972).
from the dissolution of calcite and pyrite, and also from
the growth of selenite crystals. With the reduction of
stresses resulting from erosion, and with the reduction of samples from a clay pit at South Ockendon, Essex. The
structural bonds due to weathering, the mass of clay is pit was excavated in gently sloping ground, so that it
able to take in water and swell, resulting in an obvious was possible to sample the same near-horizontal stratum
increase of water content in the clay with decreasing at different depths and weathering grades. Figure 49
depth. At the shallowest depths, climatic effects may also shows relationships between weathering, natural water
result in seasonal changes in water content. Not all content, and undrained strength, Su. The trend of the
stiff clays, however, increase in volume as a result of data is for the more weathered clay (grades III and IV)
weathering; Pappadai clay, with strong diagenetic bonds to lie above the less weathered clay (grades I and II),
but high void ratios, suffers a reduction of voids on though the separation is not so clear as with the Upper
weathering (Fig. 26). Lias, largely because the increase in water content on
weathering is less in the London clay.
Weathering results in a clay macro-fabric (grade III),
Weathering and the mechanical behaviour which has stiffer, less weathered lumps of clay (litho-
of clays relics) in a matrix of disturbed, softer clay. In many of
the South Ockendon test specimens it was possible to
The Upper Lias Clay of Jurassic age is oxidized in a measure separately the matrix and lithorelic water con-
similar manner to the London clay, though not usually tents and, as shown in Fig. 49(b), to make an estimate of
to such depths. The oxidation is accompanied by a the probable fully weathered (grade IV) water content
significant increase in water content, which in turn is versus Su relationship by plotting Su against matrix
reflected in relationships between strength and water water content. In Fig. 50 the same data are plotted
content which differ with weathering grade, as shown in logarithmically against vertical stress and Su, so as to
Figs 47 and 48 (Chandler 1972). make comparison with the ICL and ISuL. The liquid
A more detailed study of the effects of weathering on limit of all samples varied only slightly (2%) from
the strength of clay sediments, this time of the London 80%, and this value of wL has been used to calculate the
clay, was carried out by Chandler & Apted (1988), using intrinsic compression and strength lines.
34 R. J. CHANDLER

Fig. 51. Effect of weathering on estimated yield stress ratios,


London clay, South Ockendon.

using Equation (12). In Fig. 51 it is seen that the


unweathered clay can be inferred to have values of YSR
of about 40 at shallow depths, falling to 20 at 15 m. The
fully weathered material has much lower values of YSR,
falling from 9 at 5 m to 5 at 15 m. Of course, it is
unlikely that fully weathered clay would exist at any
great depth, but the reduction in YSR is a useful
Fig. 49. Strength-water content relationships for weathered quantification of the effects of weathering on the
and unweathered London clay, South Ockendon (Chandler mechanical behaviour of the clay.
& Apted 1988).

Figure 50(a) shows the matrix water content measure- Conclusions


ments, together with the average values of in situ water
content of the grade I and II samples; this enables the At the commencement of the Geotechnical Cycle newly
construction of the water content versus effective stress sedimented clays at the mud-line have water contents as
relationship for the unweathered clay. It is not so easy to high as 1.8wL. These high void ratios demonstrate that
establish the corresponding relationship for the com- even at this early stage in the cycle, sedimented clays
pletely weathered clay, but a suggested curve is shown. have a considerable structure. In many cases, oedometer
In this manner Fig. 50(a) may be used to estimate the tests show that the yield stress in one-dimensional com-
eventual effect of weathering on the yield stress ratio, pression exceeds the in situ vertical stress, even though

Fig. 50. In situ states and strength, South Ockendon. Symbols as Fig. 49.
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 35

the samples came from just below the mud line and the Tectonic events can be significant throughout the
clay is geologically normally consolidated. At all subse- Geotechnical Cycle. Flexural slip along bedding planes
quent stages of the Geotechnical Cycle, except after can produce shear zones having a strength close to
considerable weathering, the yield stress is likely to be residual. In the London Clay Formation, with conven-
greater than the maximum geological stress, whether the tional scale excavations, these shear zones may be of less
clay is normally or overconsolidated. These observations importance than might at first be thought. With deeper
confirm the conclusions of Leroueil & Vaughan (1990) excavations, or where shear zones can make up a large
and Vaughan (1997), that the yield stress is the domi- proportion of a landslide shear surface, their importance
nant measure of soil structure, and that there is no may be much greater.
particular reason why the geological preconsolidation Weathering, the final stage of the Geotechnical
stress should have a direct influence on soil behaviour. Cycle, is most obviously shown by the colour change
It has been seen that there is an Intrinsic Strength on oxidation, from grey to brown. With the London
Line, ISuL, which corresponds to the Intrinsic Compres- clay, oxidation appears to be the result of past lower
sion Line (Burland 1990). The ISuL can be given groundwater levels in the clay, and is consequently of
approximately, for triaxial compression, as R*su =S*u/ greater depth at the interfluves. Where gravels lie
*ve =0.33, where *ve is the equivalent vertical stress on above the clay maintaining a permanent perched water
the ICL. Using the ISuL, the Sensitivity Framework table, little or no oxidation occurs in the clay even
(Cotecchia & Chandler 2000) can be developed to after many tens of thousands of years. The overall
demonstrate that, for clays whose in situ state lies to the effect of weathering may be quantified using the Sensi-
right of the ICL, there is considerable evidence that the tivity Framework to estimate the reduction of yield
Stress Sensitivity, S(=vy/*ve)=Strength Sensitivity, stress ratio from the unweathered to weathered state.
St(=Su/S*u). This equality provides a valuable check on A London clay example suggests that unweathered
measured soil properties. values of YSR in the range 40 to 20 (depending on
There is less certainty concerning clays whose in situ depth) can be reduced by a factor of about four if
states lie to the left of the ICL, but a suggested approxi- complete weathering occurs.
mate relationship is that St =S . IsSR, where IsSR, the
In situ Stress Ratio, =v0/*ve; the available evidence for
stiff clays supports this relationship.
This formulation of the Sensitivity Framework high-
lights several instances where, for soft sensitive clays, Acknowledgements. I regard it as a considerable honour to
have been asked to give this Glossop Lecture, and thank
the undrained strength appears to have been under- the Engineering Group of the Geological Society and Ruth
measured, apparently due to damage to the soil struc- Allington, their Chair, for the kind invitation. Many people
ture following reconsolidation to the estimated in situ aided the preparation of the lecture and this paper, giving
stresses. So as to minimize damage to the soil structure, generously of their time and experience; this help is very
it is suggested that, for any clay soil, soft or stiff, the gratefully acknowledged. In particular, the following have
provided practical help, stimulating discussion, or have read
triaxial undrained strength of intact natural samples is drafts of the paper; some have done all of these things: Dr M.
best measured by applying the estimated in situ total Barton; Professor J. B. Burland; Dr J. Cartwright; Mr T.
stresses, without allowing any volume change to occur Connolly; Dr M. R. Coop; Mr G. Cossenas; Dr F. Cotecchia;
following stress application. Where possible, pore Mr M. R. Cunningham; Dr R. A. Ellison; Dr M. H. de Freitas;
pressures should be measured so that the strength can be Professor D. W. Hight; Mr P. Hobbs; Professor K. Hoeg;
Professor J. N. Hutchinson; Professor M. Jamiolkowski; Pro-
related to the in situ stresses. Similarly, oedometer fessor R. J. Jardine; Mr C. Jewsbury; Dr D. J. Petley;
compression should commence at the in situ vertical Professor D. M. Potts; Mr F. C. Schroeder; Professor A. W.
stress to minimize any damage swelling might cause to Skempton; Dr H. St John; Professor N. Taylor; Professor
the soil structure. If yield stresses and undrained P. R. Vaughan; and Dr L. Zdravkovic. I apologize to anyone
strength are to be compared most effectively, oedometer I may have inadvertently missed. But most of all I thank my
wife, Eunice, who put up with my preoccupation with the
and triaxial tests should be carried out by matching preparation of the lecture with much patience, understanding,
as closely as possible soil sampling methods, sample love and good humour. Whatever its failings, the paper would
preparation techniques, and test procedures. be much the poorer without this help.
36 R. J. CHANDLER

Notation St strength sensitivity (=Su/S*u; St >1.0>St)


S stress sensitivity (vy/*ve; S >1.0>S)
c effective cohesion intercept Su peak undrained shear strength (=(1 3)/
Cc compression index (=reduction in void ratio 2) of intact samples in the natural state
over log cycle of stress) S*u; S*K0u undrained strength at same void ratio on
C*c intrinsic compression index (=e*100 e*1000) ISuL (and hence measured on samples con-
e; eL; e0 void ratio; void ratio at liquid limit; void solidated under K0 conditions)
ratio in situ u pore water pressure
e*100; e*1000 void ratio at v =100 kPa; 1000 kPa, during wL water content at liquid limit
one-dimensional intrinsic compression wP water content at plastic limit
Gs specific gravity of soil grains w0 in situ water content
H slope height YSR yield stress ratio in oedometer compression
ICL intrinsic compression line (Burland 1990) (=vy/v0)
IsSR in situ stress ratio (=v0/*ve) ;  unit weight; effective unit weight
ISuL intrinsic strength line for triaxial compres-  ; fr angle of shearing resistance; field angle of
sion residual shearing resistance
IP plasticity index m; n mean effective stress; normal effective stress
Iv void index (=(e0 e*100)/C*c) v0 in situ vertical effective stress
K0 coefficient of earth pressure at rest vy yield stress in oedometer compression
OCR (geological) overconsolidation ratio *ve vertical effective stress on ICL at e0
R*su undrained strength ratio (=S*u/ve) * indicates ‘intrinsic’ properties, determined
SCC sedimentation compression curve on reconstituted samples one-dimensionally
SCL sedimentation compression line (Burland compressed from a slurry prepared at about
1990) 1.25wL

Appendix A. Positions of intrinsic compression and intrinsic


strength lines

Table A1. Positions of ICL and ISuL Equations for the ICL are:

Iv Iv Vertical stress, S*K0u Iv =2.451.285x+0.015x3 (Burland 1990)


Burland (1990) this paper v, kPa kPa
(ICL) (ISuL) Iv =2.61.475x+0.075x2 +0.0055x3 (this paper)

where x=log v.


(3.20) 0.4
(2.60) 1 Correlations between eL, e*100 and C*c are:
(1.74) 4 1.3
1.18 1.21 10 3.3 e*100 =0.109+0.679 eL 0.089 e2L +0.016 e3L
0.46 0.45 40 13.3
0 0 100 33.0 (Burland 1990)
0.63 0.63 400 133
1.0 1.0 1000 330 e*100 =0.114+0.581eL (linear regression)
1.48 1.48 4000 1330
(1.75) 1.75 10 000 3300 C*c =0.256 eL 0.04 (Burland 1990)
1.92 20 000 6600
(2.01) 30 000 9900 The differences between the two expressions for e*100 do
(2.06) 40 000 13 300 not exceed 5% between wL =25% and 170%; beyond
170% the differences increase, and use of the linear
Parentheses indicate extrapolated points. relationship is recommended.
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 37

Appendix B. Depths of brown London clay


Table B1. Sites of known depth of brown London clay

Site National Grid Depth of brown Approx. ground Reference


ref. clay, m. level, m AOD.

(a) North of Thames


Apex Corner (AC) TQ 207929 9–10.5 79 Skempton et al. (1969)
Edgwarebury (Edg) TQ 193945 7.5–9 95 Skempton et al. (1969)
Harrow on the Hill (HH) TQ 302734 13.5 87 Author’s files
Kensal Green (KG) TQ 235828 8.5 46 Skempton (1977)
Northolt (Nor) TQ 134844 6.5 46 Henkel (1957)
Northwick Park, Harrow (NP) TQ 165875 5–8.5 70 Hooper & Butler (1966)
Paddington (Pad) TQ 262816 6 14 Skempton & Henkel (1957)
Piccadilly (Pic) TQ 292804 3.5 9 Buchan (1938)
Potters Bar (PB) TL 308005 11 85 Skempton (1977)
Scratchwood (Scr) TQ 197946 9.5 82 Brown (1966)
South Ockendon (SO) TQ 615830 5 14 Chandler & Apted (1988)
St James Street (StJ) TQ 292803 5 8 Buchan (1938)
(b) South of Thames
Crystal Palace (CP) TQ 332709 7 100 Author’s files
Knight’s Hill (KH) TQ 320734 8 60 Skempton (1999, pers comm.)
Dulwich Village (DV) TQ 344737 >15 66 Author’s files
New Cross (NC) TQ 363763 14.5 45 Skempton (1996)

Abbreviations (AC, etc.) are those used in Fig. 43.

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Received 21 September 1999

Vote of Thanks compared. A number of outcomes of immediate interest


to geologists result from this approach of which two will
M. H. de Freitas, Department of be mentioned here.
The first is that the Framework provides the context
Civil & Environmental Engineering, for grouping and separating deposits where similarities
Imperial College, London and differences may not have been apparent by other
means; by the same reasoning it may also reveal either
Concepts such as the sedimentation compression curve the presence or absence of a correlation between mech-
and overconsolidation ratio have a special resonance for anical properties and other aspects of a sediment’s
geologists because they provide us with additional character.
tools for studying the history of sedimentation and the The second is the consistent difference that occurs
stratigraphic succession. Colour, grain size, bedding, between the yield stress ratio and the overconsolidation
mineralogy and palaeontology all make their con- ratio. This is worthy of study because it reveals the need
tribution to such work, but neither these nor geo- for geologists to improve the approach used when
chemistry, nor geophysics can provide the algorithm reconstructing past events in the cycle of deposition
which reveals the history of fabric development and its and erosion; it also reveals the need for geologists to
ability to resist load. Here the yield stress ratio is of great explain the contribution geological processes make
value. to geomechanical properties.
When defined by Professor Burland, this ratio was Professor Chandler has made a further contribution
seen as providing a useful measure of resistance that by linking the yield stress ratio, and all it represents
could not be explained by friction alone and a valuable geologically, with the peak undrained shear strength on
insight into those aspects of a sediment’s history which samples that have been consolidated in one dimension,
this resistance reflected. Professor Chandler has now i.e. K=Ko.
taken this further by laying out for us the links between This paper will appeal to many branches of geology in
this ratio and the processes of deposition, and erosion, both academia and industry: it leaves the Engineering
seen so often in basinal sedimentation. These he has Group of the Society the stronger, our Society the more
presented as a Sensitivity Framework with which the learned and geology the wiser. It is in every way a
properties and possible history of sediments may be contribution which this Society should value.

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