Chandler 2000
Chandler 2000
Introduction
he cycle of events and natural processes that The understanding of the mechanical behaviour of
Fig. 2. Depositional and mud-line water contents: (a) Skempton (1970); (b) Buchan & Smith (1999).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 9
Post-sedimentation behaviour in which the void ratio e0 is the current or in situ value,
e*100 is the void ratio of a reconstituted sample of the
Sedimentation compression curves same soil one-dimensionally compressed to a vertical
The mechanical behaviour of clay sediments as an effective stress, v, of 100 kPa, and the compression
immediate consequence of marine deposition in the early index C*c applies to one-dimensional compression
stages of the Geotechnical Cycle has received consider- between *v of 100 kPa and 1000 kPa. The asterisk is
able attention, notably by Skempton (1970) and Burland used to denote ‘intrinsic’ properties, that is related to the
(1990). In this state the clay is regarded as ‘normally behaviour of reconstituted soils prepared from a slurry
consolidated’, with the current in situ vertical stress mixed at about 1.25liquid limit.
being the maximum to which the clay has been sub- Void index is preferred to liquidity index since it
jected. Initially, discussion will be confined to such clays, relates directly (through e) to the proportion of voids
considering the geotechnical consequences of the process in the soil (not indirectly, as given by w), while the
of natural sedimentation. The more complex behaviour oedometer defines C*c directly, rather than relying on an
resulting from diagenesis and, in particular, from un- implicit relationship between geotechnical properties
loading by erosion or excavation (‘overconsolidation’), and plasticity, as does liquidity index.
will be considered later. A comparison of void index and liquidity index is
Both Skempton and Burland examined the changing shown in Fig. 4. The data (Burland 1990; his figure 2),
void ratio of natural clay sediments with increasing for six clays one-dimensionally compressed from a
depth of burial. Early work by Terzaghi (1941) had slurry, show that a unique relation results with respect to
shown that, in situ, with the slow sedimentation rates of void index (Figure 4(c)). This relationship is the ‘Intrin-
geological time, the profile of reducing water content sic Compression Line’, or ICL. As with liquidity index,
with depth was rather different from that followed at the the void index normalizes for differences in soil type, the
much higher loading rates of a laboratory oedometer presumption being that C*c is defined uniquely by the
test. The difference was greater still when in situ states compression procedure, the soil mineralogy and the pore
were compared with the oedometer compression of a water chemistry. It can also be seen from Fig. 4 that at
sample reconstituted at the liquid limit. The in situ water IL =1.0 (liquid limit), Iv]1.0, and at IL =0 (plastic limit),
content (w0), plotted against the logarithm of vertical Iv]1.0, the relationship between Iv and IL being given
effective stress, was referred to by Terzaghi as the approximately by
‘Sedimentation Compression Curve’ (SCC). This term is
used here to describe the path followed by a clay element Iv =2.0IL 1.0. (2)
in situ as it is compressed by continuing sedimentation.
Skempton (1970) examined the SCCs of a range of An important practical point is that, if Iv is to be
natural clays in situ in terms of water content, showing calculated with reasonable accuracy, particularly with
that the position of different SCCs depended, inter alia, low plasticity clays, water content should be measured
on the liquid limit of the clay (Fig. 3). The more-or-less to 0.1%.
constant position of each of the clays relative to the lines The ICL was used by Burland (1990) as a datum
of equal liquid limit shows that each clay maintains its against which to compare in situ values of Iv. The ICL
own basic structure with increasing depth of burial. will be used here as the basis of similar comparisons,
Expressing the water content as liquidity index, IL though it is necessary to extend its range to vertical
10 R. J. CHANDLER
Fig. 4. Relationships between void ratio, liquidity index, void index and effective stress; (a) and (c) from Burland (1990).
Table 1. Summary of clays used in Figs 8(a) and 9; parentheses indicate assumed values
Fig. 8. Relationships between undrained strength ratio For present purposes the single value of R*su =0.33 will
R*su =S*u/v and plasticity index. (a) This paper; (b) be used to establish the intrinsic strength line, ISuL,
Jamiolkowski et al. (1985). shown in Fig. 9 plotted as Iv against S*K0u, where
1, summarized in Table 1. Figure 8(a) shows the
results in terms of undrained strength ratio, R*su =S*K0u/ S*K0u =0.33*ve (3),
v, where v is the vertical effective stress to which the
sample was consolidated prior to shear. It might be *ve being the corresponding value of v on the ICL.
expected that there would be a trend for R*su to be related Hereafter, S*K0u will be written as S*u. Note the absence
to plasticity index, but the present data are apparently of data at values of Iv >0, the consequence of the
independent of plasticity index, with a mean value of R*su difficulties in handling such soft samples; further
of about 0.34. Data presented by Jamiolkowski et al. research is required to confirm the position of the ISuL
(1985) (Fig. 8(b)) also show R*su to be independent of in this region.
plasticity index, with a mean value of S*K0u/v =0.32. Other intrinsic strength lines with differing values of
Similar conclusions may be drawn from results given by R*su could be used if required. For example, when the
Hight et al. (1987). Interestingly, corresponding data value of R*su is known for the particular clay, or if
for simple shear and triaxial extension given by processing simple shear or triaxial extension data when
Jamiolkowski et al. do show variation with plasticity the ISuL may be related to plasticity, using the equations
index; the corresponding equations are given in given in Fig. 8(b). The position of the ISuL for R*su =0.33
Fig. 8(b). is given in Appendix A.
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 13
Fig. 10. Intrinsic compression and intrinsic strength lines, and other definitions; in situ stress state to the right of ICL.
The ISuL allows a more rigorous definition of sensi- unloaded by mild erosion; the latter will usually have
tivity, St, the ‘Strength Sensitivity’ than that generally been unloaded quite considerably by erosion.
used: namely, the ratio of the peak undrained strength in The in situ state of the clay is defined by the vertical
triaxial compression of the natural clay in situ to the stress, v0, and by the in situ void ratio, e0. The in situ
peak strength of the same clay reconstituted one- state is separated from the ICL (at the same value of e)
dimensionally to the same value of Iv. As with the by a distance equal to IsSR, the ‘in situ stress ratio’, the
reconstituted clay, the reason for the use of peak ratio of the in situ stress to the intrinsic compression
strength for the undisturbed clay is to include structural stress. Thus, IsSR=v0/*ve.
components of strength. It follows, therefore, that the However, if an oedometer test is carried out on
undisturbed strength applies to intact samples, free from the same soil element, in most cases (as has been
discontinuities. seen) yield occurs at a vertical stress vy in excess of
v0, defining a yield stress ratio which is greater than
The sensitivity framework: definitions unity.
For present purposes, namely examining the in situ The ‘stress sensitivity’, S, for stress states to the right
states and strengths, the main elements of the sensitivity of the ICL, is a measure of the structural resistance (that
framework as developed here are shown in Figs 10 and is the structural strength of the soil) in excess of that at
11, for clay whose in situ states lie to the right or left of the intrinsic state
the ICL, respectively. The former will generally be soils
which are either normally consolidated or have been S =IsSR . YSR (4)
Fig. 11. Intrinsic compression and intrinsic strength lines, and other definitions; in situ stress state to the left of ICL.
14 R. J. CHANDLER
where S represents the distance, at the same void ratio, Both Equations (6) and (8) are approximations. In
of the ICL from the yield stress. The corresponding terms of the normalized boundary states (Hvorslev plot),
undrained undisturbed strength, Su (at e0), will lie to the Equation (6) implies that there is geometric similarity,
right of the ISuL since it will be greater than the given by the ratio S =St, between the natural clay and
equivalent strength (S*u) on the ISuL by an amount the intrinsic state boundary surfaces. This is in good
proportional to the extra structural strength of the in situ agreement with the behaviour of contractant clays
soil element. (Cotecchia & Chandler 2000). Similar assumptions
Strictly, it would be better to measure YSR at the are implied by Equation (8), but more variables are
slightly lower value of e at which the yield stress is involved, including the degree of dilation exhibited in
reached, so as to reflect the corresponding soil structural shear, which are not entirely allowed for.
changes, which is of course possible with the oedometer
test since changes of e are known. In the corresponding
undrained compression test, most natural clay samples Methods
develop a shear plane, so there is an unknown degree of For soft clays, the hypothesis expressed by Equation (6)
local drainage within the sample, and the void ratio at will be tested against the case studies provided by either
failure is not known with any certainty. There cannot, Skempton (1970) or Burland (1990), for which corre-
therefore, be exact correspondence between YSR and sponding undrained triaxial compression strength
Su. In this review, most of the values of YSR are taken measurements are available. To ensure objectivity, all
from depth-effective stress plots, the usual vehicle for the relevant data presented by these two authors are
presenting these data, so that, de facto, the majority of used. In a number of the cases the original source has
the present comparisons of YSR and Su are made with been consulted to obtain necessary information.
respect to e0. Professor Burland was kind enough to place his data
For stress states to the right of the ICL, the hypothesis at the writer’s disposal, so that many of the soft clay
is that the undisturbed undrained strength, Su, is equal results presented here, particularly the values of Iv, are
to the corresponding intrinsic strength multiplied by S. those used by Burland (1990). Where possible, both
In this way the soil’s structural resistance to the vertical Burland (1990) and the writer have computed values of
stress in the in situ state (IsSR), together with the extra Iv using data from one-dimensional consolidation tests
resistance in loading the sample to the yield stress, can on clay reconstituted at about 1.25liquid limit, with
be combined to give the strength of the natural sample. void ratios (e) calculated from measured values of the
Thus, referring to Fig. 10, specific gravity, Gs. Where oedometer test data were
not available, Iv was calculated using Burland’s (1990)
Su =S*u . IsSR . YSR. (5) correlations of e*100 and C*c with liquid limit. It must
be emphasized that direct measurement of C*c is to be
Rearranging gives preferred. The correlations with liquid limit are given in
Appendix A; at very high values of liquid limit (>170%),
Su/S*u =St =IsSR . YSR=S (6) a linear regression extrapolation of the data is more
satisfactory than the cubic equations given by Burland
where St is the strength sensitivity as previously defined.
(1990).
Similar ideas may be used to develop a comparable
Throughout this discussion the strength used is the
expression for clay having an in situ state lying to the left
undrained shear strength in triaxial compression, Su.
of the ICL, as shown in Fig. 11. Again, St, IsSR, YSR
For consistency, all the oedometer yield stress data
and S may be identified, defined as previously. How-
are taken from incremental load tests; however, a more
ever, in this case *ve >v0, while S*u may be >Su, so that
precise estimate of yield stress can often be made using
IsSR will have values less than unity, St can take values
constant rate-of-strain tests, a procedure that also better
>1.0 or <1.0. For this situation, the hypothesis is that
matches the triaxial test procedure, where constant
the equivalent strength S*u has (i) to be factored up (by
strain rates are generally used.
S) to account for the structural resistance required to
generate the yield stress, and (ii) factored down (by IsSR)
to correspond to the reduced in situ stress
Individual cases: soft clays
resulting from erosion. Thus
Data from Skempton (1970). The data given by
Su =S*u . S . IsSR. (7) Skempton for which there are corresponding strength
measurements (with values of Iv from Burland 1990)
Rearranging gives have been used directly, with just two exceptions. The
first is the ocean core A-31 for which the strength data
Su/S*u =St =S . IsSR. (8) were not measured in triaxial compression. The
strengths quoted by Skempton are rather high, and,
This expression applies whether St >1.0 or <1.0. though plotted (Fig. 13), are not used subsequently. For
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 15
Fig. 12. In situ stress states for sedimentary clays; data from
Skempton (1970) and Burland (1990).
Fig. 13. Undrained strength, Su, for sedimentary clays
the Tilbury case the data from Skempton & Henkel shown in Fig. 12.
(1953) are more complete than in Skempton (1970).
two types of sample, the piston samples being generally
Data from Burland (1990). The in situ values of Iv more compressible and showing lower yield stresses
for the post-glacial soft clay at Bothkennar, near than the Sherbrook samples. This presumably reflects
Grangemouth, Scotland, are taken from Burland (1990), the greater disturbance caused by piston sampling.
while oedometer yield stresses and undrained strength Triaxial testing was carried out on samples anisotropi-
results are from Hight et al. (1992). These latter data all cally consolidated to the in situ effective stresses, a
relate to Laval samples, so sample disturbance in both process that results in a small compressive volume
types of tests is likely15 to be similar; for consistency change. The block samples gave undrained strengths
with data from other sites, yield stresses are based that were 10 to 33% higher than the piston samples,
on incremental load tests. Strength data are from uncon- but smaller differences were noted with the non-quick
solidated undrained (UU) triaxial tests, on 100 mm Onsøy clay. It is of interest to note that unconfined
diameter samples; the samples were not reconsolidated compression (UC) tests from block samples of the
to the estimated in situ stresses. Emmerstad clay, which were not reconsolidated prior
Data on three Norwegian marine clays, one sensitive to shear, gave substantially higher values of Su than
(Onsøy) and two quick (Ellingsrud and Emmerstad), did any of the block samples.
come from Lacasse et al. (1985), with additional infor- Two of Burland’s cases, Sault Ste. Marie 1 and
mation from Burland (1990). The paper by Lacasse Detroit, both North American soft clays, come from Wu
et al. examines the effect of sampling disturbance, com- (1958), whose paper was consulted to obtain undrained
paring Sherbrook samples (Lefebvre & Poulin 1979), strengths for both sites. Unfortunately, Wu’s paper is
which are block samples from the base of a borehole, ambiguous as to whether compressive or shear strength
with NGI 95 mm fixed-piston samples. Oedometer is quoted (this is particularly evident in his figure 15); in
incremental loading tests were carried out on both the two cases used here it has been assumed that Su is
Sherbrook and piston samples. Only with the most in fact twice the value quoted by Wu.
sensitive of the clays, Ellingsrud, was there a significant A particularly interesting case, already discussed, is
difference in the one-dimensional compression of the the Troll oil-field (Burland 1990). Though the strength
16 R. J. CHANDLER
profile (not shown here) appears to be continuous with points in Fig. 12, plotted against strength sensitivity, St,
depth, the void indices of the two strata are quite from Fig. 13. The majority of the data lie to the right of
different (Fig. 7), as are the corresponding oedometer the line of equality, as expected from Equation (6), since
compression curves. allowance has not been made for YSR. The data shown
in Fig. 14 suggest that values of YSR should lie between
Sensitivity framework: behaviour of soft clays 1.0 and 2.0. Including YSR, by rewriting Equation (6) as
The data from Skempton (1970) and Burland (1990)
relating to the in situ stress state are plotted in Fig. 12 as IsSR=St/YSR (6a)
in situ vertical effective stress, v0, versus void index, Iv,
and in Fig. 13 as undrained strength in triaxial compres- enables the data in Fig. 14 to be plotted as IsSR versus
sion, Su, versus Iv. In Fig. 12 the data are compared with St/YSR (Fig. 15). This is done using the measured values
the intrinsic compression line, ICL, and in Fig. 13 with of YSR. To improve clarity, Fig. 16 shows the same
the intrinsic strength line, ISuL. Figure 12 also shows the data, but plotted as average values. It is seen that the
sedimentation compression line (from Fig. 6) and the data now scatter about the line of equality, confirming
range of states expected at a depth of about 0.25 m Equation (6). Some of the points, however, (Ellingsrud,
below the sea bed (or mudline), taken from Fig. 2(b). Emmerstad, Onsøy and Troll field upper) lie further to
The spread of data in Fig. 12 is considerable. The the left than expected. In each of these four cases the
sedimentation compression line is seen to be represen- undrained strengths were measured using samples recon-
tative of several of the cases, but other cases lie both to solidated to the estimated in situ stresses prior to shear.
the left and right. Those lying to the right at high values Given the high sensitivities of all these clays, it is
of Iv (e.g. Ellingsrud; Emmerstad) are the highly sensi- possible that the triaxial reconsolidation process has
tive Norwegian clays. The process of leaching of sodium damaged the structure of the clay, resulting in the
chloride which develops the sensitivity of these clays has measurement of a reduced strength. Note, too, that
resulted in an increase in void index to a value compar- though the sensitive upper Troll field clay lies in a
able to or even higher than just below the mudline, position suggesting that the strength has been under-
though the structure of these clays is able to support a recorded, the low sensitivity Lower Troll field clay shows
considerable vertical stress. Clearly, these clays have a quite a good fit. This point will be returned to later.
high IsSR (v0/*ve), and thus a high sensitivity; though
not shown, the remoulded strengths recorded by field
vane tests on these clays are practically zero (Lacasse Compression and strength behaviour of stiff and
et al. 1985). Strictly, the relations between Iv and v0 hard clays
shown in Fig. 12 for these clays are not sedimentation
compression curves, since leaching has modified the The forgoing discussion relates to early phases of the
value of Iv post-deposition. Geotechnical Cycle, involving geologically young clays
The two clays lying closest to the ICL are Tilbury and of late Pleistocene and Holocene age, which are nor-
Troll field lower, the latter more-or-less coincident with mally or only lightly overconsolidated, and whose stress-
it. Tilbury, an estuarine clay, is an example of a low states lie to the right of the ICL. Their geologically
sensitivity clay, similar to the Gosport and Shellhaven recent origin and shallow depth of burial has enabled
clays discussed by Burland (1990; see his figure 15), on them to retain a relatively high void ratio, and dia-
which oedometer tests (as with Troll field lower) yield at genesis, apart from that due to ageing (e.g. Bjerrum
the ICL, and then follow it. Behaviour of this type is 1967) and leaching, will have been slight.
expected of clays of low sensitivity; confirming this, the In contrast, geologically older clays in later stages of
average value of strength sensitivity, St, for the Tilbury the Geotechnical Cycle are likely to be, or will have
clay is 1.3 (Skempton & Henkel 1953). been, more deeply buried. Consequently, not only are
The corresponding undrained strength data for these they more compact, but diagenetic processes, given the
soft clays, shown in Fig. 13, lie in similar positions greater stresses and perhaps elevated temperatures at
related to the ISuL as do the in situ states related to the depth, will have had greater opportunity to occur. The
ICL in Fig. 12. However, careful comparison shows that result is that bonding, including that resulting from the
in many cases (though not all), the strength data in fact redeposition of such minerals as calcite and pyrite, may
lie slightly further to the right of the ISuL than do the have taken place, controlled by, for example, the miner-
in situ states relative to the ICL in Fig. 12. Those alogy of the sediment and its pore water chemistry
clays lying to the right exhibit considerable strength during and post-deposition. Changes in clay mineralogy
sensitivity, St, (=Su/S*u). are also possible. Moreover, there may have been more
The most direct test of the hypothesis expressed by than one phase of diagenesis. Whatever the processes or
Equation (6) would be to plot S against St for the data time scales, it is clear that significant changes are likely
in Figs 12 and 13. A less direct approach will be taken to have occurred to the structure of such clays, whose
here; Fig. 14 shows values of IsSR (=v0/*ve) for all the natural water content is often reduced to, or below, their
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 17
Fig. 14. In situ stress ratio (IsSR) versus strength sensitivity (St); data from Figs 12 and 13.
plastic limit (Iv < 1.0). In addition, erosion will change cases chosen are all clays for which the yield stress is
the in situ state of the clay. Thus clays subjected to deep known from high-pressure oedometer tests. All are
burial will exist at much lower void ratios, have a either heavily overconsolidated, or exist at considerable
structure that reflects their greater age and burial depths, depths. They may have undergone more than one cycle
and may have a stress-state to the left of the ICL, of erosion/unloading, followed by further compaction
depending on the extent of unloading. They can be under the increasing stresses of renewed sedimentation.
expected to exhibit high yield stress ratios reflecting the Throughout the following discussion, unless otherwise
often substantial strength of the soil structure. stated, it is assumed that the vertical effective stress is
In the examples that follow, the sensitivity framework given with sufficient accuracy by the multiple of depth
is examined in the context of stiff and hard clays. The and effective unit weight, ,=10 kN/m3.
Fig. 15. IsSR versus St/YSR; data from Figs 12 and 13.
18 R. J. CHANDLER
Fig. 17. In situ states and strength, London Clay Formation, Ashford Common. Data from Bishop et al. (1965).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 19
Fig. 19. In situ states and strength, Boom Clay, Mol, Belgium. Data from Baldi et al. (1991), Coop et al. (1995), Horseman
et al. (1987), and Mair et al. (1992).
20 R. J. CHANDLER
Table 2. Sizewell index properties (Hight & Jardine 1993) The Crag is a very dense, shelly sand; the London clay
at Sizewell is a very stiff to hard fissured grey clay with
Liquid limit Plastic limit w0 silt layers, while the Lambeth Group is composed of
% % %
very stiff fissured silty clays with silty fine sands and silt
laminae. The Ormesby Clay is a hard, very plastic clay.
London Clay Formation 107–53 58–22 50–19 Ranges of index properties, from Hight & Jardine
Lambeth Group 67–28 27–17 28–18 (1993), are given in Table 2.
Ormesby Clay 146–80 45–28 42–31
High-pressure oedometer tests were carried out at
Imperial College on rotary cored samples of the London
Clay at 56 m depth, and on the Ormesby Clay at 78 m
Crag, which does not appear to have suffered signifi- and 81 m depths (Cola & Jardine 1995). Based on
cant erosion (Hight et al. 1997). There is another effective stress testing, undrained strengths have been
unconformity at the Lambeth Group/Ormesby Clay estimated (Hight 1999, pers. comm.) at depths of 57 m
boundary, but it is difficult to estimate the amount of (London Clay), 69 m (Lambeth Group) and 80 m
erosion that could have occurred. (Ormesby Clay).
The variation of Iv with depth is shown in Fig. 20; the
suggestion is that there is a continuous relation to the
base of the Lambeth Group, with a substantial reduc-
tion in void index in the Ormesby Clay. Such a reduction
suggests that the Ormesby Clay is more heavily overcon-
solidated than the succeeding Lambeth Group and
London Clay Formation. The trend lines shown have
been used to establish the Iv values for the estimated
undrained strengths.
The relations between Iv, vertical stress and undrained
strength, together with the high pressure oedometer
tests, are shown in Fig. 21. The in situ states of the
London Clay and Lambeth Group lie close to the ICL,
consistent with comparatively low OCRs, but the
Ormesby Clay lies well to the left of the ICL at rather
low values of Iv. The undrained strength data are
similar, though lying further right compared to the ISuL
than do the in situ states relative to the ICL.
The oedometer tests indicate yield stress ratios of 2.6
for the London Clay and 3.7–2.9 for the Ormesby Clay,
higher than the corresponding geological OCRs of
Fig. 20. Summary geology and void index versus depth,
2.30.7 and 2.00.5.
Sizewell, Suffolk. Data from Hight et al. (1997).
Fig. 21. In situ states and strength, Sizewell. Data from Cola & Jardine (1995), Hight et al. (1997), and Hight (1999, pers.
comm.).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 21
Harwell. The British Geological Survey drilled a number Fig. 23. High pressure oedometer tests on clay samples from
Harwell, Oxfordshire. Data from Horseman et al. (1982) and
of boreholes at Harwell, Oxfordshire, one of which
Entwisle et al. (1990); sample numbers are from the latter
reached a depth of 551 m (Horseman et al. 1982). The reference.
boreholes commenced in the Cretaceous (Lower Chalk),
penetrated successively the Jurassic and the Trias, termi-
nating in the Carboniferous. The clay sediments that unconformities in the sequence representing major ero-
were encountered included the Gault, Kimmeridge Clay, sion events, so that all the strata will have been unloaded
Oxford Clay, the Lower Lias and the Upper Coal and reloaded on several occasions. However, Jackson &
Measures, and in all but the last of these high-pressure Fookes (1974) estimated the maximum geological loads
oedometer and unconfined compression tests were car- on the Oxford Clay and, using these, Horseman et al.
ried out, as well as numerous index tests. A simplified (1982) suggested maximum geological stresses on the
borehole log, showing oedometer sample depths, is various Harwell strata. These values of overconsoli-
given in Fig. 22. The vertical effective stress has been dation ratio range from 3.7 in the upper levels of the
calculated using =0.0123D+8.83, where D is depth Gault, to 1.6 in the Lower Lias, and are compared with
in metres, as suggested by Horseman et al. (1982), the measured yield stress ratios (Fig. 25). Again, it is
assuming hydrostatic pore pressures. seen that the yield stresses considerably exceed the
Results of the oedometer tests are shown in Fig. 23, estimated maximum geological stresses.
the data being from Entwisle et al. (1990) and Hobbs
(1999, pers. comm.). All the tests were commenced at the Pappadai, Italy. This is a Lower Pleistocene marine clay
estimated swelling pressure of the individual samples, in which oxidation has occurred to depths of 15 to 30 m.
though it will be seen that this was always less than the The clay has Ip in the range 27% to 38%, and is quite
corresponding vertical stresses. The results shown are strongly bonded by calcium carbonate. It is possible to
corrected for machine compliance. With the exception of estimate the maximum erosion that has occurred with
the Gault Clay sample 6, from 112 m depth, the general some accuracy, about 120 m at the location of the
trend is for the void index to reduce with increasing available test data (Cotecchia & Chandler 1995). The
depth. The low value of Iv of the 112 m Gault Clay test data were obtained from high-quality samples taken
sample is curious, suggesting a much higher degree of at four different depths (9 m; 19 m; 25 m; and 33 m,
overconsolidation than seems likely to have occurred, having OCRs from 7 to 3 respectively) from a shaft and
and contrasting with the more normal value shown by nearby rotary-cored boreholes. High-pressure oedom-
the Gault Clay sample at 147 m depth. However, the eter tests were carried out on samples at all four depths,
112 m sample is highly plastic, as is the Sizewell and, again, the yield stresses were considerably higher
Ormesby Clay, which also showed unexpected low than the geological pre-consolidation stresses, as seen in
values of Iv. Fig. 24 shows the in situ states and the Fig. 27. Corresponding undrained strengths are known
values of Su from the unconfined compression tests for from only two depths, 19 m and 25 m (Cotecchia 1996;
which there is sufficient data to calculate Iv. Cotecchia & Tria 1999, pers. comm.).
It is difficult to estimate geological overconsolidation The cementation has maintained a relatively high void
ratios in these deposits since there are a number of ratio at depth, but at shallower depths there seems to
22 R. J. CHANDLER
Fig. 26. In situ states, oedometer tests and strength, Pappadai, Italy. Data from Cotecchia & Tria (1999, pers. comm.).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 23
Fig. 30. All deep clay data: IsSR versus St/YSR or St/S.
Fig. 31. Oedometer tests for samples from just below mudline; (a) CaCO3 <30%, (b) CaCO3 >30% (Buchan & Smith 1999).
2. Tectonic processes
Tectonic events can have a significant influence on soil
behaviour; at any stage of the Geotechnical Cycle,
faulting and folding can occur at depth, so that later,
when exhumed by erosion or excavation, they influence
engineering works. The tectonic structures that develop
are likely to reflect not only the current deformation
mode of the basin, but also may be inherited from earlier
phases of earth movement. A portion of the London
Basin is shown in section in Fig. 35, indicating that both
Fig. 34. Effect of sample and test type, Emmerstad, Norway faulting and bedding-plane slip due to folding (flexural
(Lacasse et al. 1985; Burland 1990). slip) can be expected to accompany the formation and
development of depositional basins. Faulting and flexu-
procedure, moved from its in situ state to the right of the ral slip both involve shearing, which particularly in clay
SCL to a position much closer to the ICL, indicating a soils, is of considerable engineering significance as a
substantial loss of the original structure as a conse- result of the preferential orientation of the clay particles
quence of consolidation. In contrast, the Troll field which develops with increasing displacement along the
lower clay (sample 27E) maintained its position close to shear surface. This results in the available strength along
the ICL following SHANSEP consolidation, and exhib- the shear surface being at a residual, rather than peak
ited normalized behaviour consistent with its low sensi- condition. The two main causes of shear surface for-
tivity in situ state. Unlike the upper clay, the lower clay mation are landsliding and tectonic shearing. The
fits the sensitivity framework well, as seen in Fig. 16. former is beyond the scope of the present discussion, but
Reconsolidation pre-shear results in far less compres- the latter, the consequence of flexural slip, is an import-
sion than the SHANSEP procedure, but given the effects ant and possibly widespread features of sedimentary
of SHANSEP consolidation, even the 1–2% volumetric basins, and is considered here.
strain of the CAU tests (as with test 22C, Fig. 33) may Faulting poses obvious hazards in tectonically active
be enough with sensitive and quick clays to cause some areas, in situations where materials of differing litholo-
loss of structural strength, and result in under- gies are thrown together so that they affect groundwater
measurement of the true undrained strength. Support conditions, and, particularly in more competent rocks,
for this suggestion is provided by other Emmerstad clay may cause stability problems in quarries and natural
data (Lacasse et al. 1985; Burland 1990). As seen in slopes. In contrast to the high angles of many faults,
Fig. 34, unconfined compression (UC) tests, which were flexural slip resulting from folding (e.g. Hutchinson
not subjected to any consolidation pre-shear, yielded 1995) can occur at low angles and be quite extensive.
significantly higher strengths than the CAU tests. The Stimpson & Walton (1970) suggested that such shear
higher strengths were ascribed by Lacasse et al. to the zones may occur at constant stratigraphic horizons over
greater strain rates used in the unconfined compression distances of at least 1.6 km. As a result of their exten-
tests, but the difference seems too great for this to be sive, low-angle nature, flexural-slip shear zones are
the sole reason, and it is suggested that even small associated with the formation of landslides (e.g. Fell
Fig. 35. London Basin sediments (shaded), showing folding and faulting affecting both basement and basin (Ellison 1999,
pers. comm.).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 27
Su =c +ntan , (14)
3. The Erosion Stage Table 4. Thames terraces: ages, altitude (central London), and
thickness of brown London clay below gravel
Following deposition, compaction and then uplift, the
Terrace Altitude Age Average depth
final stage of the Geotechnical Cycle is that of erosion,
(m) (ka) (range)
the process directly responsible for unloading of the of brown clay
remaining sediments, and, in a subaerial environment, (m)
indirectly related to the onset of weathering. Both
unloading and weathering have important influences
Flood Plain 1 10 0.05 (01.2)
on the geotechnical behaviour of clay sediments. The Kempton Park 5 50–130 0.05 (01.2)
erosion processes themselves, whether mass movement Taplow 12 250 0.1 (00.3)
or fluvial erosion, will not be considered; nor will Lynch Hill 18 350 0.3 (00.6)
periglacial processes which may also have important Boyn Hill 40 400 1.9 (1.52.1)
effects on clay sediments. Black Park 50 ?420 —
The deposition of the London Basin sediments, a total
thickness of perhaps 350 m, occupied a period of about
16 Ma, commencing in the Paleocene around 60 Ma or so of erosion have occurred in the Thames valley in
ago, with the shallow water Thanet Sand Formation the last 450 ka.
being deposited unconformably on the Chalk. The water Table 4 lists the terraces of the Thames, their altitude
depth increased, with some fluctuation, and the in the London area, and their estimated ages. These ages
Lambeth Group, the London Clay Formation (includ- relate to the lower part of the terrace deposits, and thus
ing the Claygate Beds in their upper part), the Bagshot reflect as closely as possible the erosional phase. Since
Formation, Bracklesham Beds and Barton Beds were the age of the terraces is known, however approxi-
deposited successively. mately, they provide markers which can be used to
The Barton Beds mark the end of known deposition, estimate the age of the landscape itself. Presumably
around 45 Ma ago, following which there was emer- those elements of the landscape which lie above 60 m
gence, and a period of more than 40 Ma ensued during OD, that is above the Black Park Terrace, are at least in
which an unknown, but considerable amount of erosion part older than that terrace. Of course there will have
must have occurred, which has continued to the present been more recent erosion, but this is likely to have been
day. It is possible that at the end of this period, in the more limited than during the active phase of down-
late Pliocene, there may have been renewed shallow cutting that preceded the deposition of the Black Park
water sedimentation in the east of the basin, when the Terrace. Very approximately, one may conclude that the
Crag was deposited. higher elements of the landscape above the terrace are
This briefest summaries serves to emphasize how the older, and are thus more likely to have been influ-
imprecise is our knowledge of the sequence and magni- enced by superficial weathering processes, or by peri-
tude of the loading and unloading events that have glacial processes during the succeeding Pleistocene
affected the properties of the clays that now remain. cold phases. The lower slopes will have been similarly
Though there must have been substantial earlier erosion, affected, but being younger, will have been subject to
it is not until the Middle Pleistocene, about 0.5 Ma ago, fewer cold phases.
that any detail of the progress or rates of erosion of the
London basin sediments emerge; similar degrees of
uncertainty will apply to many of the other of the Weathering
world’s depositional basins.
The present landscape in the London basin has largely Oxidation of clay sediments
been fashioned during the Pleistocene, with fluvial Where erosion rates are slow, weathering becomes an
downcutting by the Thames and its tributaries probably important phenomenon in the Geotechnical Cycle. In
being most active at the early and late stages of the many marine sediments the most obvious evidence of
various ice advances. Ice advances about 0.45 Ma ago, weathering is the colour change from the blue-grey
which reached as far south as the northern limits of characteristic of deeper water anaerobic deposition con-
Greater London, pushed the Thames southward to ditions, to the brown coloration that results from sub-
approximately its present position. The extent of the aerial oxidation of ferrous (FeO) to ferric oxide (Fe2O3).
erosion since this time can be gauged by the altitude of The London Clay Formation provides many examples
the Black Park Terrace, one of the earliest and highest of extensive oxidation, and it is not uncommon to record
terrace fragments remaining from this period, which lies up to 10 m depth of oxidation below the present ground
at around 60+ m OD in the immediate London area, surface. Various other chemical changes are associated
compared to the Floodplain Terrace, whose formation with oxidation, and these changes, combined with the
commenced around 10 ka ago, with its surface at about unloading and swelling that accompanies erosion, result
+1 m OD and its base at about 7 m OD. Thus 60 m in changes in the geotechnical properties of the clay.
30 R. J. CHANDLER
Fig. 41. Landslide at Northolt, showing relation to depth of weathered brown London clay (Henkel 1957).
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 31
Fig. 42. Thicknesses of brown London clay related to altitude, north of Thames. CB: Claygate Beds; terraces as in Fig. 40.
Fig. 44. Thicknesses of brown London clay related to altitude, south of Thames. CB: Claygate Beds; terraces as in Fig. 40.
32 R. J. CHANDLER
Fig. 45. Landslip at New Cross, showing relation to depth of weathered brown London clay (Gregory 1844; Skempton 1996).
Excavated 1837–1838, slip 1841.
junction between the brown and the grey clay (Fig. 45).
An even greater depth of brown clay was observed near
Dulwich Village (author’s files), where a single 15 m
deep borehole remained in brown clay throughout its
full depth. Again, this site is an interfluve, lacking any
gravel cap, the borehole being at 66 m OD, with the
crest of the ridge at about 80 m OD.
The other two records from London south of the
Thames are less exceptional. At Knight’s Hill, about 8 m
of brown clay has been observed, again where there is no
gravel cap, but at a site where the slope is inclined at up
to 8, and where landsliding has occurred in the past Fig. 46. Extent of oxidation at Pappadai, southern Italy
(Skempton 1999, pers. comm.). Similarly, at a site near (Cotecchia & Chandler 1995).
Crystal Palace, just below the Claygate Beds outcrop,
a series of boreholes all show about 7 m of brown water table being at a depth of only a metre or two,
clay. Again the slope is steep enough (up to 10) for with some seasonal fluctuation. Examples of known
recent landsliding to have occurred (author’s files), but water table depths from the sites listed in Appendix B
additionally there is a superficial layer of sandy, gravelly include Potters Bar (1.6 m), Northolt (2.0 m) and South
Head at this site. In both these cases it is possible that the Ockendon (2.0 m); these are typical values. None of
landsliding has removed some of the brown clay from the these has overlying gravels. Thus the present climatic
slope. Details of all these sites are listed in Appendix B. conditions are not conducive to oxidation; this is
The development of oxidized, brown clay requires the confirmed by the nature of the discontinuity surfaces,
presence of oxygen. The lower Thames terraces, with particularly at shallow depths, which frequently reveal
their gravel deposits, result in the permanent presence of the presence of a pale grey skin—‘gleying’—indicating
water in the gravel, inhibiting oxidation of the clay; reducing, rather than oxidizing conditions. The gleying
brown clay is virtually absent, even though the time occurs only on discontinuities, the intact clay lumps
period is substantial. The higher terraces, underlain by between the fissures being brown. Oxidation to any
small thicknesses of brown clay, are more fragmented depth in excess of about 2 m must thus reflect a former
and lie at a greater altitude, and are thus more easily period (or periods) of warmer or drier climate, sufficient
drained of water, providing a greater opportunity for to allow the water table to fall. A lowered water table
oxidation to occur. However, even the Boyn Hill terrace, would be accompanied by the development of desic-
perhaps 420 ka old, has less than 2 m of oxidized clay at cation cracks and the opening of fissures, allowing
its base, suggesting that there has been water in the the entry of air and encouraging oxidation. Thus oxi-
gravel for practically all this period. dation depths in the London clay are the probable
The substantial depths of brown London clay all consequence of a former, deeper, groundwater level, and
occur in the absence of gravel, particularly at interfluve do not necessarily reflect present conditions.
sites where the topography allows the water table to be There is little information on depths of oxidation in
drawn-down. Lesser depths of oxidized clay occur on other clay sediments, though an interesting example is
low altitude inter-terrace slopes where water-table draw- Pappadai, southern Italy (Cotecchia & Chandler 1995)
down is likely to be restricted by the presence of perched (Fig. 46). In the absence of overlying gravel, and in a
water in the adjacent gravels. warmer, drier climate than in south-east England,
The present-day climate in southeast England is such depths of oxidation are notably greater than in the
that the annual balance between precipitation, infil- London clay, but still reflect the topography, with 25 m
tration, run-off and evaporation, results in the effective to 30 m on the interfluves, and about 15 m in the valley
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 33
Fig. 50. In situ states and strength, South Ockendon. Symbols as Fig. 49.
THE GEOTECHNICAL CYCLE 35
the samples came from just below the mud line and the Tectonic events can be significant throughout the
clay is geologically normally consolidated. At all subse- Geotechnical Cycle. Flexural slip along bedding planes
quent stages of the Geotechnical Cycle, except after can produce shear zones having a strength close to
considerable weathering, the yield stress is likely to be residual. In the London Clay Formation, with conven-
greater than the maximum geological stress, whether the tional scale excavations, these shear zones may be of less
clay is normally or overconsolidated. These observations importance than might at first be thought. With deeper
confirm the conclusions of Leroueil & Vaughan (1990) excavations, or where shear zones can make up a large
and Vaughan (1997), that the yield stress is the domi- proportion of a landslide shear surface, their importance
nant measure of soil structure, and that there is no may be much greater.
particular reason why the geological preconsolidation Weathering, the final stage of the Geotechnical
stress should have a direct influence on soil behaviour. Cycle, is most obviously shown by the colour change
It has been seen that there is an Intrinsic Strength on oxidation, from grey to brown. With the London
Line, ISuL, which corresponds to the Intrinsic Compres- clay, oxidation appears to be the result of past lower
sion Line (Burland 1990). The ISuL can be given groundwater levels in the clay, and is consequently of
approximately, for triaxial compression, as R*su =S*u/ greater depth at the interfluves. Where gravels lie
*ve =0.33, where *ve is the equivalent vertical stress on above the clay maintaining a permanent perched water
the ICL. Using the ISuL, the Sensitivity Framework table, little or no oxidation occurs in the clay even
(Cotecchia & Chandler 2000) can be developed to after many tens of thousands of years. The overall
demonstrate that, for clays whose in situ state lies to the effect of weathering may be quantified using the Sensi-
right of the ICL, there is considerable evidence that the tivity Framework to estimate the reduction of yield
Stress Sensitivity, S(=vy/*ve)=Strength Sensitivity, stress ratio from the unweathered to weathered state.
St(=Su/S*u). This equality provides a valuable check on A London clay example suggests that unweathered
measured soil properties. values of YSR in the range 40 to 20 (depending on
There is less certainty concerning clays whose in situ depth) can be reduced by a factor of about four if
states lie to the left of the ICL, but a suggested approxi- complete weathering occurs.
mate relationship is that St =S . IsSR, where IsSR, the
In situ Stress Ratio, =v0/*ve; the available evidence for
stiff clays supports this relationship.
This formulation of the Sensitivity Framework high-
lights several instances where, for soft sensitive clays, Acknowledgements. I regard it as a considerable honour to
have been asked to give this Glossop Lecture, and thank
the undrained strength appears to have been under- the Engineering Group of the Geological Society and Ruth
measured, apparently due to damage to the soil struc- Allington, their Chair, for the kind invitation. Many people
ture following reconsolidation to the estimated in situ aided the preparation of the lecture and this paper, giving
stresses. So as to minimize damage to the soil structure, generously of their time and experience; this help is very
it is suggested that, for any clay soil, soft or stiff, the gratefully acknowledged. In particular, the following have
provided practical help, stimulating discussion, or have read
triaxial undrained strength of intact natural samples is drafts of the paper; some have done all of these things: Dr M.
best measured by applying the estimated in situ total Barton; Professor J. B. Burland; Dr J. Cartwright; Mr T.
stresses, without allowing any volume change to occur Connolly; Dr M. R. Coop; Mr G. Cossenas; Dr F. Cotecchia;
following stress application. Where possible, pore Mr M. R. Cunningham; Dr R. A. Ellison; Dr M. H. de Freitas;
pressures should be measured so that the strength can be Professor D. W. Hight; Mr P. Hobbs; Professor K. Hoeg;
Professor J. N. Hutchinson; Professor M. Jamiolkowski; Pro-
related to the in situ stresses. Similarly, oedometer fessor R. J. Jardine; Mr C. Jewsbury; Dr D. J. Petley;
compression should commence at the in situ vertical Professor D. M. Potts; Mr F. C. Schroeder; Professor A. W.
stress to minimize any damage swelling might cause to Skempton; Dr H. St John; Professor N. Taylor; Professor
the soil structure. If yield stresses and undrained P. R. Vaughan; and Dr L. Zdravkovic. I apologize to anyone
strength are to be compared most effectively, oedometer I may have inadvertently missed. But most of all I thank my
wife, Eunice, who put up with my preoccupation with the
and triaxial tests should be carried out by matching preparation of the lecture with much patience, understanding,
as closely as possible soil sampling methods, sample love and good humour. Whatever its failings, the paper would
preparation techniques, and test procedures. be much the poorer without this help.
36 R. J. CHANDLER
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