Highway & Railroad Engineering

Learning Module Series

Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Traffic Regulations
Many individuals feel that traffic control measures are an encroachment on their individual driving
right. It must be stressed, however, that driving is not a right but a privilege. It is therefore
necessary to show that restrictions are for the general welfare, and it must be demonstrated that
regulations do not curtail the rights or actions of the majority.
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle (registration, ownership,
mechanical fitness, accessories, size, weight) and driver (age, ability to operate specific types of
vehicles, financial responsibility).
Traffic regulation must be reasonable and effective. This can only be achieved through careful
study. Facts must be sought through the conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis, keeping driver
record and other data.
All traffic regulation are dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments, especially
the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies and traffic authorities must keep in mind that
unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.

 Effective Traffic Regulation

There are fundamental requirements for traffic regulation to be effective. These are as follows:

Regulation should be rational.

Irrational regulations cannot be enforced except by tremendous effort and expense. Social,
economic, and human problems must be considered. If the habits of a community are greatly
at variance with the regulations, success cannot be attained for any substantial period of
time.
Regulation should be developed progressively.
Regulations must be planned over a long period of time, and the effect must be carefully
observed so that alterations can be made as experience dictates, experience shows that
abrupt changes in regulation often lead to increase in the occurrence of traffic accidents.
Regulations alone often are not enough.
Regulation constitute but one approach to the overall traffic problem. When public
acceptance is poor and enforcement is lax, regulation may be totally ineffective. They must
be used in conjunction with control devices, overall highway planning and design, and
administrative policies.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

 Three Element of Road System

The road system consist of the following:
a. The road
b. The vehicle
c. The driver

Interaction of the three elements of the road system

The figure suggests a balance among the three elements, i.e., a breakdown or deficiency in one can
lead to the failure of the entire system.
The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change and improvement. However, in a given
period of time, they may be considered inflexible. The major portion of existing regulations are
therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has become the most effective way of
controlling the number of drivers on the road. It should be used, therefore, to influence drivers to
become familiar with the rules of the road. This is especially true for the Filipino drivers,
considering the most accidents have been attribute to them.
For vehicles, a number of controls exist, the most effective of which is vehicle registration. Others
are checks on equipment and accessories (lights, bells, mirrors, helmets, etc.), and vehicle’s
dimensions and weight. Currently, the Motor Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS) is being revitalized
and expanded to cover the whole country.

Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices are means by
which the road user is advised as to
detailed requirements or conditions
affecting road use at specific places and
times so that proper action may be taken
and accident or delay avoided.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:

Regulatory devices
These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon the actions of the road
user.
Warning devices
These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway conditions or unusual
traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic.
Guiding devices
These are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and other pertinent
information.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

 Traffic Signs and Markings

Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or
guide road users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols,
reflectors, etc. they may be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message
is in contrast with the color and brightness of the pavement or other background.
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on
Road Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc.
their function becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate
any prohibitive action at specific places and/or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly authorize public body
or official for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and warning traffic. In case of temporary
construction work, however, special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to
install signs to protect the public provided that such signs conform to the set standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent type although some variable signs have been
employed and have become useful in locations where traffic and environment conditions often
change.
Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:
a. Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while they are traveling.
b. Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations,
restrictions, or prohibitions with which they must comply.
c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to
inform them of its nature.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Elements of Design of Traffic Signs and Markings

Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and
illumination or reflectorization.

• Shapes
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a. Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger
warning signs.
b. Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
c. Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs.
d. Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e. Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only.

 Color
Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and red
borders.
Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols
and red border.
Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue background
and white symbols.
STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols. YIELD signs shall have a yellow
background and red border.
Informative sign shall have a white or light-colored symbols on a dark-colored (blue or
black) background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored background.
• Size
The minimum dimension of signs depends upon the intended applications. Large sizes are
necessary at wider roadways and on high speed highways. According to section 2.5 of the
DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual,
regulatory signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:
a. A for urban low-speed roads
b. B for rural roads with speed limit between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressway
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table 2.1 below should be followed:

Size Dimension (mm)

A 600 x 600
B 750 x 750
C 900 x 900
Source: DPWH 2004

• Illumination and reflectorization

Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and nighttime. During hours of
darkness, this can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.
• Placement and height of signs
In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the directions, and facing
the traffic they intend to serve. Mounting signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially
on roads following the east and west directions as the sun’s brightness reflecting on the signs
will be too glaring for the drivers. However, there may be no standard location for traffic signs.
Each location must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most advantageous position. Signs
are generally placed in the right side of the roadway. On wider roads, overhead signs are often
necessary. On roads with medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs may also be placed
on channelized islands.
a. Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be at least 60 cm clear of the
outer edge of the road shoulder, the line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The
clearance should not be less than 2 m nor more than 5 m from the edge of the traveled
way, except for large guide signs on expressways where ample clearance may be
required. (see figure 2.2).
In urban areas, signs soul be located away from the face of the curb not less than 30
cm but not more than 1 m. if curb is mountable or semimountable, the minimum
clearance should be 50 cm. On uncurbed roads, the distance given for rural areas
shall be used.
b. Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be between 1 m and 1.5 m above
the nearest edge of traveled way. For intersection direction signs, the height should
be increased to 2 m. Final height is dictated by visibility factor as the sign should be
mounted clear of vegetation and it must be clearly visible under headlight
illumination at night (see figure 2.2).
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should be mounted at a minimum
of 2 m above the top of the curb to prevent obstruction to the pedestrians.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

c Location of advance warning signs

In urban areas, warning signs should be placed no less than 30 m but no more than
100 m in advanced of the hazardous area, while in rural areas they should be placed
no less than 75 m but no more than 225 m ahead of the hazardous area. The final
location shall be determined based on the nature of the hazard, reaction time, and
operating speed in the area.

International Standard Traffic Signs

 Warning Signs
The Vienna Convention allows two forms for the warning sign – one is triangular in shape with a
red border and the other is diamond in shape (table 2.2). Upon signing the convention, the
signatory has to state which shape should be adopted. In the Philippines, the first form is the one
being used although the second may still be found in the rural areas. The coloring may also differ
in each form. However, the choice of color is left to the discretion of the signing body. Examples
of warning signs are shown in table 2.3.

Shapes & Color of Warning Signs

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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Examples of Warning Signs

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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

 Priority sign
Priority sign have various forms. The two most commonly used priority signs are the STOP and
Yield sign (table 2.4).

Examples of Priority Signs

 Prohibition Signs
Prohibition signs are round with a red border and either a white or a yellow background. Access
restrictions signs can have a red bar from low right to top left. Parking prohibitions have a blue
background. The signs that signal the end of a prohibition are white or yellow with a small black
border and a black bar from left below to right top. The bar can be replaced by a series of small
bars. In addition the symbol for which the end of prohibition is intended is given in gray.
Examples of prohibition signs are shown in table 2.5.

Examples of Prohibitory Signs

 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Examples of Prohibitory Signs

 Obligatory Signs
The obligatory signs are round and in blue color. Examples are shown in table 2.6.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Examples of Obligatory Signs

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 Information Signs

These signs are rectangular with a white or yellow plate with the symbol that stands for the
serviced involved, the signs can be either blue or green. Examples are shown in table 2.8.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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 Direction Signs
A profusion of colors and forms is available. In general the forms shown must be adopted, and
in some cases even the color shown must be used and not be changed.

Pavement Markings

 Functions and Limitations of Pavement Markings

A system of clear and effective pavement markings is essential for the guidance and control of
vehicles and pedestrians. They take the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may
be set into the surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement
markings are used as a supplement to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and
road signs. In other instances, they may simply guide traffic or give advance warning, or they
may impose restrictions supported by traffic regulations. Pavement markings have some
definite limitations:
a. They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.
b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty (e.g., near shoulder edge or
median).
c. They may be obscured by traffic.
d. Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials.
e. They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.

Despite these limitations, they have the advantage under favorable conditions of conveying
warning message or information to drivers without diverting their attention from the road.

 Legal Authority
Markings shall only be applied and/or removed by the Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH) or an authority to which these powers are delegated.
All line-marking plans must be approved by the DPWH before installation.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

 Standardization
As is the case with all other traffic control devices, it is imperative that markings be uniform so
that they may be recognized and understood instantly by all drivers. Manuals are available from
the DPWH, and on request, it will furnish traffic authorities, road markers, material
suppliers/manufacturers, and similarly interested agencies, detailed drawings of the standard
designs and locations.

 Types of Markings
Markings are classified into the following groups:
 Pavement and curb markings
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center
line, Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge
Line, Continuity Lines, and Transition Line.
b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop
Line, Yield (Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and
Bus & PUJ Lane Lines.
d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands and Obstruction,
Chevron Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps,
Curb Markings for Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossing, Messages
and Symbols and Pavement Arrows.
 Object Markings
a. Object within the roadway
b. Object adjacent to the roadway
 Reflector Makings
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers
b. Hazard markers
c. Delineators

 Materials
Road markings should be of nonskid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm above
the level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more than 15 mm
above the level of the carriageway. The following are the commonly used material for road
markings:
 Paint
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied either by hand or
with lie marking machines. For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass beads
used should be no less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter mixed paint.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

 Thermoplastic materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective properties is recommended at
location subject to extreme traffic wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials
has been experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
 Precut sheeting
Precut materials both with or without reflective properties are used. It is usually in
adhesive tape form, with aggregate, pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and
adhesive on the other side.
 Raised pavement markers
These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embedded into the
carriageway or attached to the road surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or
nonreflective.

 Color
The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow in the
following cases:
a. Double yellow “no-passing” lines
b. Unbroken portion of “no-parking” lines
c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d. On islands in line of traffic
e. Bus and PUJ lanes

Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers at
locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other
permanent objects – on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as
a standard color for pavement marking.

 Types of Lines
Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be longitudinal,
transverse, or oblique. And depending on the use and meaning of such lines, they are either
broken or solid lines.
A broken line shall consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps. The
speed of vehicles on the section of road or in the area in question should be taken into account
in determining the lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between them.
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited. It
is generally used to replaced or supplement a broken line where required, e.g., barrier lines,
center lines, etc. solid lines may be either yellow or white, depending whether crossing the line
is legally prohibited or not.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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 Width of Lines
The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm, depending on the usage of
the specified line. Transverse lines are usually wider because of the angle at which the driver
sees markings on the carriageway.

 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three. They
shall only be used to supplement other traffic control devices. The distance between words is
variable, depending on the message and location at which it is based. (Usually twice the length
of the word if achievable).
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. In urban low- speed
areas, the order is optional.
Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used in roads in urban areas shall measure at
least 2.5 m; on high-speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 m.
Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL, PED XING, RAILROD XING,
SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN, BUS LANE, and PUJ LANE.

 Symbols
a. Give way (yield) symbol
The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consist of an isosceles triangle
having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450 mm at the
base and 150 m for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding line is
between 5 m and 25 m, depending on the location and vehicle speeds on the road.
b. Pavement arrows
Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are generally 5 m
in length on urban roads and 7.5 m on high-speed roads.
For half-turn movements, the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the
particular direction of movement.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15 m from the stop bar, and
the subsequent sets should be placed at 45 m apart.
c. Numerals
The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits at
location to supplement speed limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by
drivers.
 Highway & Railroad Engineering
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Module No. 3: Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Pavement Markings

 Object Markings
Physical obstruction in or near a roadway that constitute serious traffic hazard, including
installations designed for the control traffic, shall be adequately marked typical obstructions of
this character are bridge supports, monuments, traffic islands, beacons, signal and sign support,
loading islands, railroads and draw-bridge gates, post of narrow rocks, and structures giving
restricted and overhead clearance.
For additional emphasis it is also advisable to mark obstructions rather than islands with
reflectorized white paint with not less than five alternating black and reflectorized white stripes.
The stripes shall slope downward at an angle of 45 degrees toward the side of the obstructions,
and shall be uniform and not less than 100 m in width. A large surface, such as a big pier, may
require stripes of 300 mm (see figure 2.3).

In addition to the marking on the face of an obstruction in the roadway, warning of approach to
the hazard shall be given by line markings on the pavement.
Reflectorized yellow should be used on curbs of all islands located in the line of traffic flows
especially on curbs directly ahead of traffic at T and offset intersections.

 Raised Pavement Markers

Raised pavement markers are small rectangular or dome-shaped devices that are fixed to the
pavement surface to simulate or supplement painted pavement markings (figure 2.4). The
markers can be reflective or nonreflective.

Raised pavement markers (The one on the right has built-in lightning.) (Left photo courtesy of R. Rellosa of
3M Phil.; right photo courtesy of Solamarkers Inc.)
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Raised pavement markers are generally not obscured at night and under wet conditions.
The reflective type are more brilliant than reflectorized paint markings.
Because of the high cost of installation and maintenance, use of raised pavement markings may be
considered only in accident prone areas, e.g., on hilly areas where there is frequent fog and rain,.
Figure 2.5 shows the visual effect of raised pavement markers.

Visual effect of raised pavement markers in between reflectorized pavement markings

 Hazard markers
Hazard markers are rectangular and generally consist of a series of alternating black and white
bands (figure 2.6). The white portion is always reflectorized, but the reflectorized material may
cover only the central portion of each white band in order to achieve a balance between the areas
of black and white under headlight illumination. The bands may consist of either diagonal strips
where only a target is required, or of chevrons where directional as well as target properties are
desirable.

 Delineators
Delineators are small reflective panels or button mounted on guide posts or guard fences as an
effective aid for night driving (figure 2.7). Delineators are made of reflective material capable of
reflecting light clearly visible under normal atmospheric condition from a distance of 300-500 m
when illuminated by the upper beam of a standard automobile head lamp.
Placement of delineators at the roadside of a circular curve is shown in figure 2.8.

Chevron markers (Photo courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)

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Placement of permanent delineators along a roadway

REFERENCES
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). 2004. Highway safety design
standards. Road Safety Design Manual. Manila: DPWH.
Planning and Project Development Office, Ministry of Public Highways. 1980
Manual on pavement markings.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), US Dept. of Transportation. 1988.
Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways (MUTCD).
Santiago, Mariano R. ed. 1980. A compilation of edicts related to the land
transportation system of the Philippines. Quezon City: Bureau of Land
Transportation.