Digital Media UNIT 1

[DIGITAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGY]
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DEFINITION OF MULTIMEDIA
Multimedia as name suggests is the combination of Multi and Media that is many types of media
(hardware/software) used for communication of information. Multimedia is the presentation of text,
pictures, audio, and video with links and tools that allow the user to navigate, engage, create, and
communicate using a computer. Multimedia refers to the computer-assisted integration of text,
drawings, still and moving images(videos) graphics, audio, animation, and any other media in
which any type of information can be expressed, stored, communicated, and processed digitally.
To begin, a computer must be present to coordinate what you see and hear, as well as to interact
with. Second, there must be interconnections between the various pieces of information. Third,
you‘ll need navigational tools to get around the web of interconnected data.
Categories of Multimedia
Linear Multimedia:
It is also called Non-interactive multimedia. In the case of linear multimedia, the end-user cannot
control the content of the application. It has literally no interactivity of any kind. Some multimedia
projects like movies in which material is thrown in a linear fashion from beginning to end. A linear
multimedia application lacks all the features with the help of which, a user can interact with the
application such as the ability to choose different options, click on icons, control the flow of the
media, or change the pace at which the media is displayed. Linear multimedia works very well for
providing information to a large group of people such as at training sessions, seminars, workplace
meetings, etc.
Non-Linear Multimedia:
In Non-Linear multimedia, the end-user is allowed the navigational control to rove through
multimedia content at his own desire. The user can control the access of the application. Non-
linear offers user interactivity to control the movement of data. For example computer games,
websites, self-paced computer-based training packages, etc.
COMPONENTS OF MULTIMEDIA
Multimedia consists of the following 5 components:
Text
Characters are used to form words, phrases, and paragraphs in the text. Text appears in all
multimedia creations of some kind. The text can be in a variety of fonts and sizes to match the
multimedia software‘s professional presentation. Text in multimedia systems can communicate
specific information or serve as a supplement to the information provided by the other media.
Graphics
Non-text information, such as a sketch, chart, or photograph, is represented digitally. Graphics add
to the appeal of the multimedia application. In many circumstances, people dislike reading big
amounts of material on computers. As a result, pictures are more frequently used than words to
clarify concepts, offer background information, and so on. Graphics are at the heart of any
multimedia presentation. The use of visuals in multimedia enhances the effectiveness and
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presentation of the concept. Windows Picture, Internet Explorer, and other similar programs are
often used to see visuals. Adobe Photoshop is a popular graphics editing program that allows you
to effortlessly change graphics and make them more effective and appealing.
Animations
A sequence of still photographs is being flipped through. It‘s a set of visuals that give the impression
of movement. Animation is the process of making a still image appear to move. A presentation can
also be made lighter and more appealing by using animation. In multimedia applications, the
animation is quite popular. The following are some of the most regularly used animation viewing
programs: Fax Viewer, Internet Explorer, etc.
Video
Photographic images that appear to be in full motion and are played back at speeds of 15 to 30
frames per second. The term video refers to a moving image that is accompanied by sound, such
as a television picture. Of course, text can be included in videos, either as captioning for spoken
words or as text embedded in an image, as in a slide presentation. The following programs are
widely used to view videos: Real Player, Window Media Player, etc.
Audio
Any sound, whether it‘s music, conversation, or something else. Sound is the most serious aspect of
multimedia, delivering the joy of music, special effects, and other forms of entertainment. Decibels
are a unit of measurement for volume and sound pressure level. Audio files are used as part of the
application context as well as to enhance interaction. Audio files must occasionally be distributed
using plug-in media players when they appear within online applications and webpages. MP3,
WMA, Wave, MIDI, and RealAudio are examples of audio formats. The following programs are
widely used to view videos: Real Player, Window Media Player, etc.
WHAT ARE MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS:
A Multimedia System is a system capable of processing multimedia data. A Multimedia System is

characterized by the processing, storage, generation, manipulation and rendition of multimedia
information. A multimedia system is responsible for developing a multimedia application. A
multimedia application is a bundle of different kinds of data. A multimedia computer system is one
that can create, integrate, store, retrieve delete two or more types of media materials in digital
form, such as audio, image, video, and text information.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MULTIMEDIA SYSTEM
A Multimedia system has four basic characteristics:
 Multimedia systems must be computer controlled

 Multimedia systems are integrated
 The information they handle must be represented digitally
 The interface to the final presentation of media is usually interactive.

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FEATURES OF A MULTIMEDIA SYSTEM:
1. Very High Processing Power:
To deal with large amount of data, very high processing power is used.
2. File System:
File system must be efficient to meet the requirements of continuous media. These media files
requires very high-disk bandwidth rates. Disks usually have low transfer rates and high latency rates.
To satisfy the requirements for multimedia data, disk schedulers must reduce the latency time to
ensure high bandwidth.
3. File formats that support multimedia:
Multimedia data consists of a variety of media formats or file representation including ,JPEG, MPEG,
AVI, MID, WAV, DOC, GIF,PNG, etc. AVI files can contain both audio and video data in a file
container that allows synchronous audio-with-video playback. Like the DVD video format, AVI files
support multiple streaming audio and video. Because of restrictions on the conversion from one
format to the other, the use of the data in a specific format has been limited as well.
4. Input/Output:
In multimedia applications, the input and output should be continuous and fast. Real-time
recording as well as playback of data are common in most of the multimedia applications which
need efficient I/O.
5. Operating System:
The operating system must provide a fast response time for interactive applications. High
throughput for batch applications, and real-time scheduling,
6. Storage and Memory:
Multimedia systems require storage for large capacity objects such as video, audio, animation and
images. Depending on the compression scheme and reliability video and audio require large
amount of memory.
7. Network Support:
It includes internet, intranet, LAN, WAN, ATM, Mobile telephony and others. In recent years, there
has been a tremendous growth of multimedia applications on the internet like streaming video, IP
telephony, interactive games, teleconferencing, virtual world, distance learning and so on. These
multimedia networking applications are referred as continuous-media applications and require
high communication latency. Communication Latency is the time it takes for a data packet to be
received by the remote computer.
Software Tools:

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For the development of multimedia applications, the various software tools like programming
languages, graphics software‘s, multimedia editing software‘s scripting languages: authoring tools,
design software‘s etc are required. In addition to these the device drivers are required for
interfacing the multimedia peripherals.
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIMEDIA
Multimedia in Business- Multimedia can be used in many applications in a business. The multimedia
technology along with communication technology has opened the door for information of global
wok groups. Today the team members may be working anywhere and can work for various
companies. Thus the work place will become global. The multimedia network should support the
following facilities:
Voice Mail
Electronic Mail
Multimedia based FAX
Office Needs
Employee Training
Sales and Other types of Group Presentation
Records Management
Multimedia in Marketing and Advertising- By using multimedia marketing of new products can be
greatly enhanced. Multimedia boost communication on an affordable cost opened the way for
the marketing and advertising personnel. Presentation that have flying banners, video transitions,
animations, and sound effects are some of the elements used in composing a multimedia based
advertisement to appeal to the consumer in a way never used before and promote the sale of the
products.
Multimedia in Entertainment- Invention of multimedia has opened a new horizon in the field of
entertainment. Now a day, the various media of entertainment such as radio, television, VCR, VCD
can be enjoyed through multimedia program. Besides this, playing games and drawing pictures in
computer, on line chatting are the contribution of multimedia.
Multimedia in Education- Many computer games with focus on education are now available.
Consider an example of an educational game which plays various rhymes for kids. The child can
paint the pictures, increase reduce size of various objects etc apart from just playing the rhymes.
Several other multimedia packages are available in the market which provide a lot of detailed
information and playing capabilities to kids.
Multimedia in Bank- Bank is another public place where multimedia is finding more and more
application in recent times. People go to bank to open saving/current accounts, deposit funds,
withdraw money, know various financial schemes of the bank, obtain loans etc. Every bank has a
lot of information which it wants to impart to in customers. For this purpose, it can use multimedia in
many ways. Bank also displays information about its various schemes on a PC monitor placed in the
rest area for customers. Today on-line and internet banking have become very popular. These use
multimedia extensively. Multimedia is thus helping banks give service to their customers and also in
educating them about banks attractive finance schemes.
Multimedia in Hospital- Multimedia best use in hospitals is for real time monitoring of conditions of
patients in critical illness or accident. The conditions are displayed continuously on a computer

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screen and can alert the doctor/nurse on duty if any changes are observed on the screen.
Multimedia makes it possible to consult a surgeon or an expert who can watch an ongoing surgery
line on his PC monitor and give online advice at any crucial juncture.
In hospitals multimedia can also be used to diagnose an illness with CD-ROMs/ Cassettes/ DVDs full
of multimedia based information about various diseases and their treatment.Some hospitals
extensively use multimedia presentations in training their junior staff of doctors and nurses.
Multimedia displays are now extensively used during critical surgeries.
Multimedia Pedagogues- Pedagogues are useful teaching aids only if they stimulate and motivate
the students. The audio-visual support to a pedagogue can actually help in doing so. A multimedia
tutor can provide multiple numbers of challenges to the student to stimulate his interest in a topic.
The instruction provided by pedagogue have moved beyond providing only button level control to
intelligent simulations, dynamic creation of links, composition and collaboration and system testing
of the user interactions.
Science and Technology: Multimedia had a wide application in the field of science and
technology . The multimedia system is capable of transferring audio, and clips in addition to the
regular text. It is even capable of sending message and formatted multimedia documents. At the
same time the multimedia also help in live which is a live interaction through audio messages and it
is only possible with the multimedia. It reduces the time and cost and can be arranged at any
moment even in emergencies. It is enough for communication and meetings. At the same time the
multimedia is enough useful services based on images. Similarly it is useful for surgeons as they can
use images created from imaging scans of human body to practice complicated procedures such
as brain removal and reconstructive surgery. The plans can be made in a better way to reduce the
costs and complication.
MULTIMEDIA FILE FORMATS
What is a file format?
A file format is the structure of how information is stored (encoded) in a computer file. File formats
are designed to store specific types of information, such as JPEG and TIFF for image or raster data,
Al (Adobe Illustrator) for vector data, or PDF for document exchange.
Categories of files
 Uncompressed- files that are not compressed and are capable of having a large file size.
 Lossless- files that are compressed but doesn't lose any quality to the file.
 Lossy- files that lose some quality when being compressed.
Kinds of File Format
o Audio file format

o Video fiel format
o Image file format
AUDIO FILE FORMAT

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Audio is an electrical or other representation of sound. An audio file format is a file format for storing
digital audio data on a computer system. it can be a raw bitstream, but it is usually a container
format or an audio data format with defined storage layer.
Audio file format
MP3- MPEG Audio Layer 3 (AC3) file. MP3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3) is a standard technology and
format for compressing a sound sequence into a very small file (about one-twelfth the size of the
original file) while preserving the original level of sound quality when it is played. MP3 provides near
CD quality audio. It is a lossy compression.
WAV- WAV is a file extension for an audio file format created by Microsoft. The WAV file has
become a standard PC audio file format for everything from system and game sounds to CD-
quality audio. Also referred to as pulse code modulation (PCM) or waveform audio, a WAV file is
uncompressed audio. A Wave file also stores information about the file's number of tracks, sample
rate, bit depth, and whether it's mono or stereo.
WMA - Windows Media Audio (.wma)
Short for Windows Media Audio, WMA is a Microsoft file format for encoding digital audio files similar
to MP3 though can compress files at a higher rate than MP3. WMA files, which use the ".wma‖ file
extension, can be of any size compressed to match many different connection speeds, or
bandwidths.
Ogg (.ogg) - Ogg is an audio compression format, comparable to other formats used to store and
play digital music, but differs in that it is free, open and unpatented. It uses Vorbis, a specific audio
compression scheme that‘s designed to be contained in Ogg.
VIDEO FILE FORMAT
Video files are collections of images, audio and other data. The attributes of the video signal
include the pixel dimensions, frame rate, audio channels, and more. In addition, there are many
different ways to encode and save video data.
AVI (Audio Video Interleave) -
Developed by Microsoft and introduced to the public in November 1992 as part of its Video for
Windows technology, the AVI formal is one of the oldest video formats. It is so universally accepted
that many people consider it the de facto standard for storing video and audio information on the
computer. Due to it‘s simple architecture, AVI files are able to run on a number of different systems
like Windows, Macintosh, Linux; is also supported by popular web browsers. AVI files stores data that
can be encoded in a number of different codec‘s, although most commonly with M-JPEG or DivX
codecs. This means that all AVI files, while they may look similar on the outside, differ substantially
from one another on the inside.
WMV (Windows Media Video)
Developed by Microsoft, WMV was originally designed for web streaming applications, as a
competitor to RealVideo, but it can now cater to more specialized content. WMV files are the
tiniest video files over the Web, as their file size decreases significantly after compression, which
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results in poor video quality. However, one advantage of this small file size is that it is probably the
only video file format that allows users to upload and share their videos through the e-mail system.
Being a Microsoft software, the Windows Media Player is the main application that is used to play
WMV files on all Microsoft's Windows operating systems, but there are also WMV players available
for free for the Macintosh operating system.
MOV (Apple QuickTime Movie)
Developed by Apple. Inc, the QuickTime file format is a popular type of video sharing and viewing
format amongst Macintosh users, and is often used on the Web, and for saving movie and video
files. In recent years, Apple came up with a newer version called QuickTime X, currently available
on Mac OS X. MOV files are most commonly opened via the Apple QuickTime Player for the
Macintosh Operating System. However, MOV files are not just limited to being played on Apple
computers, as there is a free version of the QuickTime Player available for the Windows Operating
System among many other players. Considered one of the best looking file formats, MOV files are of
high quality and are usually big in file size.
MP4 (Moving Pictures Expert Group 4)
MP4 is an abbreviated term for MPEG-4 Part 14, a standard developed by the Motion Pictures
Expert Group who was responsible for setting industry' standards regarding digital audio and video,
and is commonly used for sharing video files on the Web. First introduced in 1998, the MPEG-4 video
format uses separate compression for audio and video tracks; video is compressed with MPEG-4 or
H.264 video encoding; and audio is compressed using AAC compression. The MP4 file format is also
another great file sharing format for the Web, MP4 file sizes are relatively small but the quality
remains high even after compression. MP4 standard is also becoming more popular than FLV for
online video sharing, as it compatible with both online and mobile browsers and also supported by
the new HTML5.
Real Media (.RM) File
Real Media files were developed by RealNetworks and were a popular format for streaming audio
and video in the late 1990s and early 2000s. They were often used for live broadcasts, such as news
or sporting events. RM files are encoded with the RealAudio or RealVideo codecs, which are
proprietary to RealNetworks.
IMAGE FILE FORMAT
JPG- JPG is the most used image file format. Digital cameras and web pages normally use JPG files
- because JPG heroically compresses the data to be very much smaller in the file. However JPG
uses lossy compression to accomplish this feat, which is a strong downside. In general today, JPG is
rather unique in this regard, using lossy compression allowing very small files of lower quality,
whereas almost any other file type uses lossless compression
TIF - TIF is which is considered the highest quality format for commercial work. TIF simply has no JPG
artifacts, no additional losses or JPG artifacts to degrade and detract from the original. And TIF is
the most versatile, except that web pages don‘t show TIF files. For other purposes however, TIF does
most of anything you might want, from 1 -bit to 48-bit color, RGB, CMYK, LAB, or Indexed color. Most
any of the ‘‘special‖ file types (for example, camera RAW files, fax files, or multipage documents)

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are based on TIF format, but with unique proprietary data tags - making these incompatible unless
expected by their special software.
GIF - GIF was designed by CompuServe in the early days of computer 8-bit video, before JPG, for
video display at dial up modem speeds. GIF discards all Exif data, and while GIF is fine for video
screen purposes, GIF does Not retain printing resolution values. GIF always uses lossless LZW
compression, but it is always an indexed color file (1 to 8-bits per pixel). GIF can have a palette of
24-bit colors, but only 256 of them maximum (which colors depend on your image colors).
PNG - PNG is short for Portable Network Graphic, a type of raster image file. It‘s particularly popular
file type with web designers because it can handle graphics with transparent or semi-transparent
backgrounds. The file format isn‘t patented, so you can open a PNG using any image editing
software without the need for licensing.
MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS
Multimedia can be defined as any application that combines text with graphics, animation, audio,
video, and/or virtual reality. A computer system is a combination of equipment (hardware),
processes and programs (software), and people organized to perform a function. Combining these
definitions, a business multimedia system includes equipment, programs, and people organized for
the purposes of communication, data storage and retrieval systems (multimedia databases and
electronic filing systems), information security, and Internet use (Web pages and electronic-business
applications)
Within organizations, multimedia systems are used in all forms of information systems from
transaction processing systems to executive decision support systems. These systems also can be
found across industries such as accounting, banking, communications, education, entertainment,
insurance, manufacturing, medical, retailing, and real estate. Anywhere there is a need for
combining text, pictures, sounds, and animation, multimedia systems are found.
Multimedia systems are used for security to keep intruders out of a system and for the protection of
stored documents. Scanning devices are available to scan potential user's eyes (retina imaging) or
thumb prints to gain access to a computer or site. Other systems can scan a person's signature or
capture voice pattern recognition for the same purposes. Stored text, pictures, original document
images, sound files, and video files can be protected through encryption methods, read/write
protection, password management, and copyright protection that keep intruders from copying or
accessing sensitive files.
ANALOG MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS
Analog multimedia systems use books, documents, films, photographs, records, tapes, videotapes,
and many other forms of media to store text, sounds, and pictures. As technology improves,
converting from one medium to another and combining different media formats becomes difficult
and cumbersome.
Analog systems are being replaced with systems that digitize the original documents and store
them on digital media; nevertheless, analog systems still remain vital for legal, historical, and
research purposes. Many new companies have come into existence for the sole purpose of
converting analog media into digital formats.

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COMPUTER-BASED MULTIMEDIA
Technological advances have changed the hardware and software used for developing
multimedia from the traditional analog equipment to computer-based or digital multimedia
systems. Computers use 0s and 1s to store and process sounds, still graphics (pictures), and motion
video. Text scanning, digital imaging (using digital cameras and scanners), sound cards, and
analog video-capturing devices sample, compress, and convert analog media into a series of 0s
and 1s (digital) signals for processing by a computer. Once analog media are converted to a
digital format, a computer can be used to manipulate the various media. With the development of
digital-video cameras and digital-still cameras, media are already in a form that the computer can
process, making it easier to merge text, graphics, video, sounds, and animation into an application.
Multimedia hierarchy is a term that reflects how much computing power is needed to process
information. Multimedia systems have different levels of components that handle tasks ranging in
difficulty from simple text processing to complex digital-motion video.
TEXT PROCESSING
Text is the first and simplest level in the multimedia hierarchy. Traditionally, text has been keyed
directly into the computer. Scanners equipped with optical character recognition software allow
text to be scanned into a computer from printed documents or from Universal Product Codes on
products, using wand or handheld scanners.
More complex text input involves voice pattern recognition systems that convert voice to text.
These applications find their way into legal, health-care, and other industries and businesses that
process vast amounts of text. Text-to-voice systems reverse this process and allow text to be read to
the user.
SOUND PROCESSING
Sound in multimedia applications enables a user to describe products, give instructions, enhance a
presentation, or provide cues for some action by the viewer. Hardware for capturing and
processing sounds includes a card attached to the main motherboard of the computer system.
Sound cards capture analog audio signals from microphones, music compact disks, musical
instrument digital interface (MIDI; such as electronic-piano keyboards) devices, and other sound
sources through a line-in jack on the card. Computer users can plug in record turntables, cassette
tape players, or any other analog device from an audio-out jack on those devices and record
sounds. Sound cards also have output jacks for speakers, or the audio-out can be plugged into
other sound recording devices. The card contains two computer chips called the AD (analog to
digital) and DA (digital to analog) chips. These chips convert sound waves to digits and digits to
sound waves.
Sound application software is used to select devices and to capture, edit, and save sounds in
digital files. Users can add effects such as fade-in, fade-out, and the echo effect to the digital-
sound clip. Several competing file storage standards or extensions exist for computer sound files.
These standards depend on the manufacturer of the hardware or developers of the software. The
more a given standard is used, the more portable the file is to other users and to Internet
applications.

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STILL-IMAGE PROCESSING
Various specialized forms of multimedia include image processing systems designed specifically for
handling business forms, images, graphics, or pictures. An example may be found in banking
systems that use computer-output microform devices to store images of checks and place several
check images on the customer's bank statement or display them on an Internet banking page,
rather than returning the canceled checks. Insurance companies use imaging systems to scan
insurance applications, claim forms, and pictures of damages to customers' property. The imaging
systems provide immediate access to all information stored in a computer for processing of a claim.
In transaction-processing systems, companies can digitize customer signatures on sales slips and
store the original sales documents for proof of purchase using point-of-sale devices. Other
"turnaround documents" may be generated by a computer and scanned into a computer to verify
a purchase at a merchandise pickup point.
Scanners and digital cameras can also be used in image processing to capture pictures for printed
publications, Internet Web sites, and electronic presentations. A scanner or digital camera can
digitize a picture by converting dark and light areas of a graphic to dots or pixels using a charge-
coupled device. File sizes can be reduced by saving graphics using compression/decompression
(codec) systems such as JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) compression methods. Single
images can also be "captured" with a video-capture board from videotape, from a video camera,
or directly from broadcast television. In both cases, a file is then saved in computer format for future
use.
Photographic editing software lets users add special effects and edit photos or images. Draw and
paint computer programs generate graphics and tables for multimedia applications. These
programs allow users to draw objects, fill them with colors, and add text and special effects. The
user-made images are saved in files and are then incorporated into a multimedia application.
FULL-MOTION VIDEO PROCESSING
In the early twenty-first century, broadcast television and videotapes record moving pictures by
using 30 still pictures or frames for every second of motion. Broadcasts and videotapes use a
standard developed in the 1950s in the United States, the National Television Standards Committee
broadcast standard. Other countries use 25 frames per second and have different image-aspect
ratios (ratio of height to width). At the start of the twenty-first century, the high-definition and digital
television broadcasting being introduced will change the standards; pictures will have better
quality because of an increase in the number of pixels and a change in the aspect ratio of the
picture.
ANIMATION AND VIRTUAL REALITY
The most sophisticated forms of multimedia are animation and virtual reality. These systems
combine still graphics, video, sound, and animation to form virtual-reality outcomes. Industries using
this technology include entertainment, education and training, legal, architecture and
construction, government, and transportation. Animated (anime) movies and computer games
have become popular and require all of the multimedia formats for development.
Working with virtual reality requires powerful computers and software to collect, edit, and produce
the product or title or presentation. Some examples include computer games, computer-assisted

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design, home improvement software that allows users to design and display a proposed project in
3-D, flight simulators, and simulation of a crash for accident investigation.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. Data can be anything like
marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height, etc. of all
the students in a class.
Computer can also be defined in terms of functions it can perform. A computer can i) accept
data, ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as and when
required and v) print the result in desired format.
The major characteristics of a computer are high speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and
storage.
The block diagram of computer
The computer performs basically five major operations of functions irrespective of their size and
make. These are 1) it accepts data or instruction by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can process
data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations
inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.
 Input: this is the process of entering data and programs into the computer system.
 Control Unit (CU): The process of input, output, processing and storage is performed
under the supervision of a unit called 'Control Unit'. It decides when to start receiving
data, when to stop it, where to store data, etc. It takes care of step -by-step processing
of all operations in side the computer.
 Memory Unit: Computer is used to store data and instructions.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The major operations performed by the ALU are addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison.

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 Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information.
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit (CPU).
You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
 Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.
 Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur
are usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human errors.
 Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing up
errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common among humans.
 Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket
booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical
observations. If you can input the necessary data with correct instructions, computer will
do the processing.
 Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of
cost of traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear
associated with paper.
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
 Analogue Computer
 Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computer
ANALOGUE COMPUTER
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data
that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue
computers are used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature,
pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting
it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and
generally render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury
thermometer are examples of analogue computers.
Advantages of using analogue computers:
 It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.

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 In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of

transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice
versa.
 The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue
computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and
their effects.
DIGITAL COMPUTER
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it
with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops,
desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.
Advantages of digital computers:
o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you
need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without
making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,

humidity, and other properties of its components.
HYBRID COMPUTER
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both
continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form
before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and
digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the

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measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals,
and scientific applications.
ADVANTAGES OF USING HYBRID COMPUTERS:
o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.
SUPERCOMPUTER
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands
of interconnected processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:
o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run
in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute
any type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in
brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring
the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.

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o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants
in the atmosphere.
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume
of data.
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high
volume of data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:
o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any
error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information
and data.
MINIFRAME OR MINICOMPUTER
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to
200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such
as billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe
and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.
Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:
o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
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o It remains charged for a long time.

o It does not require a controlled operational environment.
WORKSTATION
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has
a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:
o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or

professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
MICROCOMPUTER
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is

designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory,
storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers. They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.
Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.

o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an
analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing
device from software, which consists of written, machine-readable instructions or programs that
tell physical components what to do and when to execute the instructions.

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Hardware and software are complementary. A computing device can function efficiently and
produce useful output only when both hardware and software work together appropriately.
Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components.

Generally, internal hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the
computer, while external hardware components are attached to the computer to add or
enhance functionality.
What are internal computer hardware components?
Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or
operating system (OS). These include the following:
1. Motherboard. This is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit (CPU)
and other essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other
hardware components run through.
2. CPU. The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital
instructions from various programs; its clock speed determines the computer's
performance and efficiency in processing data.
3. RAM. RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information
immediately accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared
when the computer powers off.
4. Hard drive. Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent
and temporary data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files,
photos, etc.
5. Solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash
memory technology; SSDs are non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when
the computer is powered down.
6. Optical drive. Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the
computer to read and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact
disc read-only memory or digital video discs.
7. Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat away from components
to regulate/reduce their temperature to help ensure they continue to function
properly. Typically, a heat sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the
most heat among internal components.
8. Graphics processing unit. This chip-based device processes graphical data and often
functions as an extension to the main CPU.
9. Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the
computer to connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area
network adapter, it typically supports connection to an Ethernet network.

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Other computing components, such as USB ports, power supplies, transistors and chips, are
also types of internal hardware.
What are external hardware components?
External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are those items that are
often externally connected to the computer to control either input or output functions. These
hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software (input) or render
results from its execution (output).
Common input hardware components include the following:
1. Mouse. A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a cursor around a

computer screen and enables interaction with objects on the screen. It may be wired
or wireless.
2. Keyboard. A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard QWERTY keyset that
enables users to input text, numbers or special characters.
3. Microphone. A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical
signals and supports computer-based audio communications.
4. Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or
through a computer to a network device.
5. Touchpad. A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to
control the pointer on a display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external
mouse.
6. USB flash drive. A USB flash drive is an external, removable storage device that uses
flash memory and interfaces with a computer through a USB port.
7. Memory card. A memory card is a type of portable external storage media, such as
a CompactFlash card, used to store media or data files.
Other input hardware components include joysticks, styluses and scanners.
Examples of output hardware components include the following:
 Monitor. A monitor is an output device similar to a TV screen that displays information,

documents or images generated by the computing device.
 Printer. Printers render electronic data from a computer into printed material.
 Speaker. A speaker is an external audio output device that connects to a computer to
generate a sound output.
 Headphones, earphones, earbuds. Similar to speakers, these devices provide audio
output that's audible only to a single listener.

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PROCESSOR
The processor is defined as a logic circuit or simple chip which reacts to fundamental
instructions and input processes to operate the computer. The important purposes of a
processor are getting, decoding, processing, executing and writing back as feedback to the
instructions of the chip. The processor is termed as the brain of any electronic systems that
incorporate into a laptop, computers, smartphones, and embedded systems. The control unit
and arithmetic logic unit are the two significant components of the processors.
The logic functions can be addition, multiplication, subtraction and division whereas the
control unit manages the traffic flow which follows the operation or command according to
the input instruction. This processor interacts with the neighbouring component which can be
their output, input, storage and memory components.
Processors are found in many modern electronic devices, including PCs, smartphones, tablets,
and other handheld devices. Their purpose is to receive input in the form of program
instructions and execute trillions of calculations to provide the output that the user will
interface with.
A processor includes an arithmetical logic and control unit (CU), which measures capability in
terms of the following:
 Ability to process instructions at a given time.

 Maximum number of bits/instructions.
 Relative clock speed.
Every time that an operation is performed on a computer, such as when a file is changed or
an application is open, the processor must interpret the operating system or software‘s
instructions. Depending on its capabilities, the processing operations can be quicker or slower,
and have a big impact on what is called the ―processing speed‖ of the CPU.
Each processor is constituted of one or more individual processing units called ―cores‖. Each
core processes instructions from a single computing task at a certain speed, defined as ―clock
speed‖ and measured in gigahertz (GHz). Since increasing clock speed beyond a certain
point became technically too difficult, modern computers now have several processor cores
(dual-core, quad-core, etc.). They work together to process instructions and complete
multiple tasks at the same time.
Modern desktop and laptop computers now have a separate processor to handle graphic
rendering and send output to the display monitor device. Since this processor, the GPU, is

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specifically designed for this task, computers can handle all applications that are especially
graphic-intensive such as video games more efficiently.
A processor is made of four basic elements: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the floating point
unit (FPU), registers, and the cache memories. The ALU and FPU carry basic and advanced
arithmetic and logic operations on numbers, and then results are sent to the registers, which
also store instructions. Caches are small and fast memories that store copies of data for
frequent use, and act similarly to a random access memory (RAM).
The CPU carries out his operations through the three main steps of the instruction cycle: fetch,
decode, and execute.
 Fetch: the CPU retrieves instructions, usually from a RAM.

 Decode: a decoder converts the instruction into signals to the other components of the
computer.
 Execute: the now decoded instructions are sent to each component so that the desired
operation can be performed.
MICROPRCESSOR
A microprocessor is the most important unit within a computer system and is responsible for
processing the unique set of instructions and processes. A microprocessor is designed to execute
logical and computational tasks with typical operations such as addition/subtraction, interprocess
and device communication, input/output management, etc. A microprocessor is composed of
integrated circuits that hold thousands of transistors; exactly how many depends on its relative
computing power.
Microprocessors are generally classified according to the number of instructions they can process
within a given time, their clock speed measured in megahertz and the number of bits used per
instruction.
MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of
small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero
to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory
unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0
to 65535.

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Characteristics of Main Memory:
 It is faster computer memory as compare to secondary memory.

 It is semiconductor memories.
 It is usually a volatile memory.
 It is the main memory of the computer.
 A computer system cannot run without primary memory.
Memory is primarily of three types
1. Cache Memory
2. Primary Memory/Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows
 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which

the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and
data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.

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The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into
two subcategories RAM and ROM.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As
soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM
is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
STATIC RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of
6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need
not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and
has very fast access.
 Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory
cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
 Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously

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 Slower as compared to SRAM

 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAIN MEMORY
 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external

memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing
data/information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories, instead
they are accessed via input-output routines.
The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then
the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-
ROM, DVD, etc
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a human
operator or other systems to interface with a computer. Input/output devices, as the name implies,
are capable of delivering data (output) to and receiving data from a computer (input).
An input/output (I/O) device is a piece of hardware that can take, output, or process data. It
receives data as input and provides it to a computer, as well as sends computer data to storage
media as a storage output.
INPUT DEVICES

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Keyboard
The keyboard is the most frequent and widely

used input device for entering data into a
computer. Although there are some
additional keys for performing other
operations, the keyboard layout is similar to
that of a typical typewriter.
Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84

keys or 101/102 keys, but currently keyboards
with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for
Windows and the Internet.
Types of Keys
 Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor. It usually consists of a set
of 17 keys.
 Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among these keys.
 Control Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen. There are four directional arrow
keys on it. Home, End, Insert, Alternate(Alt), Delete, Control(Ctrl), etc., and Escape are all
control keys (Esc).
 Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, NumLk, Tab, etc., and Print Screen are among the
special function keys on the keyboard.
 Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 on the topmost row of the keyboard.
MOUSE
The most common pointing device is the mouse. The mouse is used
to move a little cursor across the screen while clicking and
dragging. The cursor will stop if you let go of the mouse. The
computer is dependent on you to move the mouse; it won‘t move
by itself. As a result, it‘s an input device.
A mouse is an input device that lets you move the mouse on a flat
surface to control the coordinates and movement of the on-screen
cursor/pointer. The left mouse button can be used to select or
move items, while the right mouse button when clicked displays
extra menus.
JOYSTICK
A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer screen. A spherical ball

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is attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick. In a socket, the lower spherical ball slides.
You can move the joystick in all four directions.
The joystick‘s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is primarily used in CAD (Computer-Aided
Design) and playing video games on the computer.
LIGHT PEN
A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen.

It can be used to select a menu item or to draw on the
monitor screen. A photocell and an optical system are
enclosed in a tiny tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved across a monitor screen
while the pen button is pushed, the photocell sensor element
identifies the screen location and provides a signal to the
CPU.
SCANNER
A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It‘s employed when there‘s
information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer‘s hard
disc for subsequent manipulation.
Scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a digital
format that may be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these
images can be modified.
OCR
OCR stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads printed
text. OCR optically scans the text, character by character, turns it into a machine-
readable code, and saves it to the system memory.
BAR CODE READER
A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-

coded (data that is represented by light and dark lines).

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Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number books, and so on. It could be a handheld
scanner or part of a stationary scanner.
A bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it to an alphanumeric value, and then sends it
to the computer to which it is connected.
Web Camera
Because it records a video image of the scene in front of it, a

webcam is an input device. It is either built inside the computer
(for example, a laptop) or attached through a USB connection.
A webcam is a computer-connected tiny digital video camera.
It‘s also known as a web camera because it can take images
and record video. These cameras come with software that must
be installed on the computer in order to broadcast video in real-
time over the Internet. It can shoot images and HD videos,
however, the video quality isn‘t as good as other cameras (In
Mobiles or other devices or normal cameras).
OUTPUT DEVICES
MONITOR
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs), are a computer‘s primary output device. It
creates images by arranging small dots, known as pixels, in a rectangular pattern. The amount of
pixels determines the image‘s sharpness.
The two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors are:
(1) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): Pixels are minuscule visual elements that make up a CRT display. The
higher the image quality or resolution, the smaller the pixels.
(2) Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube Monitor: In comparison to the CRT, a flat-panel display is a
type of video display with less volume, weight, and power consumption. They can be hung on the
wall or worn on the wrist.
Flat-panel displays are currently used in calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and
graphical displays.
PRINTER
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper.

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There are two types of printers:
(a) Impact Printer:
Characters are printed on the ribbon, which is subsequently crushed against the paper, in impact
printers. The following are the characteristics of impact printers:
 Exceptionally low consumable cost.

 Quite noisy
 Because of its low cost, it is ideal for large-scale printing.
 To create an image, there is physical contact with the paper.
(b) Non-Impact Printers:
Characters are printed without the need for a ribbon in non-impact printers. Because these printers
print a full page at a time, they‘re also known as Page Printers. The following are the characteristics
of non-impact printers:
 Faster
 They don‘t make a lot of noise.
 Excellent quality
 Supports a variety of typefaces and
character sizes
INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICE (I/O DEVICE)
Input devices provide input to a computer, while output devices provide a way for a computer to
output data for communication with users or other computers. An I/O device is a device with both
functionalities.
Because I/O device data is bi-directional, such devices are usually categorized under storage or
communications. Examples of I/O storage devices are CD/DVD-ROM drives, USB flash drives and
hard disk drives. Examples of communication I/O devices are network adapters, Bluetooth
adapters/dongles and modems.
STORAGE DEVICES
Storage is a process through which digital data is saved within a data storage device by means of
computing technology. Storage is a mechanism that enables a computer to retain data, either
temporarily or permanently.
Storage devices such as flash drives and hard disks are a fundamental component of most digital
devices since they allow users to preserve all kinds of information such as videos, documents,
pictures and raw data.
Storage may also be referred to as computer data storage or electronic data storage.

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Storage Devices
These storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage
devices are:
1. Primary storage devices
(i) RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is used immediately
or we can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk
to RAM to process it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is
deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications,
browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the newest game, etc. It allows you to
modify quickly among these tasks, remembering where you‘re in one task once you switch to a
different task. It is also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet program, answer
commands, like all edits you made within the spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs, like
once you left the spreadsheet to see the email. Memory is nearly always being actively employed by
your computer. It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are
different types of RAM, although they all serve the same purpose, the most common ones are :
 SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits that retain stored
information as long as the power supply is on. It is also known as volatile memory. It is used
to build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as
compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to DRAM.
 DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to stores binary bits in the
form of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower
as compare to SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging density.
 SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is faster than DRAM.
It is widely used in computers and others. After SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded
version of double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered into the
market and widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.
(ii) ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices are non-volatile,
i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which
will only read but cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like
washers and microwaves. ROM chips can only store few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges
between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:
 PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs that can be
programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter the program on the
PROM. Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM can‘t be altered.
PROM is non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched off.
 EPROM: Another sort of memory is that the Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is
possible to erase the info which has been previously stored on an EPROM and write new
data onto the chip.
2. MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

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(i) Floppy Disk: It is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal computer to
store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secures with a protective
case. Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB, etc.
(ii) Hard Disk: It is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic storage. It is
a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of times without any
problem. Most of the computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is
actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is recorded
electromagnetically in the concentric circles or we can say track present on the hard disk, and with
the help of a head just like a phonograph arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present
on the track. The read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a
few and more TB.
(iii) Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging the magnetism of
tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card.
It is used like a passcode (to enter into house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
(iv) Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container in which the
data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio recordings.
(v) Super Disk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation corporation and it is
popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240 MB.
3. FLASH MEMORY DEVICES
It is a cheaper and portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to store data
because is more reliable and efficient as compare to other storage devices. Some of the commonly
used flash memory devices are:
(i) Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an integrated USB
interface. We can directly connect these devices to our computers and laptops and read/write
data into them in a much faster and efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from
1GB to 256GB generally.
(ii) SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDDs. It is more durable because it
does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as compared to hard disks, is
lightweight, and has 10x faster read and write speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are costly
as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard drives, their internal components are much
different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs don‘t have any moving parts and thus they‘re called solid-state
drives. Instead of storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since
SSDs haven‘t any moving parts, they do not need to ―spin up‖. It ranges from 150GB to a few and
more TB.
(iii) SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic devices like
phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD card is also
small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB,
etc.

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(iv) Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles, etc. It is also used
to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card on a
computer you require a separate memory card reader.
(v) Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is generally used in-car
radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to store data/information.
4. OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES
Optical Storage Devices is also a secondary storage device. It is a removable storage device.
Following are some optical storage devices:
(i) CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store data. It is
made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of
two types:
 CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is written can
not be erased. It is read-only.
 CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily write or
erase data multiple times.
(ii) DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to store data. It
comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer
discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to CDs. It is of
two types:
 DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the data is
written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies, etc.
 DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read Write. In this type of DVD, you can easily
write or erase data multiple times.
(iii) Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up to 25GB. To run a
Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to read a disc from a
blue-violet laser due to which the information is stored in greater density with a longer wavelength.
5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We can
store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay for the cloud
storage. There are many companies that provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft,
etc. We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of it.
Though it is actually being stored in a physical device located in the data centers of the service
provider, the user doesn‘t interact with the physical device and its maintenance. For example,
Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of storage where users can store data virtually instead
of being stored in physical hard drive devices. These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of
where storage media goes.
WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

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Software, instructions that tell a computer what to do. Software comprises the entire set of programs,
procedures, and routines associated with the operation of a computer system. The term was coined
to differentiate these instructions from hardware—i.e., the physical components of a computer
system. A set of instructions that directs a computer‘s hardware to perform a task is called a
program, or software program.
Software is responsible for directing all computer-related devices and instructing them regarding
what and how the task is to be performed. However, the software is made up of binary language
(composed of ones and zeros), and for a programmer writing the binary code would be a slow and
tedious task. Therefore, software programmers write the software program in various human-
readable languages such as Java, Python, C#, etc. and later use the source code.
Types of Software
Software's are broadly classified into two types, i.e., System Software and Application Software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is a computer program that helps the user to run computer hardware or software and
manages the interaction between them. Essentially, it is software that constantly runs in the computer
background, maintaining the computer hardware and computer's basic functionalities, including the
operating system, utility software, and interface. In simple terms, you can say that the system acts as a
middle man that checks and facilitates the operations flowing between the user and the computer
hardware.
System software is not limited to the operating system. They also include the basic I/O system
procedures, the boot program, assembler, computer device driver, etc. This software supports a high-
speed platform to provide effective software for the other applications to work in effortlessly. Therefore
system software is an essential part of your computer system. They are the first thing that gets loaded in
the system's memory wherever you turn on your computer. System software is also known as "low-level
software" because the end-users do not operate them. Companies usually employ the best software
development programmers who can deploy efficient system software.
The further classifications of system software are as follows:
OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system is the most prominent example of system software that acts as an interface
between the user and system hardware. It is a group of software that handles the execution of
programs and offers general services for the application that runs over the computer. There are
various types of operating systems available in the market, such as embedded operating systems,
real-time OS, distributed OS, single or multi-user operating system, mobile, Internet, and various others.
Some of the commonly used examples of operating systems are given below.
o Microsoft Windows
o Apple's iOS
o Apple's MacOS
o Android
o CentOS

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o Linus
o Ubuntu
o Unix
DEVICE DRIVERS
In computing, the device driver is a type of software that operates or controls some specific hardware
devices linked to your system. They provide a software interface to hardware devices allowing
computer operating systems and other applications to fetch hardware functions without knowing the
exact specifications of the hardware. Some common examples of such device drivers that connect
hardware devices (printers, sound cards, network cards, hard disks, floppy disk, keyboard, mouse, etc.)
to a system easily are as follows:
o BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) Device Driver

o USB (Universal Serial Bus) Drivers
o Motherboard Drivers
o Display Drivers
o Printer Drivers
o Sound Card Driver
o ROM (Read-only memory) Drivers
o VGA (Video Graphic Array) Drivers
FIRMWARE
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a type of permanent software embedded in the
system's ROM (read-only memory) to provide low-level control for some particular system device
hardware. It is a set of instructions that are stored permanently on your computer's hardware
device.
Common examples of devices utilizing firmware are given below:
o Computer Peripherals
o Consumer Appliances
o Embedded Systems
o UEFI (United Extensible Firmware Interface)
o BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
UTILITY
Utility software is developed to provide support in analyzing, optimizing, along configuring and
maintaining a computer. The job of the utility program is to offer support to the system infrastructure.
Though the system will work even if it doesn't have any utility software, the right kind of utility software
enhances its performance and makes it more reliable.
Some of the common examples of utility software are as follows:
o Norton and McAfee Antivirus

o WinRAR
o Directory Opus
o Disk defragmenter

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o WinZip
o Windows File Explorer
o Razer Cortex
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application programs or software applications are end-user computer programs developed primarily to
provide specific functionality to the user. The applications programs assist the user in accomplishing
numerous tasks such as doing online research, completing notes, designing graphics, managing the
finances, watching a movie, writing documents, playing games, and many more. Therefore, many
software applications are designed and developed every year by companies as per the demand and
requirements of the potential users. The application software can either be designed for a general-
purpose or specially coded as per the requirements of business cooperation.
Today there are varieties of application software available in the market. Given below are some of the
popular examples:
A. WORD PROCESSORS
Word processor applications are globally used for documentation, making notes, and typing data. It
also helps the end-users store and format data. They also enable the users to print their documents.
Some examples of Word Processor software's are as follows:
 MS Word (Microsoft)
 iWork-Pages (Apple)
 Corel WordPerfect
 Google Docs
B. Database software
Database software is used to create, manage, modify and organize a massive amount of data
quickly retrieved. Another name for database software is Database Management System
(DBMS). Such software helps companies in their data organization. Common examples of Database
Software's are:
 Oracle
 MS Access
 SQLite
 Microsoft SQL Server
 FileMaker
 dBase
 MariaDB
 MySQL
MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE

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This software enables the users to play, create or record images, music, and video files. Different
graphic designing companies widely use multimedia software to make animation, images, posts,
packaging, marketing creative, gif, or even video editing. Due to their popularity and increasing
demand, every software product development corporation has massive avenues in creating and
upgrading them.
Common examples of Database Software's are given below:
 Adobe Photoshop
 Windows Movie Maker
 Adobe Illustrator
 Picasa
 Windows Media Player
 Corel Draw
WEB BROWSERS
These are a type of software that is globally used to browse the Internet. Web browsers help the users in
positioning as well as fetching data across the web. Common examples of web browsers are given
below:
o Chrome
o Mozilla Firefox
o Microsoft Internet Explorer
o Opera
o Microsoft Edge
o UC Browser
o Apple Safari
However, there also occurs another classification of the software that exists on the basis of their
availability and shareability. The classification is given below:
1. FREEWARE
As the name suggests, Freeware software is available free of cost for an unlimited time. Any user can
easily download their respective software from the Internet and start using them instantly without paying
any charges or fees. Software development companies mostly design and develop freeware software
as a strategy to reach out to more people. Typical examples of Freeware Software are as follows:
 Adobe Reader
 Zoom
 Skype
 ImgBurn
 Audacity
 Whatsapp
 Anydesk
SHAREWARE

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Shareware software is readily available on the Internet to download on a fixed trial basis. It is distributed
freely with a set time limit, and at the end of the trial period, the user is asked either to pay the fee or
uninstall the software. Some shareware, mainly including the gaming softwares, have a fixed trial based
on the counts an application is opened rather than the number of days it has been installed on the
system.
Give below are some of the popular examples for Shareware Software:
 Adobe Acrobat
 Adobe Photoshop
 AnyDVD
 PHP Debugger
 WinZip
OPEN-SOURCE
People usually get confused with freeware and open-source, but both are different. Though both the
software are available on the Internet free of cost with the only difference that open source software
is available online along with their source code. It means the user can change, transform, and even
can add additional features to them. Based on their services, they can be chargeable as well free of
cost.
Give below are some of the popular examples for open-source Software:
 Mozilla Firefox
 MySQL
 Thunderbird
 OpenOffice
 ClamWinantivirus
 Apache Web Server
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Types of Operating Systems: Some widely used

operating systems are as follows-
Batch Operating System –
This type of operating system does not interact

with the computer directly. There is an operator
which takes similar jobs having the same
requirement and group them into batches. It is
the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with
similar needs
Advantages of Batch Operating System:
 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete. Processors of
the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue

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 Multiple users can share the batch systems

 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.
2. TIME-SHARING OPERATING SYSTEMS – Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The time that each task
gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Each task gets an equal opportunity

 Fewer chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of the security and
integrity of user programs and data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.
4. Distributed Operating System –
These types of the operating system is a recent advancement

in the world of computer technology and are being widely
accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great pace.
Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate
with each other using a shared communication network.
Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU.
These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. These system‘s processors differ in size and function.
The major benefit of working with these types of the operating
system is that it is always possible that one user can access the
files or software which are not actually present on his system
but some other system connected within this network i.e.,
remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

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 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
 Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication

 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined yet
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that
the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.
4. Network Operating System –
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to

manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and
other networking functions. These types of operating systems
allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small private network.
One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is
that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections, etc. and that‘s why these computers
are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System:
 Highly stable centralized servers

 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly

 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008,
UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD, etc.
Real-Time Operating System –

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These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very
small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air
traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Advantages of RTOS:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more output from all
the resources
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For example, in
older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting one task to another, and in the latest
systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications
which are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs are small,
RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on few
applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are
expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signals to
respond earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to
switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial
control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
WHAT IS A DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS) ?
A disk operating system (DOS) is a type of operating system that runs from a disk drive rather than a paper-
based medium like a punch card. More specifically, DOS refers to an early command-line-based operating
system used to access, manage, and control a computer's hard drive and hardware components such as
the processor and memory.
This is different from today's most popular operating systems, which all use a graphical user interface (GUI)
rather than a command line. One thing that DOS and GUI-based operating systems have in common is that
they're the key to getting a computer to do what you want it to do. This includes finding a personal
document file, connecting to the internet, or running a program.
What Is Linux

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Linux is an open-source operating system like other operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, Apple
Mac OS, iOS, Google android, etc. An operating system is a software that enables the communication
between computer hardware and software. It conveys input to get processed by the processor and brings
output to the hardware to display it. This is the basic function of an operating system. Although it performs
many other important tasks, let's not talk about that.
Linux is around us since the mid-90s. It can be used from wristwatches to supercomputers. It is everywhere in
our phones, laptops, PCs, cars and even in refrigerators. It is very much famous among developers and
normal computer users.
What is Unix ?
The Unix operating system is a set of programs that act as a link between the computer and the user.
The computer programs that allocate the system resources and coordinate all the details of the computer's
internals is called the operating system or the kernel.
Users communicate with the kernel through a program known as the shell. The shell is a command line
interpreter; it translates commands entered by the user and converts them into a language that is
understood by the kernel.
 Unix was originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees Ken Thompson, Dennis
Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna at Bell Labs.
 There are various Unix variants available in the market. Solaris Unix, AIX, HP Unix and BSD are a
few examples. Linux is also a flavor of Unix which is freely available.
 Several people can use a Unix computer at the same time; hence Unix is called a multiuser
system.
 A user can also run multiple programs at the same time; hence Unix is a multitasking
environment.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected with each other is called network. Some of
the examples of network in our everyday life includes:
 Social network
 Mobile network
 Network of computers
 Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks
A computer network is an interconnection among two or more

computers or computing devices. Such interconnection allows
computers to share data and resources among each other. A
basic network may connect a few computers placed in a room.
The network size may vary from small to large depending on the
number of computers it connects. A computer network can
include different types of hosts (also called nodes) like server,
desktop, laptop, cellular phones.

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Apart from computers, networks include networking devices like switch, router, modem, etc. Networking
devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings. For communication, data in a network
is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These packets are then carried over a network. Devices in a
network can be connected either through wired media like cables or wireless media like air.
In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can receive, create, store or
send data to different network routes is called a node. In the context of data communication, a node can
be a device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch, router, digital telephone handset, a printer, a computer
or a server.
Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network allows us to exchange information simultaneously with

many parties through email, websites, audio/video calls, etc. Network allows sharing of resources. For
example, a printer can be made available to multiple computers through a network; a networked storage
can be accessed by multiple computers. People often connect their devices through hotspot, thus forming
a small personal network.
EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING
In the 1960s a research project was commissioned by Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) in the U.S. Department of Defence to connect the academic and research institutions located at
different places for scientific collaborations. The first message was communicated between the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute (SRI). Slowly but gradually, more and more
organisations joined the ARPANET, and many independent smaller networks were formed.
TYPES OF NETWORKS There are various types of computer networks ranging from network of handheld
devices (like mobile phones or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within a single room to the
millions of computers spread across the globe. Some are connected wireless while others are connected
through wires. Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks are
broadly categorised as:
1. PAN ( Personal Area Network)

2. LAN (Local Area Network)
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WAN (Wide Area Network)
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)
It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart
phones, printers etc., as shown in Figure 10.4. All these devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres.
A personal area network may be wired or wireless. For example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop

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through USB forms a wired PAN while two smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth
technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.
A Personal Area Network
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablet, mouse, printer, etc., placed at a
limited distance. The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from a single room, a floor,
an office having one or more buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school, college, or
university campus. The
connectivity is done by means of
wires, Ethernet cables, fibre
optics, or Wi-Fi.
LAN is comparatively secure as

only authentic users in the
network can access other
computers or shared resources.
Users can print documents using
a connected printer,
upload/download documents
and software to and from the
local server. Such LANs provide
the short range communication
with the high speed data transfer
rates. These types of networks can be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite high, and
usually varies from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet), where Mbps
stands for Megabits per second. Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other
devices connect with each other through cables in a local area network or LAN.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which

covers a larger geographical area like a city or a town. Data transfer

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rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps, but it is considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV network or
cable based broadband internet services are examples of MAN. This kind of network can be
extended up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are connected together to form MAN,
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are spread across
different geographical locations of a country or in different countries or continents. A WAN could be
formed by connecting a LAN to other LANs via wired/wireless media. Large business, educational
and government organisations connect their different branches in different locations across the
world through WAN. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones
and millions of LANs from different continents.
NETWORK DEVICES
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure networks with
different functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router,
Gateway, etc.
MODEM
Modem stands for ‗MOdulator DEModulator‘. It refers to a device used for conversion between
analog signals and digital bits. We know computers store and process data in terms of 0s and 1s.
However, to transmit data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet, digital data
are converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it free-space or a physical media) carries

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the signal to the receiver. There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes.
The modem at the sender‘s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into analog
signals. The modem at the receiver‘s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog signals
into digital data for the destination node to understand.
ETHERNET CARD
Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in

short) is a network adapter used to set up a wired network. It acts
as an interface between computer and the network. It is a circuit
board mounted on the motherboard of a computer. The Ethernet
cable connects the computer to the network through NIC.
Ethernet cards can support data transfer between 10 Mbps and 1
Gbps (1000 Mbps). Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in
uniquely identifying the computer on the network.
Rj45
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector (Figure 10.10) that

is used exclusively with Ethernet cables for networking. It is a standard
networking interface that can be seen at the end of all network cables.
Basically, it is a small plastic plug that fits into RJ-45 jacks of the
Ethernet cards present in various computing devices.
REPEATER
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable.

These signals can travel a specified distance (usually
about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this limit
and become weak. In such conditions, original signals
need to be regenerated. A repeater is an analog device
that works with signals on the cables to which it is
connected. The weakened signal appearing on the

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cable is regenerated and put back on the cable by a repeater
HUB
An Ethernet hub is a network device used

to connect different devices through
wires. Data arriving on any of the lines are
sent out on all the others. The limitation of
Hub is that if data from two devices come
at the same time, they will collide
SWITCH
A switch is a networking device that plays a central role in a Local Area Network (LAN). Like a hub, a
network switch is used to connect multiple computers or communicating devices. When data
arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data packet and looks it up in a table to
see where to send the packet. Thus, it sends signals to only selected devices instead of sending to all.
It can forward multiple packets at
the same time. A switch does not
forward the signals which are
noisy or corrupted. It drops such
signals and asks the sender to
resend it. Cables connected to a
network switch Ethernet switches
are common in homes/offices to
connect multiple devices thus
creating LANs or to access the
Internet.
ROUTER
A router is a network device that can receive the data,

analyse it and transmit it to other networks. A router
connects a local area network to the internet. Compared
to a hub or a switch, a router has advanced capabilities as
it can analyse the data being carried over a network,
decide/alter how it is packaged, and send it to another
network of a different type. For example, data has been
divided into packets of a certain size. Suppose these
packets are to be carried over a different type of network
which cannot handle bigger packets. In such a case, the

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data is to be repackaged as smaller packets and then sent over the network by a router
A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and
other devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports to provide wired Internet access. These
days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem/ switch. These routers
connect to incoming broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and convert them to
digital data for computing devices to process
NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
We have already discussed that a number of computing devices are connected together to form a
Local Area Network (LAN), and interconnections among millions of LANs forms the Internet. The
arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its topology. Common
network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
MESH TOPOLOGY
In this networking topology, each communicating

device is connected with every other device in the
network as shown in Figure 10.15. Such a network can
handle large amounts of traffic since multiple nodes
can transmit data simultaneously. Also, such networks
are more reliable in the sense that even if a node gets
down, it does not cause any break in the transmission
of data between other nodes. This topology is also
more secure as compared to other topologies
because each cable between two nodes carries
different data. However, wiring is complex and
cabling cost is high in creating such networks and
there are many redundant or unutilized connections.
RING TOPOLOGY
In ring topology, each node is connected to two other

devices, one each on either side. The nodes
connected with each other thus forms a ring. The link in
a ring topology is unidirectional. Thus, data can be
transmitted in one direction only (clockwise or
counterclockwise).
BUS TOPOLOGY

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In bus topology, each communicating device connects to a transmission medium, known as bus.
Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are transmitted to the length of the bus
in both directions. That means, data can be received by any of the nodes connected to the bus.
In this topology, a single

backbone wire called bus is
shared among the nodes, which
makes it cheaper and easier to
maintain. Both ring and bus
topologies are considered to be
less secure and less reliable.
STAR TOPOLOGY
In star, each communicating device is

connected to a central node, which is a
networking device like a hub or a switch. Star
topology is considered very effective, efficient
and fast as each device is directly connected
with the central device. Although disturbance in
one device will not affect the rest of the
network, any failure in a central networking
device may lead to the failure of complete
network.
The central node can be either a broadcasting device means data will be transmitted to all the
nodes in the network, or a unicast device means the node can identify the destination and forward
data to that node only.
TREE OR HYBRID TOPOLOGY
It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are

multiple branches and each branch can have one
or more basic topologies like star, ring and bus. Such
topologies are usually realised in WANs where
multiple LANs are connected. Those LANs may be in
the form of a ring, bus or star. In figure 10.19, a hybrid
topology is shown connecting 4-star topologies in a
bus. In this type of network, data transmitted from
source first reaches the centralised device and from
there the data passes through every branch where
each branch can have links for more nodes.
IDENTIFYING NODES IN A NETWORKED COMMUNICATION

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Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device can identify the
sender and receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data. Let us explore further and know
how each node is distinguished in a network.
MAC ADDRESS
MAC stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address, also known as the physical or hardware
address, is a unique value associated with a network adapter called a NIC. The MAC address is
engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent address and cannot be
changed under any circumstances. The machine on which the NIC is attached, can be physically
identified on the network using its MAC address. Each MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal
numbers (48 bits in length), of which the first six digits (24 bits) contain the manufacturer‘s ID called
Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI) and the later six digits (24 bits) represents the serial number
assigned to the card by the manufacturer. A sample MAC address looks like:
IP Address
IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is also a unique address that can be used to
uniquely identify each node in a network. The IP addresses are assigned to each node in a network
that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Thus, if we know a computer‘s IP address, we can
communicate with that computer from anywhere in the world. However, unlike MAC address, IP
address can change if a node is removed from one network and connected to another network.
The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short), is a 32 bit numeric address, written as four numbers
separated by periods, where each number is the decimal (base-10) representation for an 8-bit binary
(base-2) number and each can take any value from 0 - 255. A sample IPV4 address looks like:
192:168:0:178
With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, it was realised that the 32-bit IP
address will not be sufficient as it offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses. Thus, a 128 bits IP
address, called IP version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address is represented by eight
groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons. A sample IPV6 address looks like:
2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652
INTERNET
The Internet is the global network of computing devices including desktop, laptop, servers, tablets,
mobile phones, other handheld devices, printers, scanners, routers, switches, gateways, etc.
Moreover, smart electronic appliances like TV, AC, refrigerator, fan, light, etc. can also communicate
through a network. The list of such smart devices is always increasing e.g., drones, vehicles, door
lock, security camera.

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The Internet is evolving every day and it is difficult to visualise or describe each and every aspect of
the architecture of the Internet. Computers are either connected to a modem through a cable or
wirelessly (Wi- Fi). That modem, be it wired or wireless, is connected to a local Internet Service
Provider (ISP) who then connects to a national network. Many such ISPs connect together forming a
regional network and regional networks connect together forming a national network, and such
country-wise networks form the Internet backbone.
The Internet today is a widespread network, and its influence is no longer limited to the technical
fields of computer communications. It is being used by everyone in the society as is evident from the
increasing use of online tools for education, creativity, entertainment, socialisation, and e-
commerce.
The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions
of interlinked web pages and web resources. The resources on the web can be shared or accessed
through the Internet.
Earlier, to access files residing in different computers, one had to login individually to each
computer through the Internet. Besides, files in different computers were sometimes in different
formats, and it was difficult to understand each other‘s files and documents. Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a
British computer scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide Web in 1990 by defining three
fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web:
• HTML – HyperText Markup Language. It is a language which is used to design standardised Web
Pages so that the Web contents can be read and understood from any computer. Basic structure of
every webpage is designed using HTML.
• URI – Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique address or path for each resource located on the
web. It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Every page on the web has a unique URL.
Examples are: https://www.mhrd.gov.in,http:// www.ncert.nic.in,http://www.airindia.in, etc. URL is
sometimes also called web address. However, a URL is not only the domain name. It contains other
information that completes a web address, as depicted below:
http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/textbook.htm
URL
HTTP – The HyperText Transfer Protocol is a set of rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages
across the web. The more secure and advanced version is HTTPS.
Many people confuse the web with the Internet. The Internet as we know is the huge global network
of interconnected computers, which may or may not have any file or webpage to share with the
world. The web on the other hand is the interlinking of collection of Webpages on these computers
which are accessible over the Internet. WWW today gives users access to a vast collection of
information created and shared by people across the world. It is today the most popular information
retrieval system
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

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The Internet is a vast ocean where information is available in the form of millions of websites. Each
website is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet, which means each server has an IP
address. Every device connected to the Internet has an IP address. To access a website, we need to
enter its IP address on our web browser. But it is very difficult to remember the IP addresses of
different websites as they are in terms of numbers or strings.
However, it is easier to remember names, and therefore, each computer server hosting a website or
web resource is given a name against its IP address. These names are called the Domain names or
hostnames corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each server. For easy understanding, it
can be considered as the phonebook where instead of remembering each person‘s phone number,
we assign names to their numbers. For example, IP addresses and domain names of some websites
are as follows:
DNS SERVER
Instead of remembering IP addresses, we

assign a domain name to each IP. But, to
access a web resource, a browser needs to
find out the IP address corresponding to
the domain name entered. Conversion of
the domain name of each web server to its
corresponding IP address is called domain
name resolution. It is done through a server
called DNS server. Thus, when we enter a
URL on a web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches a computer server called DNS server to obtain
the IP address corresponding to that domain name. After getting the IP address, the HTTP protocol
retrieves the information and loads it in our browser. In Figure 10.20, an example is shown in which the
HTTP requests a DNS server for corresponding IP addss, and the server sends back an IP address.
A DNS server maintains a database of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. To
understand how the domain name resolution works, we have to understand how and where the DNS
servers are kept. The DNS servers are placed in hierarchical order. At the top level, there are 13
servers called root servers. Then below the root servers there are other DNS servers at different levels.
A DNS server may contain the IP address corresponding to a domain or it will contain the IP address
of other DNS servers, where this domain entry can be searched
BROWSER
Web browsers are simply application programs that let you access the internet. With these programs,
you can send requests to websites and receive data from web servers.

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Web browsers have come a long way since the World Wide Web – the first web browser developed
by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. The World Wide Web browser is the reason why most websites start with
WWW which is its acronym.
How web browsers work is not as complex as you may think. A web browser can take you anywhere
online. It pulls data from other web servers and displays it on your computer. The data is sent through
HTTP, a protocol that describes how text, pictures, and video are sent over the internet.
There are different browser types and not all interpret the format the same. This implies a website‘s
appearance and functionality may vary.
Nevertheless, most websites are designed to ensure cross-browser compatibility so that users may
have the same experience regardless of their browser.
When a web browser requests data from an internet server, it uses a rendering engine to convert the
data into text and pictures. Most web data is written in HTML – and also CSS & JavaScript – and web
browsers read it to create what we see and experience on web pages.
A URL, also known as a web address, uniquely identifies a web page. To find data on a server, a
browser uses the web address, which directs it to the HTML file, which then directs it to the web page.
A web page may feature a hyperlink that allows users to navigate to other web pages.
SEARCH ENGINES
A search engine is software designed to retrieve specific information. The type of search engine most
of us are familiar with is the internet search engine, which is a web service that finds information on
the internet (sometimes called the ―world wide web‖) based on a user‘s query, which is typically a
set of words.
Today, many people think search engines are synonymous with internet browsers—thanks in part to
the Google Chrome browser building search engine functionality into the web address bar. But
search engines are web services specifically built to retrieve information. They can be accessed
easily from a browser, but they‘re different technologies.
SERVER
A server is a software or hardware device that accepts and responds to requests made over a
network. The device that makes the request, and receives a response from the server, is called
a client. On the Internet, the term "server" commonly refers to the computer system that receives
requests for a web files and sends those files to the client.
Servers manage network resources. For example, a user may set up a server to control access to a
network, send/receive e-mail, manage print jobs, or host a website. They are also proficient at
performing intense calculations. Some servers are committed to a specific task, often referred to as
dedicated. However, many servers today are shared servers that take on the responsibility of e-
mail, DNS, FTP, and multiple websites in the case of a web server.
CLOUD COMPUTING

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Cloud computing is the delivery of different services through the Internet. These resources include
tools and applications like data storage, servers, databases, networking, and software.
Rather than keeping files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage device, cloud-based
storage makes it possible to save them to a remote database. As long as an electronic device has
access to the web, it has access to the data and the software programs to run it.
Cloud computing is a popular option for people and businesses for a number of reasons including
cost savings, increased productivity, speed and efficiency, performance, and security.
Types of Cloud Services
Regardless of the kind of service, cloud computing services provide users with a series of functions
including:
 Email
 Storage, backup, and data retrieval
 Creating and testing apps
 Analyzing data
 Audio and video streaming
 Delivering software on demand
EMAIL
Electronic mail, commonly shortened to “email,” is a communication method that uses

electronic devices to deliver messages across computer networks. "Email" refers to both the
delivery system and individual messages that are sent and received.
The age of email services is older than ARPANET and the Internet. The early emails were only sent to
the same computer. Email services started in 1971 by Ray Tomlinson. He first developed a system to
send mail between users on different hosts across the ARPANET, using @ sign with the destination server
and was recognized as email.
Difference between Email and Webmail
To differentiate between email and webmail, we need to know that it‘s a working platform. Those
types of mail that are sent through the browser are called webmail and those mails that are sent
through the specific application and browser are also called email. Gmail is a browser-based email
whereas outlook for office 365 is a non-browser email service. To send browser-based mail, we just use
the internet whereas sending non-browser emails, we need a specific application and non-browser-
based email offered some security-related advantages.
Uses of Email
Email services are used in various sectors, organizations, either personally, or among a large group of
people. It provides an easy way to communicate with individuals or groups by sending and receiving
documents, images, links, and other files. It also provides the flexibility of communicating with others on
their own schedule.

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Large or small companies can use email services to many employees, customers. A company can
send emails to many employees at a time. It becomes a professional way to communicate. A
newsletters service is also used to send company advertisements, promotions, and other subscribed
content to use advertisements, promotions.
Types of Email
Newsletters
It is a type of email sent by an individual or company to the subscriber. It contains an advertisement,

product promotion, updates regarding the organization, and marketing content. It might be
upcoming events, seminars, webinars from the organization.
Onboarding emails
It is an email a user receives right after subscription. These emails are sent to buyers to familiarize and
tell them about to use a product. It also contains details about the journey in the new organization.
Transactional
These types of emails might contain invoices for recent transactions, details about transactions. If
transactions failed then details about when the amount will be reverted. We can say that transaction
emails are confirmation of purchase.
Plain-Text Emails
These types of emails contain just simple text similar to other text message services. It does not include
images, videos, documents, graphics, or any attachments. Plain-text emails are also used to send
casual chatting like other text message services.
Advantages of Email Services
These are the following advantages of email services:
Easy and Fast:
Composing an email is very simple and one of the fast ways to communicate. We can send an email
within a minute just by clicking the mouse. It contains a minimum lag time and can be exchanged
quickly.
Secure:
Email services are a secure and reliable method to receive and send information. The feature of spam
provides more security because a user can easily eliminate malicious content.
Mass Sending:
We can easily send a message to many people at a time through email. Suppose, a company wants
to send holiday information to all employees than using email, it can be done easily. The feature of

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mail merge in MS Word provides more options to send messages to many people just by exchanging
relevant information.
Multimedia Email:
Email offers to send multimedia, documents, images, audio files, videos, and various types of files. We
can easily attach the types of files in the original format or compressed format .
DISADVANTAGES OF EMAIL SERVICES
Malicious Use:
Anyone can send an email just by knowing their email address. An anonymous user or unauthorized
person can send an email if they have an email address. The attachment feature of the email be the
major disadvantage of it, hackers can send viruses through email because sometimes the spam
feature unable to classify suspicious emails.
Spam:
In days email services improve this feature. To improve this feature sometimes some important email is
transferred into spam without any notification.
Time Consuming:
Responding through an email takes more time rather than other message services like WhatsApp,
Telegram, etc. Email is good for professional discussion but not good for casual chatting.
Popular Email Services
These are some popular email services:
Gmail:
Gmail is the world‘s most used email service provided by Google. Today, more than 1.5 billion active
users worldwide. It is a web-based email service available on various devices. It supported email
clients via the POP and IMAP protocols. Gmail is like other mail services, we can send and receive
emails, block spam, create an address book, and perform other basic email tasks.
To access Gmail, we need a Google account. It is just like many services offered by Google by
registered users. The creation of a new Google account is free for everyone. The domain of Gmail is
[email protected] where Xyz is your unique username.
Outlook:
Outlook is also a popular webmail service founded in 1996 by Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith as
Hotmail later in 1997 acquired by Microsoft. It is older than Gmail. Like other webmail services, Outlook
supports Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and later versions of Internet Explorer. It has more features like
keyboard controls ability that provide more facility to the users.

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To access Outlook, we need an Outlook account. It is free to create an account and sending mail. It
also operates other Microsoft applications like Microsoft Word, Power BI, etc. The domain of Outlook is
[email protected] where the abc is our unique username.
Some other popular Email services are hotmail, yahoomail, Protonmail, Zohomail, etc.

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[DIGITAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGY]

Multimedia consists of the following 5 components:

Vismayam College of Art and Media 1

WHAT ARE MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS:

A Multimedia System is a system capable of processing multimedia data. A Multimedia System is

CHARACTERISTICS OF A MULTIMEDIA SYSTEM

A Multimedia system has four basic characteristics:

 Multimedia systems must be computer controlled

Vismayam College of Art and Media 2

FEATURES OF A MULTIMEDIA SYSTEM:

1. Very High Processing Power:

3. File formats that support multimedia:

6. Storage and Memory:

Vismayam College of Art and Media 3

Vismayam College of Art and Media 4

MULTIMEDIA FILE FORMATS

What is a file format?

Kinds of File Format

o Audio file format

AUDIO FILE FORMAT

Audio file format

WMA - Windows Media Audio (.wma)

VIDEO FILE FORMAT

AVI (Audio Video Interleave) -

WMV (Windows Media Video)

MOV (Apple QuickTime Movie)

MP4 (Moving Pictures Expert Group 4)

Real Media (.RM) File

IMAGE FILE FORMAT

Vismayam College of Art and Media 7

ANALOG MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS

Vismayam College of Art and Media 8

Vismayam College of Art and Media 9

FULL-MOTION VIDEO PROCESSING

ANIMATION AND VIRTUAL REALITY

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The block diagram of computer

Vismayam College of Art and Media 11

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

Advantages of using analogue computers:

Vismayam College of Art and Media 12

 In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of

Advantages of digital computers:

o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.

o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.

o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.

o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,

Vismayam College of Art and Media 13

ADVANTAGES OF USING HYBRID COMPUTERS:

o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.

o It helps in the on-line data processing.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

Vismayam College of Art and Media 14

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

o It remains charged for a long time.