COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH

MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

Communications refers to the use of signals to transfer voice, data, image, and/or video information
between locations, the main applications of which are in communications science, engineering, and
technology.

Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message and a recipient. This may sound simple,
but communication is actually a very complex subject.

The transmission of the message from sender to recipient can be affected by a huge range of things.
These include our emotions, the cultural situation, the medium used to communicate, and even our
location. The complexity is why good communication skills are considered so desirable by employers
around the world: accurate, effective and unambiguous communication is actually extremely hard.

Good communication skills are essential to effective business communications. At its

core, the aim of communication is to transmit information from one person to another
so that the sender and receiver understand the message in the same way. The
responsibility for clear communication usually falls on the sender. But the receiver is
also responsible to confirm a clear understanding of the message. Communication is a
dynamic and cyclical process.

Breaking down the communication cycle into its parts is helpful to understand the
responsibilities of both the sender and receiver of communication, as well as to
identify communication barriers.

Communication Process
Step 1: Idea Formation – The communication process begins when the sender has
an idea to be communicated. The idea will be influenced by complex factors
surrounding the sender. The sender must begin by clarifying the idea and purpose.
What exactly does the sender want to achieve? How is the message likely to be
perceived? Knowing this information provides a higher chance of successful
communication

Step 2: Message Encoding – The idea must be encoded into words, symbols, and
gestures that will convey meaning. Because no two people interpret information in
the exact same way, the sender must be careful to choose words, symbols and gestures
that are commonly understood to reduce the chances of misunderstanding. Therefore,
a sender must be aware of the receiver’s communication skills, attitudes, skills,
experiences, and culture to ensure clear communication.

Step 3: Message Transmission: Choosing the medium to transmit the message is the
next step in the communication process. Messages can be transmitted in a verbal,
written, or visual manner (see Table 1). For clear communication to occur, the
medium and message must match

Table 2.1: Message Transmission Mediums

Verbal Written Visual

In-person Drawings,
Email
speech paintings

Text,
Phone Photos, graphic
instant
conversation designs
message

Body language
Voice-over- Report,
(e.g., eye
internet protocol article,
contact, hand
(VoIP) essay
gestures)
 Radio Letter Graphs

Podcast Memo Font types

Voicemail
Blog Semaphore
message

Intercom Tweet Architecture

Step 4: Decoding – When the message reaches the receiver, the message must be
decoded into its intended meaning. Therefore, the receiver must translate the words,
symbols, and gestures as the sender intended. Because no two people interpret
information in the exact same way, incorrectly decoding a message can lead to
misunderstanding. Successful decoding is more likely when the receiver creates a
receptive environment and ignores distractions. Alert receivers strive to understand
both verbal and nonverbal cues, avoid prejudging the message, and expect to learn
from the communication.

Step 5: Feedback – A vital part of the communication process is feedback. Feedback

occurs the sender and receiver check to ensure the message was understood as
intended. Feedback is a shared responsibility between the sender and the receiver and
can be verbal or non-verbal. For example, the sender can elicit feedback by asking,
“Do you have any questions?” The sender can also improve the feedback process by
only providing as much information as the receiver can handle. Receivers can
encourage clear communication by providing clear, timely, descriptive, and non-
judgmental feedback. For example, the receiver can shake his/her head up and down
to confirm “yes” I have a question.

Barriers to Effective Communication

There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may

fail. In many communications, the message (what is said) may
not be received exactly the way the sender intended. It is, therefore,
 important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their
message is clearly understood.

The skills of Active Listening, Clarification and Reflection may help but
the skilled communicator also needs to be aware of the barriers to effective
communication and how to avoid or overcome them.
There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication

process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting

both time and/or money by causing confusion and misunderstanding.

Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise

message.

Common Barriers to Effective Communication:

 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

 Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and
some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may include, but
are not limited to, politics, religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality and sex,
racism and any opinion that may be seen as unpopular.

 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver. (See our page Barriers
to Effective Listening for more information).

 Differences in perception and viewpoint.

 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.

 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues,
gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Phone
calls, text messages and other communication methods that rely on technology are often less
effective than face-to-face communication.

 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.

 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People
often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect
conclusions. Our page The Ladder of Inference explains this in more detail.

 Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do
the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies
between cultures and between different social settings. See our page on Intercultural
Awareness for more information.

A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by
continually checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.

A Categorisation of Barriers to Communication

Language Barriers
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication.

However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as
a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot of
specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the
terminology used.

The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the message is sent,
received and perceived.

For example:

If someone is stressed they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the
message as if they were not stressed.

Stress management is an important personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships.

Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it is easy to
say things that we may later regret, and also to misinterpret what others are saying.

More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not feel
comfortable communicating - they may feel shy or embarrassed about saying how they really feel, or read
unintended negative sub-texts in messages they hear.

Physiological Barriers

Physiological barriers to communication may result from the receiver’s physical state.

For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully grasp the content of a spoken conversation
especially if there is significant background noise.

Physical Barriers

An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the

sender and receiver(s).

Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more communication channels are available
and less technology is required. The ideal communication is face-to-face.

Although modern technology often helps to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and
disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate channel can
be used to overcome the physical barriers.

Systematic Barriers
Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and organisations where there are
inefficient or inappropriate information systems and communication channels, or where there is a lack of
understanding of the roles and responsibilities for communication. In such organisations, people may be
unclear of their role in the communication process and therefore not know what is expected of them.
Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers are behaviours or perceptions that prevent people from

communicating effectively.

Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor management, and
resistance to change or a lack of motivation. To be an effective receiver of messages you should
attempt to overcome your own attitudinal barriers to to help ensure more effective communication.

What is Interpersonal Communication?

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and
non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.

Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal
messages sent through tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language.

When two or more people are in the same place and are aware of each other's presence, then communication is taking place,
no matter how subtle or unintentional.

Without speech, an observer may be using cues of posture, facial expression, and dress to form an impression of the other's
role, emotional state, personality and/or intentions. Although no communication may be intended, people receive messages
through such forms of non-verbal behaviour.

How to improve interpersonal communication

 GroomingIt means taking care of our appearance and it is considered the most
important of soft skills because how well you take care of yourself determines a
lot about your personality. During an interview even before we get a chance to
showcase our skills, we have already been judged on the basis of our
appearance and clothing.For example, clean, well-ironed clothes with proper
shoes during an interview expresses a student interest to work in the
organisation. Whereas if the student is not in proper formal attire then they are
often considered careless and irresponsible.
Anger Management: Anger is normal human emotional behaviour. Anger management refers to being
able to understand our anger and learning the methods to control it rather than shouting and howling,
ending up creating a scene. There are different ways in which we can control our anger:

1. To understand if the reason behind the anger is really serious and important. For example, to know
the cause of the irritation leading to anger.
2. To learn methods to control anger. For example – breathing techniques, talking to someone, staying
busy at work etc.
3. Think before you speak. For example – In anger, we often say something which we regret later, so it is
advisable to think before we speak.
 Mental flexibility can also be termed adaptability or the way to adjust in any
situation. This shows an individual’s personality on how confidently they can
accept changes.
For example – XYZ hospital introduced new software for the billing process. The
billing executives must be open-minded or mentally flexible to learn the new
methods quickly and apply them confidently.
 Resolving Conflict: It is a way of understanding the problem from its beginning
without judging. Resolving problems is very important in soft skill as it helps to
maintain peace and decorum in the organisation. It also involves actively
listening to everybody’s opinion and view before jumping to a conclusion.
For example – A front hospital billing hospital made an error in the final bill of
the patient. When the patient came to know he started shouting at the
executive for the mistake. At that time the executive handled the situation by
calming down the patient by apologizing for the error on behalf of the team and
rectified the mistake.
 Teamwork – An organisation does not grow alone it needs the contribution of
all the employees beginning from planning till execution. The success of any
organisation is highly determined by strong teamwork among employees.
For example – An operation of a patient is always carried out with a team of
doctors, nurses and with assistants. When everyone performs their task
properly the work is smoothly carried out.
 Leadership – It refers to taking initiative for taking responsibility and respecting
every team member’s opinion and ideas. A leader always has clarity of thought
on how to move ahead in work and helps to bring out the full potential in the
employees without being bossy or underestimating team member’s capability
or skill.
For example – A director of the hospital taking care of different departments by
listening to their employee’s concerns and suggestions.
A productive environment in an organisation reflects effective communication
channels or medium used among employees which refers to effective speaking. By
effective communication, we understand adapting a set of skills in order to create
better understanding and by answering all the W’s and H questions (what, when, why,
whom and how).

There are four basic communication styles: passive, aggressive, passive-aggressive

and assertive.
It’s important to understand each communication style, and why individuals use
them. For example, the assertive communication style has been found to be most
effective, because it incorporates the best aspects of all the other styles.

When we break down these four styles, we’ll better understand the characteristics of
each style, standard phrases and what makes them unique.

Passive

Individuals who use the passive communication style often act indifferently, yielding
to others. Passive communicators usually fail to express their feelings or needs,
allowing others to express themselves. Frequently, a passive communicator’s lack of
outward communication can lead to misunderstanding, anger build-up or
resentment. At the same time, these communicators can be safer to speak with
when a conflict arises, because they most likely will avoid a confrontation or defer to
others.

Passive communicators often display a lack of eye contact, poor body posture and
an inability to say “no.” Passive communicators also act in a way that states “people
never consider my feelings.”

But passive communicators are also easy to get along with as they follow others and
“go with the flow.”

Examples of phrases that those who use a passive communication style would say
or may believe include:

 “It really doesn’t matter that much.”

 “I just want to keep the peace”

Aggressive

It’s often apparent when someone communicates in an aggressive manner. You’ll

hear it. You’ll see it. You may even feel it.

The aggressive communication style is emphasized by speaking in a loud and

demanding voice, maintaining intense eye contact and dominating or controlling
others by blaming, intimidating, criticizing, threatening or attacking them, among
other traits.

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Aggressive communicators often issue commands, ask questions rudely and fail to
listen to others. But they can also be considered leaders and command
respect from those around them.

Examples of phrases that an aggressive communicator would use include:

 “I’m right and you’re wrong.”

 “I’ll get my way no matter what.”
 “It’s all your fault.”

Passive-Aggressive

Passive-aggressive communication style users appear passive on the surface, but within he or
she may feel powerless or stuck, building up a resentment that leads to seething or acting out
in subtle, indirect or secret ways.

Most passive-aggressive communicators will mutter to themselves rather than confront a

person or issue. They have difficulty acknowledging their anger, use facial expressions that
don’t correlate with how they feel and even deny there is a problem.

Passive-aggressive communicators are most likely to communicate with body language or a

lack of open communication to another person, such as giving someone the silent treatment,
spreading rumors behind people’s backs or sabotaging others’ efforts. Passive-aggressive
communicators may also appear cooperative, but may silently be doing the opposite.

Ultimately, passive-aggressive communicators are aware of their needs, but at times struggle to voice
them.

Examples of phrases that a passive-aggressive communicator would use include:

 “That’s fine with me, but don’t be surprised if someone else gets mad.”
 “Sure, we can do things your way” (then mutters to self that “your way” is stupid).

Assertive

Thought to be the most effective form of communication, the assertive communication style
features an open communication link while not being overbearing. Assertive communicators
can express their own needs, desires, ideas and feelings, while also considering the needs of
others. Assertive communicators aim for both sides to win in a situation, balancing one’s
rights with the rights of others.

Assertive communicators can express their own needs, desires, ideas and feelings, while also
considering the needs of others.

One of the keys to assertive communication is using “I” statements, such as “I feel frustrated
when you are late for a meeting,” or, “I don’t like having to explain this over and over.” It
indicates ownership of feelings and behaviors without blaming the other person.

Examples of phrases an assertive communicator would use include:

 “We are equally entitled to express ourselves respectfully to one another.”

  “I realize I have choices in my life, and I consider my options.”
 “I respect the rights of others.”

How to Become an Assertive Communicator

Understanding how others communicate can be key to getting your message across to them. In order to
develop a more assertive communication style, here are a few tips to keep in mind:

 Take ownership (use “I” statements)

 Maintain eye contact
 Learn to say “no”
 Voice your needs and desires confidently

1. Oral Presentations
2. Introduction
3. What to Include
4. Strategies and Tools
5. Help!
6. Practice, Practice, Practice
7. Your Time to Shine

Introduction

For an oral presentation you will be required to present an oral overview of your work
to a small
audience. Oral presentations are usually 10-15 minutes, the last 3 –5 minutes may be
reserved for
questions from the audience. Simply reading a draft of a paper that you wrote for a
class or for
an independent study project is not an appropriate presentation. In an oral
presentation you will
be highlighting your work, limiting your topic to 2 or 3 main points in a format that is
interesting to your audience. You are encouraged to use audio-visual equipment
(PowerPoint ™
slides and/or video) to capture the audience's attention. All oral presentations must
be reviewed
by a faculty sponsor prior to the day of the Petersheim Academic Exposition.

What to Include - Presentation Content

(For Presentations based on empirical study such as survey work or an experiment)

1. Give a brief introduction indicating why you did the work. Although you have an
educated audience, some may not be familiar with your specific topic of interest so
you may need to define some basic terms and concepts.
2. Identify your research aims or hypotheses and make predictions (even if the
predictions were not confirmed by your results).
3. Highlight the major method of your work. If you have a multi-step method or a
somewhat complex design it helps to provide a diagram or summary outline.
4. Highlight the major results. You should have at least one graph or table of
summary
statistics. Do not present too much, however. The audience is unlikely to absorb
many
details crammed into a 10 to 15 minute presentation.
5. The conclusion/discussion includes your interpretation of the results. The
Discussion
should relate back to the Introduction. Also consider some alternative explanations,
especially if they cannot be ruled out by your data. If space permits try to contrast
your
results with those of similar studies. Mention the implications of your work and your
recommendations for future work.

Strategies and Tools

One strategy in preparing an oral presentation is to compile your content as a brief

PowerPoint™
presentation. Create graphs and charts, add images, convey your message in brief
text and
organize the slides in a logically sequenced order. You can then go back and edit,
add, or
remove slides to complete your presentation. Consider using the notes section of a
slide to
include your major speaking points. You do not want to simply read the text from
your slides, so
minimize the text in the slides that the audience will see and rely on your notes to
remind you
what to say for that slide. Print out the slides with notes so that you can have them
with you during your presentation.There are always new online tools you can use for
presentations. If you are going this route, best to use a mature company so your
presentation will not disappear. Available since 2009, Prezi

HELP!

Ask for It!

Meet with your faculty sponsor to discuss your presentation. All oral presentations
must

be reviewed by a faculty sponsor prior to the day of the Exposition. Do not hesitate
to

approach other faculty and students for comments on early drafts of your
presentation.
 Attend a Presentation Workshop!

The Teaching, Learning and Technology Center offers free Presentation Design
workshops as part of their student technology program, SwitchedOn. These sessions
cover working with images and text following effective graphic design principles.
Come
with an open mind and your presentations will never be the same.

Practice, Practice, Practice!

Practice your presentation more than once. This will allow you to time it (trim it
down in
necessary) and increase your familiarity with the main points that you need to make.
Nervousness is a common experience for presenters. Try to remain enthusiastic and
keep in mind
that several members of the audience are also nervous presenters. The audience
knows how you
feel and is empathetic. Practice helps! Practice may not eliminate nervousness but
you will be
better prepared and more confident.

Your Time to Shine!

If your application for an oral presentation is accepted, the day and time will be
determined by
the committee and posted on this Web Site. You should be prepared to present on
any of the days
of the Exposition.

 Bear - To endure ; Bear - Animal.

 Close - Connected ; Close - Lock.
 Lean - Thin ; Lean - Rest against.
 Bow - Bend forward ; Bow - Front of a ship.
 Lead - Metal ; Lead - Start off in front.
 Skip - Jump ; Skip - Miss out.
 Fair - Appearance ; Fair - Reasonable.
 Quail - Cower ; Quail - Bird.

Introduction to phonetics
 Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that examines sounds in a language. Phonetics
describes these sounds using the symbols of the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA).

 The IPA uses a single symbol to describe each sound in a language. If a letter
in a word is silent, there will be no IPA symbol used in the transcription.
  The IPA can be helpful for studying a language, especially languages that use letters
that are silent or have multiple pronunciations. Languages like Arabic and Spanish
are consistant in their spelling and pronunciation – each letter represents a single
sound which rarely varies. English is different. It has many letters with two or more
sounds and many letters that are silent.
 This website uses the IPA to demonstrate how certain words are pronounced. To
learn specifics about English phonetics and pronunciation.

Phonetics: vowels
This table shows English vowel sounds with IPA symbols (International Phonetic Alphabet) and standard symbols
(std). The words in parentheses represent the IPA transcription. Standard symbols are used in most English
dictionaries.

For each sound there is a word that demonstrates where the sound occurs (word initial, middle, or word final) and
how the sound occurs (what letter or letter combinations). Click on the words to get an idea of these sounds. Pay
attention to the sound of the letters in bold.

English Vowel Sounds

IP std examples
A

I ĭ it dish
(It)
(dI )

i ē she green machine

(g in
( i) (m in)

sunny ski please

(s ni) (ski) (pliz)

ĕ red head said

( d) (h d) (s d)

any
( ni)
 ă and plaid
( nd) (pl d)

ŏ hot father
(h t (f )

ô August thaw bought

( g st) ( ) b t)

fall
(f l)

put book should

(p t) (b k)
( d)

u ū room who through

(rum) (hu) ( ru)

you shoe July

(ju) ( uli)
( u)

flew two blue

(flu) (tu) (blu)
 ŭ up tough
( p) (t f)

sofa enemy incredible

(s f ) ( n mi) (Inkr d bl
)

gallop focus
(g l p) (f k s)

The symbol is called a schwa.

Diphthongs

eI ā they gray aid

( eI) (g eI) (eId)

ate great freight

(eIt) (greIt) (freIt)

résumé
(r zumei)

aI ī fine aisle sight

(faIn) (aIl) (saIt)

why bye lie

(waI) (baI) (laI)

buy guide
(baI) (gaId)
 oi toy noise
(t ) (n z)

ou cow house
(k ) (h s)

ō snowing sew though

(sn wIŋ) (s ) ( )

hello toe soap

(h l ) (t ) (s p)

ju y unite humid few

(junaIt) (hjumId (fju)

ewe youth eulogy

(ju) (ju ) (jul gi)

Vowel sounds with "r" endings

arm guard heart

( m) (g d) (h t)
 ore floor four
( ) (fl r) (f )

more
(m )

near here cheers

(n ) (h )
( s)

pier
(p )

hair where mare

(h ) (w ) (m )

merry their
(m I) ( )

burn learn sir

(b n) (l n) (s )

October worm
( kt b ) (w m

Consonants: voiced and unvoiced

Many consonant sounds come in pairs. For example, P and B are produced in the same
place in the mouth with the tongue in the same position.

The only difference is that P is an unvoiced sound (no vibration of the vocal cords)
while B is a voiced sound (vocal cords vibrate). Put your hand on your throat as you say the
pairs below to feel the difference.
 Note that the first pair of consonants in the table (p, b) is produced at the front of the
mouth. Each pair shifts further back with the last pair (k, g) being produced in the throat.

The consonant sounds are represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The
words in parentheses represent phonetic transcriptions. Click on the examples below to hear
Readthese
lessonconsonant sounds. Pay special attention to the letters in bold.
* en
español examples IPA examples
* en
français

IPA

voiced unvoiced

b book p please
(b k) (pliz)

v vanilla f five
(v nIl ) (faIv)

they thirty
( eI) ( ti)

d dish t ten
(dI ) (t n)
z zero s sir
(z ) (s )

genre she
( nr ) ( i)

jump cheers
( mp) ( s)

g good k king
(g d) (kIŋ)

Syllables and Syllable Structure

1. Organization of sounds within words

Syllables

¿ sounds à syllables à words

· each word consists of one or more syllables one syllable à tough, hot, rhyme,
where, sound, unit

two syllables à structure, within, consist, under, precede

three syllables à linguistics, phonetics, resonant,

consonant

more à phonological, organization, differentiation

· each syllable consists of one or more sounds

¿ syllable

· a phonological unit consisting of one or more sounds

· can be divided into two parts

o rhyme à a nucleus + a coda following it

ââ

vowel consonant

o onset à consonants preceding the rhyme

· the nucleus à the only essential part of a syllable

o not every syllable has an onset

o not every rhyme has a coda

o a single sound can constitute a syllable à I, eye

syllable

onset rhyme

nucleus coda

2. Sequence constraints

§ different languages use different sequences of consonants (C)

and vowels (V)

§ limited within each language

§ English syllables allow several syllable patterns

in a pre- vi- ous cap-tion

VC V CCV CV VC CVC-CVC

§ phonotactic constraints
rules that describe permissible syllable structure in a language
Word Stress Rules
There are two very simple rules about word stress:

1. One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have
two stresses. If you hear two stresses, you hear two
words. Two stresses cannot be one word. It is true that
there can be a "secondary" stress in some words. But a
secondary stress is much smaller than the main [primary]
stress, and is only used in long words.)
2. We can only stress vowels, not consonants.

Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that can help
you understand where to put the stress. But do not rely on
them too much, because there are many exceptions. It is
better to try to "feel" the music of the language and to add the
stress naturally.

A. Stress on first syllable

rule exampl
es

PRESent
Most 2-syllable EXport
nouns CHIna
TAble

PRESent
Most 2-syllable SLENder
adjectives CLEVer
HAPpy

B. Stress on last syllable

 rule exampl
es

preSENT
Most 2-syllable exPORT
verbs deCIDE
beGIN

There are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning

and class change with a change in stress. The word present,
for example is a two-syllable word. If we stress the first
syllable, it is a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent).
But if we stress the second syllable, it becomes a verb (to
offer). More examples: the
words export, import, contract and object can all be nouns
or verbs depending on whether the stress is on the first or
second syllable.

C. Stress on penultimate syllable (penultimate = second from

end)

rule exampl
es

GRAPHic
Words ending in -ic geoGRAPHic
geoLOGic

teleVIsion
Words ending in - reveLAtion
sion and -tion

For a few words, native English speakers don't always "agree"

on where to put the stress. For example, some people
say teleVIsion and others say TELevision. Another example
is: CONtroversy and conTROversy.

D. Stress on ante-penultimate syllable (ante-penultimate =

third from end)

rule examples

deMOcracy
Words ending in -cy, -ty, - dependaBIlity
phy and -gy phoTOgraphy
geOLogy

CRItical
Words ending in -al geoLOGical

E. Compound words (words with two parts)

rule examples

BLACKbird
For compound nouns, the stress is on GREENhouse
the first part

bad-TEMpered
For compound adjectives, the stress is on old-FASHioned
the second part

underSTAND
For compound verbs, the stress is on overFLOW
the second part

Commonly misspelled English words[1] (UK: misspelt words) are words that are often
unintentionally misspelled in general writing. A selected list of common words is presented below,
under Documented list of common misspellings. Although the word common is subjective depending
on the situation, the focus is on general writing, rather than in a specific field. Accepted spellings
also vary by country or region, with some rejecting the American or British variants as incorrect for
the region.
Documented list of common misspellings[edit]
The following list, of about 350 words, is based on documented lists [4][10] of the top 100, 200, or
400[3] most commonly misspelled words in all variants of the English language, rather than listing
every conceivable misspelled word. Each word is followed by examples of misspellings:

A–B[edit]
 absence – absense, absentse, abcense, absance[3][10]
 acceptable – acceptible[4]
 accidentally/accidently – accidentaly[4]
 accommodate – accomodate, acommodate[3][4]
 achieve – acheive[3]
 acknowledge – acknowlege, aknowledge[3]
 acquaintance – acquaintence, aquaintance[3]
 acquire – aquire, adquire[4]
 acquit – aquit[4]
 acreage – acrage, acerage[3]
 address – adress[3]
 adultery – adultary[3]
 advisable – adviseable, advizable[3]
 affect – effect [3] (both words exist, but are distinct)
 aggression – agression[1]
 aggressive – agressive[1]
 allegiance – allegaince, allegience, alegiance[3]
 almost – allmost[3]
 a lot – alot (must be two words), allot[4]
 amateur – amatuer, amature[4]
 annually – anually, annualy[3]
 apparent – apparant, aparent, apparrent, aparrent[4]
 arctic – artic[3]
 argument – arguement[1][4]
 atheist – athiest, athist[3][4]
 awful – awfull, aweful[3]
 because – becuase[3]
 beautiful – beatiful[3]
 becoming – becomeing[3]
 beginning – begining[3]
 believe – beleive[4]
 bellwether – bellweather[3][4]
 benefit - benifit[3]
 buoy – bouy[3]
 buoyant – bouyant[3]
 business – buisness[1]
C–D[edit]
 calendar – calender[3][4]
 camouflage – camoflage, camoflague[3]
 capitol – capital[3] (both words exist, but are distinct)
 Caribbean – Carribean[3]
 category – catagory[3][4]
 caught – cauhgt, caugt[3]
 cemetery – cemetary,[1] cematery[3]
 changeable – changable[3][4]
 chief – cheif[3]
 colleague – collaegue, collegue[3]
 column – colum[4]
 coming – comming[3]
 committed – commited, comitted[3][4]
 comparison – comparsion
 concede – conceed[3]
 congratulate – congradulate[3]
 conscientious – consciencious[3][4]
 conscious – concious, consious[4]
 consensus – concensus[1][3][4]
 controversy – contraversy[1]
 coolly – cooly[3]
 daiquiri – dacquiri, daquiri[4]
 deceive – decieve[1][3]
 definite – definate,[1] definit[4]
 definitely – definitly,[4] definately, defiantly
 desperate – desparate[1][3]
 difference – diffrence[3]
 dilemma – dilema[3]
 disappoint – dissapoint[1]
 disastrous – disasterous[3]
 drunkenness – drunkeness[4]
 dumbbell – dumbell[4]
E–H[edit]
 embarrass – embarass[1][4]
 equipment – equiptment (wrong in numerous webpages)[4]
 exceed – excede[4]
 exhilarate – exilerate[4]
 existence – existance[4]
 experience – experiance[4]
 extreme – extreem[1]
 fascinating – facinating[1]
 fiery – firey[4]
 fluorescent – flourescent[1]
 foreign – foriegn[4]
 friend – freind[1]
 fulfil – fullfil (American: fulfill)[1]
 gauge – guage[1][4]
 grateful – gratefull, greatful[1][4]
 great – grate, grat[1][4]
 guarantee – garantee, garentee, garanty[1][4][10]
 guidance – guidence[10]
 harass – harrass[1][4]
 height – heighth, heigth[4]
 hierarchy – heirarchy[4]
 hors d'oeuvres – hors derves, ordeurves[3]
 humorous – humerous[4]
 hygiene – hygene, hygine, hiygeine, higeine, hygeine[3]
 hypocrisy/hypocrite – hipocrit[1][3]
I–K[edit]
 ignorance – ignorence[4]
 imitate – immitate[3]
 immediately – imediately[1][4]
 indict – indite[4]
 independent – independant[4][7]
 indispensable – indispensible[4]
 inoculate – innoculate[4]
 intelligence – inteligence, intelligance[4]
 jewelry (UK: jewellery) – jewelery[4]
 judgment – judgement (issue in the U.S.)[4]
 kernel – kernal (distinct from homophone "colonel")[4]
L–O[edit]
 leisure – liesure[4]
 liaison – liason[1][4]
 library – libary, liberry[4]
 license – lisence[4] (US always license, UK noun licence)[1]
 lightning – lightening[4]
 lose – loose[11]
 maintenance – maintainance, maintnance[1]
 marshmallow – marshmellow[1][4]
 medieval – medeval, medevil, mideval[4]
 memento – momento[4]
 millennium – millenium, milennium[1][4]
 miniature – miniture[1][4]
 minuscule – miniscule[1][4]
 mischievous – mischievious, mischevous, mischevious (The spelling "mischievious" and the
corresponding pronunciation are still considered non-standard despite being current and existing
since at least the 16th century.)[4][12]
 misspell – mispell, misspel[1][4]
 necessary – neccessary, necessery[1]
 niece – neice[1]
 neighbour – nieghbor[4]
 noticeable – noticable[4]
 occasion – occassion[1]
 occasionally – occasionaly, occassionally[4]
 occurrence – occurrance, occurence[4]
 occurred – occured[1]
 omission – ommision, omision[1]
 original – orignal[1]
 outrageous – outragous[1]
P–Q[edit]
 parliament – parliment[1]
 pastime – passtime, pasttime[4]
 perceive – percieve[1]
 perseverance – perseverence[4]
 personnel – personell, personel[4]
 plagiarize – plagerize[3]
 playwright – playright, playwrite[4]
 possession – posession, possesion[1][4]
 potatoes – potatos[1]
 precede – preceed[4]
 presence – presance[1]
 principle – principal[4]
 privilege – privelege, priviledge[1][4]
 professor – professer[3]
 protester – protestor[13]
 promise – promiss[10]
 pronunciation – pronounciation[4]
 proof – prufe[10]
 prophecy (as noun) – prophesy (valid as verb)[3]
 publicly – publically[4]
 quarantine – quarentine[3]
 queue – que (from Bar-B-Que)[3]
 questionnaire – questionaire, questionnair[1]
R–S[edit]
 readable – readible[8]
 really – realy[1]
 receive – recieve[1][4]
 receipt – reciept[4]
 recommend – recomend, reccommend[1][4]
 referred – refered[4]
 reference – referance, refrence[4]
 relevant – relevent, revelant[3][4]
 religious – religous, religius[10]
 repetition – repitition[10]
 restaurant – restarant, restaraunt[4]
 rhyme – rime[4]
 rhythm – rythm, rythem[1][4]
 secretary – secratary, secretery[1]
 seize – sieze[1]
 separate – seperate[1][4]
 sergeant – sargent[4]
 similar – similer[1]
 skilful – skilfull (American: skillful)[1]
 speech – speach, speeche (archaic)[10]
 successful – succesful, successfull, sucessful[1]
 supersede – supercede[4]
 surprise – suprise, surprize[1]
T–Z[edit]
 than – then[14]
 their – there, they're[4]
 tomatoes – tomatos[1]
 tomorrow – tommorow, tommorrow[1]
 twelfth – twelth[4]
 tyranny – tyrany[4]
 underrate – underate[4]
 until – untill[4]
 upholstery – upholstry[4]
 usable/useable – usible[9]
 vacuum – vaccuum, vaccum, vacume[4]
 vehicle – vehical[1]
 vicious – visious[1]
 weather – wether, whether[4]
 weird – wierd[1][4]
 welfare – wellfare, welfair[3]
 whether – wether[3]
 wilful – wilfull (American: willful)[1]
 withhold – withold[1]
 writing – writting, writeing[10]

Mother Tongue Influence and Its Impact on Spoken English

The importance of pronunciation in communication cannot be denied.
In fact it is as important as grammar and vocabulary. Yet, the evidence
of mother tongue influence on English is very obvious. This manifests in the
form of incorrect pronunciation.
Pronunciation error may be due to many issues. Guesswork or
vagueness of the correct form of a word or sentence, or a general
ineptness of the language could be the reason of mispronunciation.
The most common reason is transfer or interference from the mother
tongue. Generally, errors made in pronunciation are due to difference
 in the sound system and spelling symbols between the mother tongue
and English.
As a regular practice the teacher is seen as a model for correct
speaking in class. The learners are expected to be introduced to the
pronunciation of words in English by their teacher during the day-to-
day interaction. It is when the teacher her/himself has coloured
pronunciation that the learners are unable to acquire correct skills in
spoken English. The pronunciation samples they are exposed to in
their classroom environment being inappropriate, the learners are
most likely to adopt a similar pronunciation skill.
 Correcting your Pronunciation-Pronunciation is the most important part of
making your English fluent. You need to consciously learn how to
articulate English sounds to improve their pronunciation in English. As
you join a reputed English speaking class, trainer will guide you to correct
mouth movement helping to pronounce words of English. If the trainer
models a sound, then the learner will be assured of articulating certain
sound. As the practice goes on, you will keep correcting your
pronunciation of English.

 Regular Speaking of English words-One of the best ways to work on your

MTI issues is to keep using English words in the actual tone. When you
listen to any word, carefully listen to it on how the word is pronounced
and in the tone. In the initial stage, this could be difficult, but as you keep
talking, you will certainly keep improving on your word usage. It is better
to record the session and listen to what the trainer says and how words
are used.

 Learn correct Intonation and English Rhythm–You know you got a strong
Mother Tongue Influence, and when you speak with wrong intonation and
English rhythm, person will certainly have hard time understanding you.
Therefore, the best way is to correcting your intonation and rhythm. With
the help of English trainer, you can correct your issues by regular
practices. The main thing is to make the person understand on what you
speak.

 Keep Reading-Be it the novel, newspaper or journal, to make your MTI

issue solved, the best is to keep reading, that too in high volume. This will
help you to find new words and using it right way. The best is to record
 what you read and make it listen to your trainer who will guide you. If
there is any correction needed in your pronunciation or tone, the trainer
will correct it.

 Daily English Communication-One of the best ways to make your English

sound fluent and MTI issue solved is to communicate in English daily.
Speak to your colleagues, friends and even to your English learning
partner. Daily communication will help to bring down the MTI effect.
Moreover, it will help you to speak confidently in English.

 Listen and watch English songs and movies–Movies and songs have huge
impact on us. Therefore, when you watch or listen to English movies or
songs, it can affect our communication since we try to imitate the
language. So one way of improving your English fluency and MTI issues
to keep listening to English songs and try singing it. Similarly watch
English movies to know the accent and words. This will have a great
impact on your English fluency.

 Record your own voice for Pronunciation-As you keep practicing, do keep
recording to listen to your pronunciation. This will help you to correct and
know how well you are improving. Make it listen to your trainer and
friends who will review and give feedback. Take this feedback sportingly
and improve on your mistakes.

 Personalized Training-One of the reasons to take up English speaking

course is trainers offer personalized training to learners. Whether taking
up online or offline English training course, you get personalized training
to make your English sound perfect and remove the MTI issue. The
trainer will keenly listen to your words and correct it for perfect
pronunciation.

HOMOPHONES , HOMONYMS, HOMOGRAPHS

HOMOPHONES are each of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different
meanings, origins, or spelling, for example new and knew. The root of that word, homo-,
means “same,” and the root phone- means “sound.” Homophones are two
 words that sound the same, but have different meanings. So the words “two”
and “to” are homophones, as are “ate” and “eight.”
 ate, eight. ate (verb): This is the simple past tense of the verb “to eat.” ...
 bare, bear. bare (adjective): If something is bare, it means that it's not covered or not
decorated. ...
 buy, by, bye. ...
 cell, sell. ...
 dew, do, due. ...
 eye, I. ...
 fairy, ferry. ...
 flour, flower
There’s another word that begins with homo-, which native speakers often confuse with
homophone: homonym. Again, the root homo- means “same,” but –nym means “name.”
A homonym is a single word (with one spelling) that has more than one meaning.
An example of a homonym is the word “bear.” You probably know about the animal called a
“bear,” but the word “bear” can also be a verb that means to tolerate. For example, “I’m so
nervous about watching this game, I can’t bear to watch the last minute!”

Homonym Meaning 1 Meaning 2

address to speak to location
air oxygen a lilting tune or voice
arm body part division of a company
band a musical group a ring
bark a tree's out layer the sound a dog makes
bat an implement used to hit a ball a nocturnal flying mammal
bright very smart or intelligent filled with light
circular taking the form of a circle a store advertisement
current up to date flow of water
die to cease living a cube marked with numbers one through six
express a fast version of something to show your thoughts by using words
fair equitable beautiful
jag a sharp, jutted object a crying spree
kind a type of something caring
lie to recline to tell a falsehood
match to pair like items a stick for making a flame
mean average not nice
a piece of metal that holds a
pole inside front position on the starting line of a race
flag
pound unit of weight to beat
 quarry a site for mining stone to extract or obtain slowly
ream a pile of paper to juice a citrus fruit
ring a band on a finger something circular in shape
right correct direction opposite of left
rock a genre of music a stone
rose to have gotten up a flower
spring a season coiled metal
stalk a part of a plant to follow or harass someone
tender gentle offer of money
tire to grow fatigued a part of a wheel
well in good health a source for water in the ground

HOMOGRAPHS
Homographs are words that have the same spelling but different meanings, whether they’re pronounced the same or
not. Bass (the fish, rhymes with class) and bass (the instrument, rhymes with ace) are homographs. But so
are bark (the sound a dog makes) and bark (the covering of a tree).
 Bear - To endure ; Bear - Animal.
 Close - Connected ; Close - Lock.
 Lean - Thin ; Lean - Rest against.
 Bow - Bend forward ; Bow - Front of a ship.
 Lead - Metal ; Lead - Start off in front.
 Skip - Jump ; Skip - Miss out.
 Fair - Appearance ; Fair - Reasonable.
 Quail - Cower ; Quail - Bird.