History of Ancient India

Lecture-12
By Manikant Singh
 Harappan Civilisation
Debates over the origin of Civilisation:
• E. G. H. Mackey, Gordon and Kramer were
the first ones to theorise the Mesopotamian
origin of Harappan Civilisation. They argued
that the people migrated from the
Mesopotamian region to the Indus Valley
and laid the foundation of this urban
civilisation.
• Later, Mortimer Wheeler also supported this
point of view. Though, he emphasised on the
diffusion of ideas rather than a large scale
migration of people.
• As some sharp difference between the
Mesopotamian and the Harappan Civilisations
emerged on the basis of latest research, the
theory of foreign origin of Harappan
Civilisation has been discredited:
1. There is a fundamental difference in the
seal, script and implements used in both
these civilisations.
2. The Harappan urbanisation was far more
organised than the Mesopotamian one.
3. Bronze tool were far more prevalent in the
Mesopotamian civilisation than the
Harappan one.
 Theory of Local Origin/Gradual
Origin
• It began to be argued that the Harappan
Civilisation organically emerged from
different rural cultures spread over the vast
region in the North-Western part of the
Indian subcontinent.
• Amalanand Ghosh has postulated the
origin of Harappan Culture from the Sothi
Culture of Rajasthan. He came to this
conclusion on the basis of similarities of
potteries of Harappan Civilisation and Sothi
Culture.
• Later, M. R. Mughal took up this
issue. On the basis of his
comprehensive study of the rural
cultures of Cholistan area, he found
them to be the genesis of Harappan
Civilisation. His theory was based,
not only on potteries, but also on a
meticulous assessment of
implements, seal, script, subsistence
pattern etc.
• In the last 8-9 decades, some new sites were
excavated, old ones were excavated - further
and wider, new artefacts were found and old
ones were revaluated. These enterprises have
transformed the normative beliefs about the
origin of Harappan Civilisations. Now, it is
accepted that the roots of Harappan Civilisation
are in the soil of India only. The Harappan
Civilisation is now viewed as the terminal stage
of the gradual evolution of various regional
rural cultures. In a nutshell, the Harappan
Civilisation gradually evolved from the regional
rural cultures lie Kot Diji Culture, Sothi-Siswal
Culture and Amri-Nal Culture.
• If we look at the Harappan sites of
Dholavira from Gujarat, Kunal from
Haryana and Harappa from Pakistani
Punjab, we find that all these three
archaeological sites show a transition
from the early Harappan phase to mature
Harappan phase.
What is the theory of ‘Gradual Evolution’
in the context of emergence of Harappan
Civilisation?
 A brief commentary on the entire
process of gradual evolution:
• The theory of gradual origin proves that the
Harappan Civilisation was not an outcome of
some foreign colonisation of the aforementioned
land, but it emerged out of a series of changes
taking place locally. It posits that the Harappan
Civilisation emerged out of a number of rural
cultures that were spread over a vast area in the
North-Western part of the Indian subcontinent.
• Due to the lack of evidence, especially literary
evidence, there is not complete clarity on how
this gradual evolution took place. But, on the
basis of available archaeological remains and
artefacts, this theory has been constructed.
• As we know, the flood plains of Indus River
Valley were very fertile. Every year, Indus River
brought and deposited alluvium soil on these
plains. Gradually, people living in the area
learnt to use this fertile soil. They also learnt to
channelize the regular flooding in the Indus
River. This ushered in a prosperous agricultural
regime.
• People also learnt to utilise the stone
quarries in the surrounding areas and
started to make sophisticated stone tools.
Therefore, a number of prosperous rural
cultures developed in the north-west
between 5500 BCE and 3200 BCE. E.g.
Rehman Dheri, Gumla, Kila Tarkai,
Jalilpur, Ranaghundia, etc.
• The next phase of material development
is visible in the early Harappan phase
between 3200 BCE to 2600 BCE.
• The most significant technological
development during this period was seen
in the area of agriculture; it was the usage
of plough. A much larger area could be
brought under cultivation with the help of
plough. Initially, manpower went into
drawing it, later, animals were harnessed
for ploughing.
• There was a diversification in the
cultivated crops, and non-food crops were
also produced.
• Various crafts developed as craft specialisation
took place as well. E.g. bronze metal began to be
used. ‘Spindle’ was used for ‘spinning’ and
‘fabric weaving’ also started.
• Wheel turned pottery began to be made. Wheel
was fitted into carts as well. Therefore,
technological advancement accelerated not only
production, but transportation as well.
Therefore, in some strategic areas, such people
started to settle that were concerned only with
non-agrarian activities. Ruler class played a key
role in ensuring food supply to these
communities of craftsmen.
• The ruler class ensured channelization of food
surplus from rural areas to urban areas through
the instrument of taxation. This surplus was
then distributed in the urban population
involved in non-agricultural arts & crafts. In
this way, a complex hierarchical structure
developed.
• For a smoother functioning of administration,
need for a script and a class of administrators
was felt. During the same time, long distance
trade also became significant. A script
developed for the maintenance of
administrative and commercial records.
• Evidences of early Harappan script have been
found from Padri in Gujarat and Harappa
in Punjab.
• It is quite possible that, apart from economic
and political factors, religious factors also
played a role in the emergence of the urban
milieu. It is possible that the rural production
surplus may have been channelized to the urban
areas through religious and ritual based means.
• In this way, emergence of the Harappan
Civilisation was the result of a gradual and
complex development.
Limitations of the ‘Gradual Origin’
theory:
• There are still some missing pieces of
puzzle of ‘the gradual development from
rural cultures to urban civilisation’. It is
because there are those ‘mature’
Harappan sites that do not yield an ‘early’
Harappan occupational layer underneath.
Many urban Harappan sites like Lothal,
Desalpur, Chanhudaro, Ropar, Mitathal
and Alamgirpur etc. do not have an ‘early’
Harappan occupational layer below them.
• Also, the important sites like Harappa
and Mohenjo Daro do have an early
Harappan layer below them. But, there is
some sort of discontinuity between two
successive occupation levels and their
mutual relationship i.e. between the
‘early’ Harappan and ‘mature’ Harappan
phase is not clear.
• Then, there are numerous early
Harappan sites in the Cholistan area. But,
only three of them could evolve into
mature Harappan stage.
• Therefore, it is still not fully answered;
how did some of the early Harappan rural
sites develop into mature Harappan
urban settlements?
• Possibly, it could be explained in the
context of the presence of a competent
authority, social structures and
ideological factors, etc. But, in the
absence of literary sources, this
correlation can’t be fully explained.
 Decisive role in the emergence of
Harappan Civilisation: Technology or
Ideology?
• Which was the most dominant factor behind the
rise of Harappan urban civilisation? This
question has been hotly debated since beginning.
• Scholars like D. K. Chakravarty give primacy to
the fact of craft specialisation in the urbanisation
of Harappan culture. Similarly, scholars like
Gordon Childe consider technological products
like wheel made pottery, plough, boat, etc. as
decisive factors behind the success of Harappan
people.
• On the other hands, some other scholars
consider socio-political factors to be more
important. McAdam and Naudiyon Sojourn are
prominent among them. They believe that
surplus production is not sufficient. For
urbanisation, accumulation of that surplus is
also important and political and social factors
have an important role to play in this
accumulation.
• This debate is not settled and it will remain
unsettled until we are able to read the
Harappan script.
Illustrating the examples of some early
Harappan sites, we can underline their
relationship with the Harappan
Civilisation in the following manner:
• Mundigak in Afghanistan was located on a
trade route. On one side, it was connected with
some Iranian cities and, and on the other, it was
linked to some cities in Baluchistan. Use of
baked bricks and presence of square bastion
point to its contacts with the Harappan culture.
• Usage of soap-stone and lapis lazuli as semi-
precious stones indicates their contacts with the
central Asia and Iran.
• Damb Sadat, in the Quetta valley, is located
south-east of Mundigak. It also gives evidence
of its relations with the Harappan Culture.
Remains of large brick houses belonging to c.
3000 BCE have been unearthed from here.
Baked seals and bronze artefacts have been
discovered from here.
• Similarly, Balakot, in the south-central
Baluchistan, demonstrates the unique
characteristics of Harappan Culture. Remains
of a large building have been excavated here.
This site was quite likely linked to the Persian
Gulf areas.
• Amri is a site in the Indus valley that
prepared the basis of the mature Harappan
stage. Remains of stone and brick houses,
granary, etc. have been recovered from here.
Figures of humped bull have been
discovered.
• Undisputed evidence of early Harappan
stage discovered from Kalibanga in
Rajasthan show a clear transition into the
latter mature Harappan stage. Evidence of a
furrowed field has been found from
Kalibanga, which clearly proves the use of
plough.
 End
Lecture-12

-Manikant Singh