CHAPTER

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ELECTRIC CURRENT OHM’S LAW
The rate of flow of electric charge across any cross- V
I= 1 l rl 1
section is called electric current. where R = = where r (resistivity) =
R sA A s
dq Hence according to Ohm’s law when R is constant
(a) Instantaneous electric current I = I µ V Þ I ~V curve is a straight line (at constant
dt
temperature)
Dq • Resistance of a conductor is given by
(b) Average electric current Iav =
Dt rl ml
R= =
Current Density A ne2 tA
Current flowing per unit area through any cross- where r is resistivity. Its units is W m.
section is called current density.
m
• Resistivity of a conductor, r = (where m is
ne2 t
mass of electron, n is number density of free
electrons, t is average relaxation time).
I A l
I Variation with length: R = r
J= A
A
(a) If a wire is cut to alter its length, then area
remains same. \Rµl
(b) If a wire is stretched or drawn out or folded, area
r r
I = J.A = JA cos q varies but volume remains constant. Þ R µ l2
For small percentage changes (< 5%) in length
Drift Velocity
Average velocity with which electrons drift from by stretching or folding, then, DR = 2Dl
low potential end to high potential end of the R l
conductor (v d ). Drift velocity is given by Variation with area of cross-section or
thickness
r et r
v d = - E (in terms of applied electric field) (a) If area is increased / decreased but length is kept
m
same.
I 1 1
Vd = (in terms of current through the \ Rµ or R µ 2 (r = radius / thickness)
neA A r
conductor) From second relation (b) If area is increased/decreased but volume
I = neAvd where A is the area of cross-section remains same.
and “Avd” represents the rate of flow. 1 1
Rµ or R µ 4
vd A2 r
The term is called mobility of charge For Conductors :
E
rt = r0(1+at), where ‘a’ is temperature.
v d et
carriers, represented by m = = . Coefficient of resistivity.
E m
As R µ r Þ R = R0(1 + at)
(here t ® mean relaxation time depends on (R0 is the resistance at reference temperature)
1 At temperature t1, R1 = R0 (1 + at1)
temperature t µ , T ® absolute temperature
T At temperature t2, R2 = R0 (1 + at2)
of the conductor) R 2 - R1 R - R1
Þ a= , R0 = 2
R 0 (t2 - t1 ) a (t2 - t1 )
COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Resistance in series 1. Junction Rule :
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ................ + Rn and It is based on conservation of charge.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ................ + Vn .

R1 R2 R3
I1
I

I2
V1 V2 V3
I = I1 + I2
V
2. Loop Rule :
Þ For any closed loop, total rise in potential + total
Rnet = R1 + R2 + R3 fall in potential = 0.
Þ V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
R
+V – iR = 0
Resistance In Parallel : i
Effective resistance (R) then V
1 1 1 1 1 It is based on conservation of energy.
= + + + .......... +
R R1 R 2 R 3 Rn Cell
R1 • EMF (E) : The potential difference across the
I1 R2 terminals of a practical cell when no current is
I
R3 being drawn from it.
• Internal Resistance (r) : The opposition of flow
In Rn
of current inside the cell. It depends on
(i) Distance between electrodes ­ Þ r­
V
(ii) Area of electrodes ­ Þ r¯
R1R 2 (iii) Concentration of electrolyte ­ Þ r­
For two resistance R = (iv) Temperature ­ Þ r¯
R1 + R 2
Series grouping :

8 7
E1 E2 E3
+ – r1 + – r2 + – r3 n cells

5 6
i

4 3 R
1 2
(a) Eequivalent = E1 + E2 + E3 + ....... En
(a) Resistance between two nearer corners (b) requivalent = r1 + r2 + r3 + ...... rn
7
R12 = r 12C
C 12 = (c) Current i =
åE i
12 7 år + R
i
(b) Resistance across face diagonal
(d) If all cells have equal emf E and equal internal
3 4C
R13 = r C 13 = nE
4 3 resistance r then i =
nr + R
(c) Resistance across main diagonal
Cases :
5 6C
R17 = r C 17 = E nE
6 5 (i) If nr >> R Þ i = (ii) If nr << R Þ i =
r R
Parallel Grouping : Mixed combination
Total number of identical cell in this circuit is nm. If n cells
connected in a series and there are m such branches in
E1 r1 the circuit than the internal resistance of the cells connected
in a row = nr
E2 r2
E r E r E r
E3 r3
E r E r E r

n cell
i E E E r
r r

R
R

Total internal resistance of the circuit 1 = 1 + 1 +

rnet nr nr
E1 E 2 E 3
+ + + ...... ....upto m turns
r r2 r3
(a) E equivalent = 1
1 1 1 nr
+ + + ........ (Q There are such m rows) rnet =
r1 r2 r3 m
Total e.m.f. of the circuit = total e.m.f. of the cells
1 connected in a row ET = nE
(b) requivalent =
1 1 1 E net nE
+ + + ...... I= =
r1 r2 r3 R + rnet nr
R+
m
(c) If all cells have equal emf. E and internal
resistance r then Eequivalent = E Current in the circuit is maximum when external resistance
in the circuit is equal to the total internal resistance of the
r E
requivalent = Þ current i = nr
n r
+R cells R =
n m

WHEAT STONE BRIDGE

When current through the galvanometer is zero (null

P R
point or balance point) = . C
Q S
P Q
When PS > QR, VC < VD & PS < QR, VC > VD
A B
G
or PS = QR Þ products of opposite arms are equal.
R S
Potential difference between C & D at null point is
D
zero . The null point is not affected by resistance
E R
of G & E. It is not affected even if the positions of G

& E are interchanged.

Metre Bridge Applications of potentiometer :
At balance condition :
E1 l1
(i) Comparision of emfs of two cells =
P R
= Þ
l R
= ÞS=
(100 - l ) R E2 l2
Q S (100 - l) S l

S
RB A
J J'
B
D E1

G 1
Q 2
P J 3 G
B
A C E2

(ii) Internal Resistance of a given primary cell

Potentiometer : æ l - l2 ö
r =ç 1 R
A potentiometer is a linear conductor of uniform è l 2 ÷ø
cross-section with a steady current set up in it.
This maintains a uniform potential gradient along
the length of the wire . Any potential difference
which is less than the potential difference
Rh
maintained across the potentiometer wire can be
measured using this .
J' J
A B
Circuits of potentiometer :
E

R G
Rh(0 –R) R.B.
E r K
primary circuit
L
A B (iii) Comparision of two resistances
secondary circuit wire

G E'<E R1 l
E' = 1
R1 + R 2 l 2

current ´ resistance of
V potentiometer wire æ Rö
x= = = Iç ÷
L length of potentiometer wire èLø J
A B
G

1 2

I R1 R2
V
Galvanometer : Power consumed by a resistor
An instrument used to measure strength of current V2
by measuring the diflection of me coil due to P = I2R = VI =
R
torque produced by a magnetic field.
T µi µq Heating Effect Of Electric Current :
A glavanometer can be converted into ammeter When a current is passed through a resistor energy
& voltmeter of varied scale as below. is wasted in over coming the resistances of the wire.
This energy is converted into heat
Ammeter :
It is a modified form of suspended coil V2
W = VIt = I2 Rt = t
galvanometer, it is used to measure current. A R
shunt (small resistance) is connected in parallel Joules Law Of Electrical Heating :
with galvanometer to convert into ammeter . The heat generated (in joules) when a current of I
ampere flows through a resistance of R ohm for
Ig T second is given by :
Rg
I2 RT
H = I2 RT joule = calories.
I gR g 4.2
S=
I - Ig If current is variable passing through the conductor
IS S then we use for heat produced in resistance in time
T

0 to T is: H = ò I2Rdt
where 0

Rg = galvanometer resistance
Unit Of Electrical Energy Consumption :
Ig = Maximum current that can flow through the
1 unit of electrical energy
galvanometer .
= kilowatt hour
I = Maximum current that can be measured using
the given ammeter . = 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 joules.
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance. w Series combination of Bulbs

Voltmeter : 1
=
1
+
1
+
1
+ ....
A high resistance is put in series with Ptotal P1 P2 P3
galvanometer. It is used to measure potential
difference.
Vo P1,V P2,V P3,V Pn,V
Ig =
R g + R ; R ® ¥ , Ideal voltmeter

V
Ig R
Rg
w Parallel combination of Bulbs
V0 Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3+...

Electrical Power : P1,V

The energy liberated per second in a device is
called its power. The electrical power P delivered P2,V
by an electrical device is given by P = VI, where
P3,V
V = potential difference across device & I =
current. If the current enters the higher potential Pn,V
point of the device then power is consumed by it
(i.e. acts as load) . If the current enters the lower V
potential point then the device supplies power
(i.e. acts as source).
 KEY POINTS
• A current flows through a conductor only when there is an electric field within the conductor because the
drift velocity of electrons is directly proportional to the applied electric field.
• Electric field outside the conducting wire which carries a constant current is zero because net charge on a
current carrying conductor is zero.
• A metal has a resistance and gets often heated by flow of current because when free electrons drift through
a metal, they make occasional collisions with the lattice. These collisions are inelastic and transfer energy
to the lattice as internal energy.
• Ohm's law holds only for small current in metallic wire, not for high currents because resistance increased
with increase in temperature.
• Potentiometer is an ideal instrument to measure the potential difference because potential gradient along
the potentiometer wire can be made very small.
• An ammeter is always connected in series whereas a voltmeter is connected in parallel because an ammeter
is a low-resistance galvanometer while a voltmeter is a high-resistance galvanometer.
• Current is passed through a metallic wires, heating it red, when cold water is poured over half of the
portion, rest of the portion becomes more hot because resistance decreases due to decrease in temperature
so current through wire increases.