MODULE 1

Basic Concepts of Electrical Circuits

Unit 1: Electrical Ideas and Units

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Discuss the basic electrical ideas and units.

References:

Admin. (2019, November 07). Electromotive Force - Definition, Formula, Unit, Difference. Retrieved August 01,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/electromotive-force/

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2 nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

ENGAGE

What is Electricity?

Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through simple materials and devices" or "that
force which moves electrons." Scientists think electricity is produced by very tiny particles
called electrons and protons. These particles are too small to be seen, but exist as subatomic
particles in the atom. To understand how they exist, you must first understand the structure
of the atom.

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16
 The Atom

The atom is the smallest particle to which

an element can be reduced while still
keeping the properties of that element

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged

electrons, so that the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

The nucleus is composed of two kinds of subatomic particles: protons and neutrons

➢ The proton carries a single unit positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron
charge.

➢ The neutron is slightly heavier than the proton and is electrically neutral, as the name
implies.

The Carbon Atom

Example:

The carbon atom contains six protons in its

nucleus; therefore, the atomic number for
carbon is six.

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17
 Electrostatic Force
The attraction of electrons and neutrons are called electrostatic force. Without this
electrostatic force, the electron, which is traveling at high speed, could not stay in its orbit.
Bodies that attract each other in this way are called charged bodies.

The first law of Electrostatic Force

The negative charge of the electron is equal, but opposite to, the positive charge of the
proton. These charges are referred to as electrostatic charges. In nature, unlike charges
(like electrons and protons) attract each other, and like charges repel each other. These
facts are known as the First Law of Electrostatics and are sometimes referred to as the law
of electrical charges.

Electrostatic Force
A special force is acting between the charged objects. Forces of this type are the result of
an electrostatic field that exists around each charged particle or object. This electrostatic
field, and the force it creates, can be illustrated with lines called "lines of force" as shown
below.

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18
 Electrostatic field between two charges of
opposite polarity.

Electrostatic field between two charges of

like polarity.

The sum of the potential differences of all charged particles in the electrostatic field is
referred to as electromotive force (EMF).

Potential difference between two charged

objects

Electrons
 Electrons are subatomic particles of an atom

 The electrons carry a negative electrostatic charge

 Under certain conditions electrons move from atom to atom.

 The direction of movement between atoms is random unless a force causes the
electrons to move in one direction.

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19
 EXPLORE

Read Chapter 1: Basic concepts: system of units, basic quantities, and circuits elements
(Page 1-8)

Reference:
Irwin & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

EXPLAIN

Electrical Circuits

An electrical circuit is a path or line through which an electrical current flows (as
shown below). The path may be closed (joined at both ends), making it a loop. A
closed circuit makes electrical current flow possible. It may also be an
open circuit where the electron flow is cut short because the path is broken. It also
includes several sources, resistors and other circuit elements such as capacitor,
transformers and motors interconnected in a network.Source: ESchooltoday. (n.d.). Retrieved July
31, 2020, from https://eschooltoday.com/science/electricity/what-is-an-electrical-circuit.html)

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 Source: https://www.elprocus.com/basic-electrical-circuits-and-their-working-for-electrical-engineers/

Electrical Properties

What are the Electrical Properties of

Materials?

✓ Electrical properties are the

physical conditions that allow
an electrical charge to move from
atom to atom in a specific
material.

✓ These properties differ greatly

between the three major types
of materials: solids, liquids and
Electrical conductors are materials that allow gases.
electricity to flow through them easily. Most
metals are good conductors.

Source: Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

Electrical Charge and Electric Current

The magnitude of the charge is commonly given in coulombs, and for each negatively
charge electron it is 1.59𝑥10−19 coulomb.

Electric Charge – a body is said to be charge, if it has either excess or deficit of electrons
from its normal values due to sharing.

𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 (𝑪) = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖

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21
 Electric Current – the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit.

𝑸 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
𝑰= =
𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
where 𝑰 = current, ampere;
𝑸 = charge, coulombs;
𝒕 = time, second, during which electrons move

If the current in amperes is constant, charge in coulombs is transferred at a constant rate;

under this condition the total transferred charge is merely equal to the product of amperes
and seconds, whence 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕.

For a nonuniform current, on the other hand, the transferred charge will vary with current
changes; in such cases the electron motion will be constant only during such short intervals
as the current is steady.

Source:
Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Graph illustrating variations of current with time.
The shaded area is the electric charge for time 𝒕𝒙 .

The equation represented by lower-case symbols for coulombs and amperes,

𝒒 = 𝒊𝒕

the quantity 𝒒 is an area, 𝒊 is plotted along vertical axis(ordinate), and 𝒕 is plotted along
horizontal axis(abscissa).

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 Example 1.

The current in a conductor changes uniformly from zero to 2 ampere in 3 seconds, remains
steady at 2 amperes for 6 seconds, and then drops uniformly to 1.5 amperes in 8 seconds.
Calculate the total amount of charge transferred in the elapsed time of 17 seconds.

Solutions:

A3

A2 A4
A1
𝒊, 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔
3seconds 6seconds 8seconds
17
𝒕, 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

𝟏 𝟏
𝑨𝟏 = (𝟑)(𝟐) = 𝟑 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑨𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟓)(𝟖) = 𝟐 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟐 𝟐

𝑨𝟐 = (𝟔)(𝟐) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑨𝟒 = (𝟖)(𝟏. 𝟓) = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝒒 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟑 + 𝑨𝟒 = 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟗 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔

Example 2.

A positively charged dielectric has a charge of 2 coulombs. If 12.5𝑥1018 free electrons are
added to it, what will be the net charge on the said dielectric?

Solution:
𝑄1 = +2𝐶
1𝐶
𝑄2 = −12.5𝑥1018 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠)𝑥 = −2𝐶
6.28𝑥1018 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐 + (−𝟐) = 𝟎 𝑪

Electron Velocity in Conductors

Although all the free electrons in a conductor begin moving almost instantaneously upon
the application of an electric pressure, their actual velocity, or drift, is exceedingly slow; this,
as will presently be shown, depends only upon the current density in the given conductor,
i.e., the number of amperes per unit of cross-sectional area.
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23
 Velocity of electrons in inches per second is equal to the ratio of electrons per second to
electrons per inch:

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

𝑣= = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ

Considering a copper conductor having a cross-sectional area of 𝐴 sq. inches and carrying
a constant current of 𝑰 ampere. Since there are 6.28𝑥1018 electrons per coulomb, and 1 amp
of current involves a motion of 1 coulomb per sec, it follows that 6.28𝑥1018 𝑥 𝐼 electrons are
moved per second. Furthermore, 1 inches of conductor length contains 𝐴 – cubic inch., and
each cubic inch of copper has 1.64𝑥1024 free electrons; this means, therefore, that there are
1.64𝑥1024 𝑥 𝐴 electrons in each inch of conductor length.

The general expression,

6.28𝑥1018 𝑥 𝐼 𝐼
𝑣= 24 = 3.83𝑥10−6 [ ]
1.64𝑥10 𝑥 𝐴 𝐴

The quantity 𝐼/𝐴 in the bracket is the current density in the conductor, and this is
conveniently replaced by Δ, which is specified in amperes per square inch of cross-
sectional area; therefore, the equation for electron velocity becomes

𝑣 = 3.83𝑥10−6 ∆

→ cannot be applied to conductor materials other than coper, since copper wire was
assumed in its derivation
→ the constant 3.83𝑥10−6 will not be the same for all substances

The constant is, therefore, proportional to resistivity, a term that represent opposition to
current (transfer of charge) in a given material unit dimensions.

Example 3.

A No. 12 copper wire, common to house-wiring installations, has a cross-sectional area of

0.00513 sq. in. Calculate the electron velocity when the conductor current is 15 amperes.

Solution:

𝐼 15
∆= = = 2923.976608 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞 𝑖𝑛.
𝐴 0.00513

𝒗 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒙 ∆= 𝟑. 𝟖𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒙 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒊𝒏. 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄.

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24
 Electromotive Force (EMF)

Electromotive force is defined as the electric potential produced by either electrochemical

cell or by changing the magnetic field. EMF is the commonly used acronym for
electromotive force.

When an emf is applied to the ends of a conductor it is proper to refer to the existence of a
potential difference between such ends; also, since increments of emf are required for
successive increments of conductor, it is customary to regard a potential difference as a
drop in potential along the length of the conductor. Still another term, more commonly used
than those already given, is voltage; it too suggests the existence of force that tends to
create a current.

The unit for electromotive force is Volt.

EMF is numerically expressed as the number of Joules of energy given by the source divided
by each Coulomb to enable a unit electric charge to move across the circuit.

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 =
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠

EMF is given as the ratio of work done on a unit charge which is represented as follows:

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝑀𝐹 =
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠

Potential Difference – The amount of energy per unit charge needed to move a charged
particle from a reference point to a designated point in a static electric field.

𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆

𝒗=
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃

Electrical Resistance and Resistivity

The magnitude of the current passing through a conducting material depends not only upon
the impressed emf but on the properties of the conductor as well. Since electrical
conductivity varies with the different materials it is therefore proper and convenient to
assume that all substances possess a reciprocal property, i.e., a tendency to oppose
current.

The electrical resistance, 𝑹, is an electrical quantity that measures how the device or
material reduces the electric current flow through it. The resistance is measured in units
of ohms (Ω).

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25
 The unit of resistance is the international ohm and is defined as the resistance at zero
degrees centigrade of a column of mercury of uniform cross section, having a length of
106.3 centimeters and a mass of 14.4521 grams.

The factors that could affect resistance are the following:

1. Length (𝒍)

𝑹 ∝𝒍

2. Cross-sectional Area (𝐴𝒍)

𝟏
𝑨 ∝
𝑹

3. Type of Material

*Specific resistance/resistivity (ρ) – an intrinsic property of a material that is

measured as its resistance to current per unit length for a uniform cross section

𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝒍 − 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜋
𝑨 − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 1𝐶𝑀 = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝝆 − 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
4𝑥106
4𝑥106
1 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = 𝐶𝑀
𝜋

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26
 Resistivities of Common Elements and Alloys @ 20 oC
ELEMENTS ALLOYS
Silver 9.9 Brass 42
Copper, annealed 10.37 German Silver 199
Copper, hard-drawn 10.65 Manganin 265
Gold, pure 14 Lucero 280
Aluminum 17 Advance 294
Magnesium 28 Constantan 302
Tungsten 33 Excello 550
Zinc 36 Nichrome 600
Nickel 47 Nichrome II 660
Iron, cast 54 Chromel 625-655
Platinum 60
Iron, commercial 75
Lead 132
Mercury 577

4. Temperature

𝑹 ∝𝑻 𝑻 ∝𝑹

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑻+𝒕 𝟏
= 𝟏 + 𝜶𝟏 (𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 ) = 𝑻+𝒕𝟐 𝜶𝒕 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝟏 𝑻+𝒕

where:
𝑹𝟏 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝟐 − 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒕𝟏 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑻 − 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝜶 − 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑. 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

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27
 Temperature Coefficient , α
Material
(@ 20 oC)
Nickel 0.006
Iron , commercial 0.0055
Tungsten 0.0045
Copper, annealed 0.00393
Aluminum 0.0039
Lead 0.0039
Copper , hard-drawn 0.00382
Silver 0.0038
Zinc 0.0037
Gold , pure 0.0034
Platinum 0.003
Brass 0.002
Nichrome 0.00044
German Silver 0.0004
Nichrome II 0.00016
Manganin 0.00003
Advance 0.000018
Constantan 0.000008

Electrical Conductivity - is used to specify the electrical character of a material. It is simply

the reciprocal of the resistivity.
𝟏
𝝈=
𝝆

Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity

The conductivity of most materials decreases as temperature increases. Alternately, the

resistivity of most material increases with increasing temperature.

𝝆𝟐 = 𝝆𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝒂(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )]

Where: ρ1 = resistivity at initial temperature T1

ρ2 = resistivity measured at temperature T2
a = Temperature Coefficient
T1 = Initial temperature
T2 = Final or new temperature

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28
 Example 4.

Calculate the number of free electrons in a copper conductor having a diameter of 0.064
inches and a length of 1000 ft.

Copper are excellent conductors because it has 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 electrons per cubic inch.

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(0.064)2
𝐴= = = 3.216990877𝑥10−3 𝑠𝑞 𝑖𝑛.
4 4

12𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑥𝑙 = 3.216990877𝑥10−3 𝑠𝑞 𝑖𝑛. 𝑥 (1000𝑓𝑡 𝑥 ) = 38.60389053 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
1𝑓𝑡

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 38.60389053 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
= 𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟒𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓

Example 5.

A coil of copper wire has a length of 600 ft. What is the length of an aluminum conductor, if
its cross sectional area and resistance are the same as those of the copper coil?

Solution:
Copper Aluminum
Length, 𝒍 𝑙𝐶𝑢 =600 ft. 𝑙𝐴𝑙 =Unknown (?)
Cross sectional Area, 𝑨 𝑨𝑪𝒖 = 𝑨𝑨𝒍
Resistance 𝑹𝑪𝒖 = 𝑹𝑨𝒍
Resistivity (Refer to Table) 10.37 17

𝑹𝑪𝒖 𝑨𝑪𝒖 = 𝑹𝑨𝒍 𝑨𝑨𝒍

𝝆𝑪𝒖 ∙ 𝒍𝑪𝒖 = 𝝆𝑨𝒍 ∙ 𝒍𝑨𝒍
(𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟕)(𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕) = (𝟏𝟕)( 𝒍𝑨𝒍 )

(𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟕)(𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕)
𝒍𝑨𝒍 = = 𝟑𝟔𝟔𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕
𝟏𝟕

Example 6.

A 50 meters conductor has a cross sectional area of 1.5mm2 and resistance of 15 Ω.

Calculate the conductivity.

Solutions:
𝒍 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓 Ω

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 𝝆𝒍 𝑨𝑹
𝑹= ; 𝑨𝑹 = 𝝆𝒍; 𝝆 =
𝑨 𝒍
𝟐 𝟏𝒄𝒎 𝟐 𝟏𝒎 𝟐
[𝟏. 𝟓𝒎𝒎 𝒙 ( ) 𝒙( ) ] 𝒙 𝟏𝟓Ω
𝑨𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝝆= = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎 ∙ Ω
𝒍 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
𝝈= = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔/𝒎 ∙ Ω = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑴/𝒎 ∙ Ω
𝝆 𝟒. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕𝒎 ∙ Ω

Example 7.

The resistance of a wire is 126.40 Ω at 100ºC and 100 Ω at 30ºC. Determine the temperature
coefficient of copper at:
a.) 0ºC
b.) 30ºC
c.) 100ºC

Solutions:
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 Ω
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Ω
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
𝑻 − 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝜶 − 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑. 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

a.) 0ºC

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
= ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

𝟏 𝟏
𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = = = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟕𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /°𝑪
𝑻 + 𝒕 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪 + 𝟎°𝑪

b.) 30ºC

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏
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30
 𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
= ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

𝟏 𝟏
𝜶𝟑𝟎°𝑪 = = = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /°𝑪
𝑻 + 𝒕 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪

c.) 100ºC

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟑𝟎°𝑪
= ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪
𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟎Ω 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

𝟏 𝟏
𝜶𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪 = = = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖𝟑𝟕𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑/°𝑪
𝑻 + 𝒕 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟐°𝑪 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪

Example 8.

The field winding of a series motor has a resistance of 120 Ω at 15ºC. After running for 2 hours
the resistance increased by 20Ω. If the temperature coefficient of the winding at 0ºC is 0.004,
find the temperature increased.

Solutions:
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 Ω after 2 hours 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎Ω + 𝟐𝟎 Ω = 𝟏𝟒𝟎Ω (resistance increased by 20Ω)
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓°𝑪
𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 (temperature coefficient)
𝒕𝟐 =?
𝟏
𝜶𝒕 =
𝑻+𝒕
𝟏
𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = ; 𝜶𝟎°𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝑻+𝟎℃
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 = ; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ (computed absolute value)
𝑻+𝟎℃

𝑹𝟐 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒕𝟏
𝟏𝟒𝟎Ω 𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ + 𝒕𝟐
= ; 𝒕 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕℃
𝟏𝟐𝟎Ω 𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ + 𝟏𝟓℃ 𝟐

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31
 Example 9.

The substation bus bar is made up of 2 inches round copper bars of 20 ft. long. What is the
resistance of each bar if resistivity is 1.724 x10-6 Ω-cm?

𝝆𝒍
𝑹= ; 𝑹 =?
𝑨

𝜋(2𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ)2 2.54𝑐𝑚 2
𝐴= 𝑥( ) = 20.26829916 𝑐𝑚2
4 1𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ

12𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 2.54𝑐𝑚.
𝑙 = 20𝑓𝑡. 𝑥 𝑥 = 609.6 𝑐𝑚
1𝑓𝑡 1𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ.

𝜌 = 1.724𝑥10−6 Ω − 𝑐𝑚

𝝆𝒍 (1.724𝑥10−6 Ω − 𝑐𝑚)(609.6 𝑐𝑚)

𝑹= = = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓Ω = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟔𝝁Ω
𝑨 20.26829916 𝑐𝑚2

Kinds of Current

1. Direct Current (DC)

- Charge flows in only one direction
- e.g. batteries

2. Alternating Current (AC)

- electrons in the circuit are first moved in one direction and then in the opposite
direction, constantly alternating back and forth about relatively fixed position
- e.g. radio, TV, refrigerator, printer

Direct Current vs. Alternating Current

Symbol for AC
Symbol for
Source
Battery

Symbol for
Resistor

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 Source: https://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/AC/AC_1.html

The difference between AC and DC mainly includes the following

Source: https://www.elprocus.com/main-difference-between-ac-and-dc-currents/
ELABORATE

Watch the following video on YouTube: Into The Ordinary. (2017, November 24). What is
electricity? – Electricity Explained – (1) [Video]. Youtube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ru032Mfsfig

EVALUATE
Graded activity/assignment will be given. (Google Classroom)

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