EEE 1104

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS 1

LECTURE – 3
SIMPLE RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Burak Özbey
Resistive Circuits: Sources
• We have now learned about Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s laws. In Chapter 2
we used these tools in solving simple circuits.
• In this chapter we continue applying these tools, but on more complex
circuits. The greater complexity lies in a greater number of elements with
more complicated interconnections. This chapter focuses on reducing such
circuits into simpler, equivalent circuits.
• The sources in the circuits discussed in this chapter are limited to voltage
and current sources that generate either constant voltages or currents;
that is, voltages and currents that are invariant with time. Constant sources
are often called dc sources. The dc stands for direct current, a description
that has a historical basis but can seem misleading now. Historically, a direct
current was defined as a current produced by a constant voltage. Therefore,
a constant voltage became known as a direct current, or dc, voltage.
2
Resistors in Series
• In Chapter 2, we said that when just two elements connect at a single node,
they are said to be in series. Series-connected circuit elements carry the
same current.
• The resistors in the circuit shown below are connected in series.

• We can show that these resistors carry the same current by applying
Kirchhoff’s current law to each node in the circuit. The series interconnection
in the figure above requires that
3
Resistors in Series
• So, if we know any one of the seven currents, we know them all. Thus we can
replace the 7 currents with a single one 𝑖𝑠 .
• To find 𝑖𝑠 , we apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the single closed loop. Defining
the voltage across each resistor as a drop in the direction of 𝑖𝑠 gives
or

• The significance of the second equation is that the seven resistors can be replaced
by a single resistor whose numerical value is the sum of the individual resistors, that
is,

• Then,

4
Resistors in Series
• We can redraw the figure as
• In general, if k resistors are connected in series, the equivalent
single resistor has a resistance equal to the sum of the k
resistances, or

• In series connection, the resistance of the equivalent resistor is always larger than
that of the largest resistor.
• Another way to think about this concept of an equivalent resistance is to visualize
the string of resistors as being inside a black box. Determining whether the box
contains k resistors or a single equivalent resistor is impossible.

5
Resistors in Parallel
• When two elements connect at a single node pair, they are said to be in parallel.
• Parallel-connected circuit elements have the same voltage across their terminals.
The circuit shown below illustrates resistors connected in parallel.

• Don't make the mistake of assuming that two elements are parallel connected
merely because they are lined up in parallel in a circuit diagram. The defining
characteristic of parallel-connected elements is that they have the same voltage
across their terminals.
• In the figure, you can see that R1 and R3 are not
parallel connected because, between their respective
terminals, another resistor dissipates some of the
voltage.
6
Resistors in Parallel
• Resistors in parallel can be reduced to a single equivalent resistor using Kirchhoff’s
current law and Ohm's law, as we now demonstrate.
• In the circuit shown above, we let the currents 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 and 𝑖4 be the currents in the
resistors 𝑅1 through 𝑅4 , respectively. We also let the positive reference direction
for each resistor current be down through the resistor, that is, from node a to node
b. From Kirchhoff’s current law,
(*)
• The parallel connection of the resistors means that the voltage across each resistor
must be the same. Hence, from Ohm's law,

• Therefore,

7
Resistors in Parallel
• Substituting these into Equation (*) yields

from which

• Thus, the four resistors in the circuit shown in the first figure can be replaced by a
single equivalent resistor. The circuit shown below illustrates the substitution.

• For k resistors connected in parallel, Eq. above becomes

8
Resistors in Parallel
• Note that the resistance of the equivalent resistor is always smaller than the
resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel connection. Sometimes, using
conductance when dealing with resistors connected in parallel is more convenient.
In that case, Eq. above becomes

• Thus, the four resistors in the circuit shown in the first figure can be replaced by a
single equivalent resistor. The circuit shown below illustrates the substitution.
• Many times only two resistors are connected in parallel. For such a case, we
calculate the equivalent resistance as

• Thus for just two resistors in parallel the equivalent resistance equals the product of
the resistances divided by the sum of the resistances. Remember that you can only
9
use this result in the special case of just two resistors in parallel.
Example # 1:

Solution:

10
Example # 1:

11
Example # 2:

Solution:

12
Example # 2:

13
Example # 2:

14
The Voltage-Divider Circuit
• At times—especially in electronic circuits—developing more than one voltage level
from a single voltage supply is necessary. One way of doing this is by using a
voltage-divider circuit, such as the one in Fig. below.

• We analyze this circuit by directly applying Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s laws. From
Kirchhoff’s current law, 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 carry the same current. Applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law around the closed loop yields

15
The Voltage-Divider Circuit
• Now we can use Ohm's law to calculate 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 :

(Eq. 3.22)

• These equations show that 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are fractions of 𝑣𝑠 . Each fraction is the ratio
of the resistance across which the divided voltage is defined to the sum of the two
resistances. Because this ratio is always less than 1.0, the divided voltages 𝑣1 and
𝑣2 are always less than the source voltage 𝑣𝑠 .
• If you desire a particular value of 𝑣2, and 𝑣𝑠 is specified, an infinite number of
combinations of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 yield the proper ratio. For example, suppose that 𝑣𝑠
equals 15 V and 𝑣2 is to be 5 V. Then 𝑣2/𝑣𝑠 = 1/3 and, from Eq. 3.22, we find
that this ratio is satisfied whenever 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 /2.

16
The Voltage-Divider Circuit
• Other factors that may enter into the selection of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 include the power
losses that occur in dividing the source voltage and the effects of connecting the
voltage-divider circuit to other circuit components (loading effects).
• Consider connecting a resistor 𝑅𝐿 in parallel with 𝑅2 , as shown below.

• The resistor 𝑅𝐿 acts as a load on the voltage-divider circuit. A load on any circuit
consists of one or more circuit elements that draw power from the circuit. With the
load 𝑅𝐿 connected, the expression for the output voltage becomes

17
The Voltage-Divider Circuit
• Substituting 𝑅𝑒𝑞 into equation of 𝑣𝑠 , we get

(Eq. 3.25)

• Note that Eq. 3.25 reduces to Eq. 3.22 as 𝑅𝐿 → ∞, as it should. Equation 3.25
shows that, as long as 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅2, the voltage ratio 𝑣𝑜 /𝑣𝑠 is essentially undisturbed
by the addition of the load on the divider.
• Another characteristic of the voltage-divider circuit of interest is the sensitivity of the
divider to the tolerances of the resistors. By tolerance we mean a range of possible
values. The resistances of commercially available resistors always vary within some
percentage of their stated value.
• The upcoming example illustrates the effect of resistor tolerances in a voltage-
divider circuit.

18
Example # 3:

Solution:

19
The Current-Divider Circuit
• The current-divider circuit shown below consists of two resistors connected in
parallel across a current source.

• The current divider is designed to divide the current 𝑖𝑠 between 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . We find
the relationship between the current 𝑖𝑠 and the current in each resistor (that is, 𝑖1
and 𝑖2 ) by directly applying Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s current law. The voltage
across the parallel resistors is

• Here,

20
Example # 4:

Solution:

21
Voltage Division and Current Division
• We can now generalize the results from analyzing the voltage divider circuit and the
current-divider circuit. The generalizations will yield two additional and very useful
circuit analysis techniques known as voltage division and current division.
• Consider the circuit shown below.

• The box on the left can contain a single voltage source or any other combination of
basic circuit elements that results in the voltage v shown in the figure. To the right of
the box are n resistors connected in series. We are interested in finding the voltage
drop 𝑣𝑖 across an arbitrary resistor 𝑅𝑖 in terms of the voltage v. 22
Voltage Division and Current Division
• We start by using Ohm's law to calculate i, the current through all of the resistors in
series, in terms of v and the n resistors:
(Eq. 3.29)

• The equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 , is the sum of the n resistor values because the
resistors are in series. We apply Ohm's law a second time to calculate the voltage
drop 𝑣𝑖 across the resistor 𝑅𝑖 using the current i calculated in the equation above:
(Eq. 3.30)

• Note that we used Eq. 3.29 to obtain the right-hand side of Eq. 3.30. Equation 3.30
is the voltage division equation. It says that the voltage drop 𝑣𝑗 across a single
resistor 𝑅𝑗 from a collection of series-connected resistors is proportional to the total
voltage drop v across the set of series-connected resistors. The constant of
proportionality is the ratio of the single resistance to the equivalent resistance of the
series connected set of resistors, or 𝑅𝑗 /𝑅𝑒𝑞 . 23
Voltage Division and Current Division
• Now consider the circuit below:

• The box on the left can contain a single current source or any other combination of
basic circuit elements that results in the current i shown in the figure. To the right of
the box are n resistors connected in parallel. We are interested in finding the current
i through an arbitrary resistor 𝑅𝑗 in terms of the current i. We start by using Ohm's
law to calculate v, the voltage drop across each of the resistors in parallel, in terms
of the current i and the n resistors:
(Eq. 3.31)

24
Voltage Division and Current Division
• The equivalent resistance of n resistors in parallel, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 , can be calculated the
parallel resistance formula. We apply Ohm's law a second time to calculate the
current 𝑖𝑗 through the resistor 𝑅𝑗 , using the voltage v calculated in Eq. 3.31:

• Note that we used Eq. 3.31 to obtain the right-hand side of Eq. 3.32. Equation 3.32
is the current division equation. It says that the current i through a single resistor 𝑅𝑗
from a collection of parallel-connected resistors is proportional to the total current i
supplied to the set of parallel-connected resistors.
• The constant of proportionality is the ratio of the equivalent resistance of the
parallel-connected set of resistors to the single resistance, or 𝑅𝑒𝑞 /𝑅𝑗 . Note that the
constant of proportionality in the current division equation is the inverse of the
constant of proportionality in the voltage division equation!

25
Example # 5:

Solution:

26
Measuring Voltage and Current
• An ammeter is an instrument designed to measure current; it is placed in
series with the circuit element whose current is being measured.
• A voltmeter is an instrument designed to measure voltage; it is placed in
parallel with the element whose voltage is being measured.
• An ideal ammeter or voltmeter has no effect on the circuit variable it is
designed to measure. That is, an ideal ammeter has an equivalent
resistance of 0 Ω and functions as a short circuit in series with the element
whose current is being measured.
• An ideal voltmeter has an infinite equivalent resistance and thus functions as
an open circuit in parallel with the element whose voltage is being
measured.

27
Ammeter and Voltmeter Configurations
• The configurations for an ammeter used to measure the current in 𝑅1 and for a
voltmeter used to measure the voltage in 𝑅2 are depicted below (left). The ideal
models for these meters in the same circuit are shown below (right).

• There are two broad categories of meters used to measure continuous voltages and
currents: digital meters and analog meters.
• Digital meters measure the continuous voltage or current signal at discrete points in
time, called the sampling times. The signal is thus converted from an analog signal,
which is continuous in time, to a digital signal, which exists only at discrete instants
in time. They introduce less resistance into the circuit to which they are connected,
they are easier to connect, and the precision of the measurement is greater due to
the nature of the readout mechanism.
28
d’Arsonval Meter
• Analog meters are based on the d’Arsonval meter movement which implements the
readout mechanism.
• A d'Arsonval meter movement consists
of a movable coil placed in the field of a
permanent magnet. When current flows
in the coil, it creates a torque on the
coil, causing it to rotate and move a
pointer across a calibrated scale. By
design, the deflection of the pointer is
directly proportional to the current in the
movable coil.
• Coil current → Torque on the coil → Rotation → Moves the pointer → Pointer
deflection ∝ Current
• Here, 𝝉 = 𝒎 x 𝑩 is the torque where → 𝒎 = 𝐼𝑺 is the magnetic moment.
29
d’Arsonval Meter as Ammeter and Voltmeter
• The coil is characterized by both a voltage rating and a current rating.
• For example, one commercially available meter movement is rated at 50 mV and 1
mA. This means that when the coil is carrying 1 mA, the voltage drop across the coil
is 50 mV and the pointer is deflected to its full-scale position.
• An analog ammeter consists of a d'Arsonval
movement in parallel with a resistor, as shown on
the right. The purpose of the parallel resistor is to
limit the amount of current in the movement's coil
by shunting some of it through 𝑅𝐴 .
• An analog voltmeter consists of a d'Arsonval
movement in series with a resistor, as shown on
the right. Here, the resistor is used to limit the
voltage drop across the meter's coil. In both
meters, the added resistor determines the full-
scale reading of the meter movement. 30
d’Arsonval Meter as Ammeter and Voltmeter
• From these descriptions we see that an actual meter is non-ideal; both the added
resistor and the meter movement introduce resistance in the circuit to which the
meter is attached.
• In fact, any instrument used to make physical measurements extracts energy from
the system while making measurements. How much these meters disturb the circuit
being measured depends on the effective resistance of the meters compared with
the resistance in the circuit.
• For example, using the rule of 1/10th, the effective resistance of an ammeter should
be no more than 1/10th of the value of the smallest resistance in the circuit to be
sure that the current being measured is nearly the same with or without the
ammeter. The following examples illustrate the calculations involved in determining
the resistance needed in an analog ammeter or voltmeter. The examples also
consider the resulting effective resistance of the meter when it is inserted in a
circuit.
31
Example # 6:

Solution:

32
Example #7:

Solution:

33
Measuring Resistance - The Wheatstone Bridge
• Many different circuit configurations are used to measure resistance. Here we will
focus on just one, the Wheatstone bridge.

𝐼𝑔

• The bridge circuit consists of four resistors, a dc voltage source, and a detector.
The resistance of one of the four resistors can be varied, which is indicated in the
figure by the arrow through 𝑅3 . The dc voltage source is usually a battery, which is
indicated by the battery symbol for the voltage source v in the figure.
• The detector is generally a d'Arsonval movement in the microamp range and is
called a galvanometer. The figure shows the circuit arrangement of the resistances,
battery, and detector where 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 are known resistors and 𝑅𝑥 is the unknown
34
resistor.
Measuring Resistance - The Wheatstone Bridge
• To find the value of 𝑅𝑥 , we adjust the variable resistor 𝑅3 until there is no current in
the galvanometer (balance condition).
• In balance condition:
𝑅3 𝑅𝑥 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐼𝑔 = 0 → 𝑣 𝑅 = 𝑣𝑅 → 𝑅𝑥 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑥 → 𝑅𝑥 = (∗)
1 +𝑅3 2 +𝑅𝑥 𝑅1
• Here, note that if the ratio 𝑅2 /𝑅1 is unity, the unknown resistor 𝑅𝑥 equals 𝑅3 . In
this case, the bridge resistor 𝑅3 must vary over a range that includes the value 𝑅𝑥 .
• For example, if the unknown resistance were 1000 Ω and 𝑅3 could be varied from 0
to 100 Ω, the bridge could never be balanced. Thus to cover a wide range of
unknown resistors, we must be able to vary the ratio 𝑅2 /𝑅1 . In a commercial
Wheatstone bridge, 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 consist of decimal values of resistances that can be
switched into the bridge circuit.
• Normally, the decimal values are 1, 10,100, and 1000 Ω so that the ratio 𝑅2 /𝑅1 can
be varied from 0.001 to 1000 in decimal steps. The variable resistor 𝑅3 is usually
adjustable in integral values of resistance from 1 to 11,000 Ω.
35
Measuring Resistance - The Wheatstone Bridge
• Although Eq. (∗) implies that 𝑅𝑥 can vary from zero to infinity, the practical range of
𝑅𝑥 is approximately 1 Ω to 1 M Ω.
• Lower resistances are difficult to measure on a standard Wheatstone bridge
because of thermoelectric voltages generated at the junctions of dissimilar metals
and because of thermal heating effects—that is, 𝑖 2 𝑅 effects.
• Higher resistances are difficult to measure accurately because of leakage currents.
• In other words, if 𝑅𝑥 is large, the current leakage in the electrical insulation may be
comparable to the current in the branches of the bridge circuit.

36
Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
• If we replace the galvanometer with its equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑚 , we can draw the
circuit shown below.

Fig. 3.28

• We cannot reduce the interconnected resistors of this circuit to a single equivalent

37
Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
• The resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and 𝑅𝑚 (or 𝑅3 , 𝑅𝑚 , and 𝑅𝑥 ) in Fig. 3.28 are referred to as a delta (Δ)
interconnection because the interconnection looks like the Greek letter Δ. It also is referred
to as a pi interconnection because the Δ can be shaped into a π without disturbing the
electrical equivalence of the two configurations. The electrical equivalence between the Δ
and π interconnections is apparent in figure below.

Δ circuit π circuit

• The resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅𝑚 , and 𝑅3 (or 𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑚 , and 𝑅𝑥 ) in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.28 are
referred to as a wye (Y) interconnection because the it can be shaped to look like the letter
Y. The Y configuration also is referred to as a tee (T) interconnection because the Y
structure can be shaped into a T structure without disturbing the electrical equivalence of
the two structures.

Y circuit T circuit
38
Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
• Figure below illustrates the Δ-to-Y (or π-to-T) equivalent circuit transformation.

• Note that we cannot transform the Δ interconnection into the Y interconnection simply by
changing the shape of the interconnections. Saying the Δ-connected circuit is equivalent to
the Y-connected circuit means that the Δ configuration can be replaced with a Y
configuration to make the terminal behavior of the two configurations identical.
• Thus if each circuit is placed in a black box, we can't tell by external measurements whether
the box contains a set of Δ-connected resistors or a set of Y-connected resistors. This
condition is true only if the resistance between corresponding terminal pairs is the same for
each box.
39
Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
• For example, the resistance between terminals a and b must be the same whether we use
the Δ-connected set or the Y-connected set. For each pair of terminals in the Δ-connected
circuit, the equivalent resistance can be computed using series and parallel simplifications
to yield

(∗)

• Straightforward algebraic manipulation of Eqs. (∗) gives values for the Y-connected
resistors in terms of the Δ-connected resistors required for the Δ-to-Y equivalent
circuit:

40
Delta-to-Wye (Pi-to-Tee) Equivalent Circuits
• Reversing the Δ-to-Y transformation also is possible. That is, we can start with the Y
structure and replace it with an equivalent Δ structure. The expressions for the three Δ-
connected resistors as functions of the three Y-connected resistors are

41
Example #9:

Solution:

42
Example #9:

43