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Chapter 0

0.1 Introduction to these tutorials2

0.2 Introduction to programming languages3

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0.3 Introduction to C/C++4

0.4 Introduction to C++ development5
0.5 Introduction to the compiler, linker, and libraries6
0.6 Installing an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) 7
0.7 Compiling your �rst program8
0.8 A few common C++ problems9
0.9 Con�guring your compiler: Build con�gurations10
0.10 Con�guring your compiler: Compiler extensions11
0.11 Con�guring your compiler: Warning and error levels 12
0.12 Con�guring your compiler: Choosing a language standard 13

Chapter 1

1.1 Statements and the structure of a program14

1.2 Comments15
1.3 Introduction to objects and variables16
1.4 Variable assignment and initialization17
1.5 Introduction to iostream: cout, cin, and endl18
1.6 Uninitialized variables and unde�ned behavior19
1.7 Keywords and naming identi�ers20
1.8 Whitespace and basic formatting21
1.9 Introduction to literals and operators22
1.10 Introduction to expressions23
1.11 Developing your �rst program24
1.x Chapter 1 summary and quiz25

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Chapter 2

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2.1 Introduction to functions26

2.2 Function return values (value-returning functions)27
2.3 Void functions (non-value returning functions)28
2.4 Introduction to function parameters and arguments29
2.5 Introduction to local scope30
2.6 Why functions are useful, and how to use them e�ectively 31
2.7 Forward declarations and de�nitions32
2.8 Programs with multiple code �les33
2.9 Naming collisions and an introduction to namespaces34
2.10 Introduction to the preprocessor35
2.11 Header �les36
2.12 Header guards37
2.13 How to design your �rst programs38
2.x Chapter 2 summary and quiz39

Chapter 3

3.1 Syntax and semantic errors40

3.2 The debugging process41
3.3 A strategy for debugging42
3.4 Basic debugging tactics43
3.5 More debugging tactics44
3.6 Using an integrated debugger: Stepping45
3.7 Using an integrated debugger: Running and breakpoints 46
3.8 Using an integrated debugger: Watching variables47
3.9 Using an integrated debugger: The call stack48
3.10 Finding issues before they become problems49
3.x Chapter 3 summary and quiz50

Chapter 4

4.1 Introduction to fundamental data types51

4.2 Void52
4.3 Object sizes and the sizeof operator53

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4.4 Signed integers54

4.5 Unsigned integers, and why to avoid them55
4.6 Fixed-width integers and size_t56
4.7 Introduction to scienti�c notation57
4.8 Floating point numbers58
4.9 Boolean values59
4.10 Introduction to if statements60
4.11 Chars61
4.12 Introduction to type conversion and static_cast62
4.13 Const variables and symbolic constants63
4.14 Compile-time constants, constant expressions, and constexpr 64
4.15 Literals65
4.16 Numeral systems (decimal, binary, hexadecimal, and octal) 66
4.17 Introduction to std::string67
4.18 Introduction to std::string_view68
4.19 std::string_view (part 2)69
4.x Chapter 4 summary and quiz70

···

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

6.1 Operator precedence and associativity71

6.2 Arithmetic operators72

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6.3 Remainder and Exponentiation73

6.4 Increment/decrement operators, and side e�ects74
6.5 Comma and conditional operators75
6.6 Relational operators and �oating point comparisons76
6.7 Logical operators77
6.x Chapter 6 summary and quiz78

Chapter O

O.1 Bit �ags and bit manipulation via std::bitset79

O.2 Bitwise operators80
O.3 Bit manipulation with bitwise operators and bit masks 81
O.4 Converting integers between binary and decimal representation 82

Chapter 7

7.1 Compound statements (blocks)83

7.2 User-de�ned namespaces and the scope resolution operator 84
7.3 Local variables85
7.4 Introduction to global variables86
7.5 Variable shadowing (name hiding)87
7.6 Internal linkage88
7.7 External linkage and variable forward declarations89
7.8 Why (non-const) global variables are evil90
7.9 Sharing global constants across multiple �les (using inline variables) 91
7.10 Static local variables92
7.11 Scope, duration, and linkage summary93
7.12 Using declarations and using directives94
7.13 Inline functions95
7.14 Constexpr and consteval functions96
7.15 Unnamed and inline namespaces97
7.x Chapter 7 summary and quiz98

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···

Chapter 8

8.1 Control �ow introduction99

8.2 If statements and blocks100
8.3 Common if statement problems101
8.4 Constexpr if statements102
8.5 Switch statement basics103
8.6 Switch fallthrough and scoping104
8.7 Goto statements105
8.8 Introduction to loops and while statements106
8.9 Do while statements107
8.10 For statements108
8.11 Break and continue109
8.12 Halts (exiting your program early)110
8.13 Introduction to testing your code111
8.14 Code coverage112
8.15 Common semantic errors in C++113
8.16 Detecting and handling errors114
8.17 std::cin and handling invalid input115

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8.18 Assert and static_assert116

8.19 Introduction to random number generation117
8.20 Generating random numbers using Mersenne Twister118
8.x Chapter 8 summary and quiz119

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

10.1 Implicit type conversion (coercion)120

10.2 Floating-point and integral promotion121
10.3 Numeric conversions122
10.4 Narrowing conversions, list initialization, and constexpr initializers 123
10.5 Arithmetic conversions124
10.6 Explicit type conversion (casting) and static_cast125
10.7 Typedefs and type aliases126
10.8 Type deduction for objects using the auto keyword127
10.9 Type deduction for functions128
10.10 Introduction to function overloading129
10.11 Function overload di�erentiation130
10.12 Function overload resolution and ambiguous matches131
10.13 Default arguments132
10.14 Function templates133
10.15 Function template instantiation134
10.16 Function templates with multiple template types135
10.17 Non-type template parameters136
10.x Chapter 10 summary and quiz137

Chapter 11

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···

Chapter 12

12.1 Introduction to compound data types138

12.2 Value categories (lvalues and rvalues)139
12.3 Lvalue references140
12.4 Lvalue references to const141
12.5 Pass by lvalue reference142
12.6 Pass by const lvalue reference143
12.7 Introduction to pointers144
12.8 Null pointers145
12.9 Pointers and const146
12.10 Pass by address147
12.11 Pass by address (part 2)148
12.12 Return by reference and return by address149
12.13 In and out parameters150
12.14 Type deduction with pointers, references, and const 151
12.x Chapter 12 summary and quiz152

Chapter 13

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13.1 Introduction to program-de�ned (user-de�ned) types 153

13.2 Unscoped enumerations154
13.3 Unscoped enumeration input and output155
13.4 Scoped enumerations (enum classes)156
13.5 Introduction to structs, members, and member selection 157
13.6 Struct aggregate initialization158
13.7 Default member initialization159
13.8 Passing and returning structs160
13.9 Struct miscellany161
13.10 Member selection with pointers and references162
13.11 Class templates163
13.12 Class template argument deduction (CTAD) and deduction guides 164
13.x Chapter 13 summary and quiz165
13.y Using a language reference166

Chapter 14

14.1 Introduction to object-oriented programming167 Updated

14.2 Introduction to classes168 Updated
14.3 Member functions169 Updated
14.4 Public and private members and access speci�ers170 Updated
14.5 Access functions171 Updated
14.6 The bene�ts of data hiding (encapsulation)172 Updated
14.7 Introduction to constructors173 Updated
14.8 Constructor member initializer lists174 Updated
14.9 Default constructors175 Updated
14.10 Delegating constructors and default arguments176 Updated
14.11 Temporary class objects177 Updated
14.12 Introduction to the copy constructor178 Updated
14.13 Class initialization and copy elision179 Updated
14.14 Converting constructors and the explicit keyword180 Updated
14.x Chapter 14 summary and quiz181 Updated

Chapter 15

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15.1 The hidden “this” pointer and member function chaining 182 Updated
15.2 Const class objects and const member functions183 Updated
15.3 Classes and header �les184 Updated
15.4 Nested types (member types)185 Updated
15.5 Introduction to destructors186 Updated
15.6 Class templates with member functions187 Updated
15.7 Static member variables188 Updated
15.8 Static member functions189 Updated
15.9 Friend non-member functions190 Updated
15.10 Friend classes and friend member functions191 Updated
15.x Chapter 15 summary and quiz192 Updated

Chapter 16

16.1 Introduction to containers and arrays193 New

16.2 Introduction to std::vector and list constructors194 Updated
16.3 std::vector and the unsigned length and subscript problem 195 New
Passing and returning std::vector, and an introduction to move
16.4 New
semantics196
16.5 Arrays and loops197 Updated
16.6 Arrays, loops, and sign challenge solutions198 New
16.7 Range-based for loops (for-each)199 Updated
16.8 Array indexing and length using enumerators200 Updated
16.9 std::vector resizing and capacity201 Updated
16.10 std::vector and stack behavior202 Updated
16.11 std::vector<bool>203 New
16.x Chapter 16 summary and quiz204 Updated

Chapter 17

17.1 Introduction to std::array205 Updated

17.2 std::array length and indexing206 New
17.3 Passing and returning std::array207 New

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17.4 std::array of class types, and brace elision208 Updated

17.5 Arrays of references via std::reference_wrapper209 New
17.6 std::array and enumerations210 New
17.7 Introduction to C-style arrays211 Updated
17.8 C-style array decay212 Updated
17.9 Pointer arithmetic and subscripting213 Updated
17.10 C-style strings214 Updated
17.11 C-style string symbolic constants215 Updated
17.12 Multidimensional C-style Arrays216 Updated
17.13 Multidimensional std::array217 New
17.x Chapter 17 summary and quiz218 Updated

Chapter 18

18.1 Sorting an array using selection sort219

18.2 Introduction to iterators220
18.3 Introduction to standard library algorithms221
18.4 Timing your code222

Chapter 19

19.1 Dynamic memory allocation with new and delete223

19.2 Dynamically allocating arrays224
19.3 Destructors225
19.4 Pointers to pointers and dynamic multidimensional arrays 226
19.5 Void pointers227

Chapter 20

20.1 Function Pointers228

20.2 The stack and the heap229
20.3 Recursion230
20.4 Command line arguments231
20.5 Ellipsis (and why to avoid them)232
20.6 Introduction to lambdas (anonymous functions)233

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20.7 Lambda captures234

20.x Chapter 20 summary and quiz235

Chapter 21

21.1 Introduction to operator overloading236

21.2 Overloading the arithmetic operators using friend functions 237
21.3 Overloading operators using normal functions238
21.4 Overloading the I/O operators239
21.5 Overloading operators using member functions240
21.6 Overloading unary operators +, -, and !241
21.7 Overloading the comparison operators242
21.8 Overloading the increment and decrement operators243
21.9 Overloading the subscript operator244
21.10 Overloading the parenthesis operator245
21.11 Overloading typecasts246
21.12 Overloading the assignment operator247
21.13 Shallow vs. deep copying248
21.14 Overloading operators and function templates249
21.x Chapter 21 summary and quiz250
21.y Chapter 21 project251

Chapter 22

22.1 Introduction to smart pointers and move semantics252

22.2 R-value references253
22.3 Move constructors and move assignment254
22.4 std::move255
22.5 std::unique_ptr256
22.6 std::shared_ptr257
22.7 Circular dependency issues with std::shared_ptr, and std::weak_ptr 258
22.x Chapter 22 summary and quiz259

Chapter 23

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23.1 Object relationships260

23.2 Composition261
23.3 Aggregation262
23.4 Association263
23.5 Dependencies264
23.6 Container classes265
23.7 std::initializer_list266
23.x Chapter 23 summary and quiz267

Chapter 24

24.1 Introduction to inheritance268

24.2 Basic inheritance in C++269
24.3 Order of construction of derived classes270
24.4 Constructors and initialization of derived classes271
24.5 Inheritance and access speci�ers272
24.6 Adding new functionality to a derived class273
24.7 Calling inherited functions and overriding behavior274
24.8 Hiding inherited functionality275
24.9 Multiple inheritance276
24.x Chapter 24 summary and quiz277

Chapter 25

25.1 Pointers and references to the base class of derived objects 278
25.2 Virtual functions and polymorphism279
25.3 The override and �nal speci�ers, and covariant return types 280
25.4 Virtual destructors, virtual assignment, and overriding virtualization 281
25.5 Early binding and late binding282
25.6 The virtual table283
25.7 Pure virtual functions, abstract base classes, and interface classes 284
25.8 Virtual base classes285
25.9 Object slicing286
25.10 Dynamic casting287

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25.11 Printing inherited classes using operator<<288

25.x Chapter 25 summary and quiz289

Chapter 26

26.1 Template classes290

26.2 Template non-type parameters291
26.3 Function template specialization292
26.4 Class template specialization293
26.5 Partial template specialization294
26.6 Partial template specialization for pointers295
26.x Chapter 26 summary and quiz296

Chapter 27

27.1 The need for exceptions297

27.2 Basic exception handling298
27.3 Exceptions, functions, and stack unwinding299
27.4 Uncaught exceptions and catch-all handlers300
27.5 Exceptions, classes, and inheritance301
27.6 Rethrowing exceptions302
27.7 Function try blocks303
27.8 Exception dangers and downsides304
27.9 Exception speci�cations and noexcept305
27.10 std::move_if_noexcept306 Moved
27.x Chapter 27 summary and quiz307

Chapter 28

28.1 Input and output (I/O) streams308

28.2 Input with istream309
28.3 Output with ostream and ios310
28.4 Stream classes for strings311
28.5 Stream states and input validation312
28.6 Basic �le I/O313

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28.7 Random �le I/O314

Appendix A

A.1 Static and dynamic libraries315

A.2 Using libraries with Visual Studio316
A.3 Using libraries with Code::Blocks317
A.4 C++ FAQ318

Appendix B

B.1 Introduction to C++11319

B.2 Introduction to C++14320
B.3 Introduction to C++17321
B.4 Introduction to C++20322

Appendix C

C.1 The end?323

Appendix D

21.1 The Standard Library324

21.2 STL containers overview325
21.3 STL iterators overview326
21.4 STL algorithms overview327
22.1 std::string and std::wstring328
22.2 std::string construction and destruction329
22.3 std::string length and capacity330
22.4 std::string character access and conversion to C-style arrays 331
22.5 std::string assignment and swapping332
22.6 std::string appending333
22.7 std::string inserting334

335

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···

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54. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/signed-integers/
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56. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/�xed-width-integers-and-size-t/
57. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-scienti�c-notation/
58. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/�oating-point-numbers/
59. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/boolean-values/
60. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-if-statements/
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73. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/remainder-and-exponentiation/
74. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/increment-decrement-operators-and-side-e�ects/
75. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/comma-and-conditional-operators/
76. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/relational-operators-and-�oating-point-comparisons/
77. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/logical-operators/
78. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-6-summary-and-quiz/
79. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/bit-�ags-and-bit-manipulation-via-stdbitset/
80. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/bitwise-operators/
81. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/bit-manipulation-with-bitwise-operators-and-bit-masks/
82. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/converting-integers-between-binary-and-decimal-
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83. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/compound-statements-blocks/
84. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/user-de�ned-namespaces-and-the-scope-resolution-
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85. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/local-variables/
86. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-global-variables/
87. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/variable-shadowing-name-hiding/
88. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/internal-linkage/
89. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/external-linkage-and-variable-forward-declarations/
90. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/why-non-const-global-variables-are-evil/
91. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/sharing-global-constants-across-multiple-�les-using-inline-
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92. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/static-local-variables/
93. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/scope-duration-and-linkage-summary/
94. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/using-declarations-and-using-directives/
95. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/inline-functions/
96. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/constexpr-and-consteval-functions/
97. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/unnamed-and-inline-namespaces/
98. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-7-summary-and-quiz/
99. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/control-�ow-introduction/
100. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/if-statements-and-blocks/
101. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/common-if-statement-problems/
102. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/constexpr-if-statements/
103. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/switch-statement-basics/
104. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/switch-fallthrough-and-scoping/
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124. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/arithmetic-conversions/
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128. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/type-deduction-for-functions/
129. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-function-overloading/
130. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/function-overload-di�erentiation/
131. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/function-overload-resolution-and-ambiguous-matches/
132. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/default-arguments/
133. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/function-templates/
134. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/function-template-instantiation/
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136. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/non-type-template-parameters/
137. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-10-summary-and-quiz/
138. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-compound-data-types/
139. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/value-categories-lvalues-and-rvalues/
140. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/lvalue-references/
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142. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/pass-by-lvalue-reference/
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144. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-pointers/
145. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/null-pointers/
146. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/pointers-and-const/
147. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/pass-by-address/
148. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/pass-by-address-part-2/
149. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/return-by-reference-and-return-by-address/
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152. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-12-summary-and-quiz/
153. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-program-de�ned-user-de�ned-types/

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157. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-structs-members-and-member-selection/
158. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/struct-aggregate-initialization/
159. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/default-member-initialization/
160. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/passing-and-returning-structs/
161. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/struct-miscellany/
162. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/member-selection-with-pointers-and-references/
163. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/class-templates/
164. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/class-template-argument-deduction-ctad-and-deduction-
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165. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-13-summary-and-quiz/
166. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/using-a-language-reference/
167. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-object-oriented-programming/
168. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-classes/
169. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/member-functions/
170. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/public-and-private-members-and-access-speci�ers/
171. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/access-functions/
172. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/the-bene�ts-of-data-hiding-encapsulation/
173. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-constructors/
174. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/constructor-member-initializer-lists/
175. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/default-constructors/
176. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/delegating-constructors-and-default-arguments/
177. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/temporary-class-objects/
178. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-the-copy-constructor/
179. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/class-initialization-and-copy-elision/
180. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/converting-constructors-and-the-explicit-keyword/
181. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-14-summary-and-quiz/
182. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/the-hidden-this-pointer-and-member-function-chaining/
183. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/const-class-objects-and-const-member-functions/
184. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/classes-and-header-�les/
185. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/nested-types-member-types/
186. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-destructors/
187. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/class-templates-with-member-functions/
188. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/static-member-variables/
189. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/static-member-functions/
190. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/friend-non-member-functions/
191. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/friend-classes-and-friend-member-functions/
192. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-15-summary-and-quiz/
193. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-containers-and-arrays/
194. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-stdvector-and-list-constructors/
195. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/stdvector-and-the-unsigned-length-and-subscript-problem/

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196. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/passing-and-returning-stdvector-and-an-introduction-to-
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197. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/arrays-and-loops/
198. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/arrays-loops-and-sign-challenge-solutions/
199. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/range-based-for-loops-for-each/
200. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/array-indexing-and-length-using-enumerators/
201. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/stdvector-resizing-and-capacity/
202. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/stdvector-and-stack-behavior/
203. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/stdvector-bool/
204. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-16-summary-and-quiz/
205. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-stdarray/
206. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/stdarray-length-and-indexing/
207. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/passing-and-returning-stdarray/
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209. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/arrays-of-references-via-stdreference_wrapper/
210. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/stdarray-and-enumerations/
211. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-c-style-arrays/
212. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/c-style-array-decay/
213. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/pointer-arithmetic-and-subscripting/
214. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/c-style-strings/
215. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/c-style-string-symbolic-constants/
216. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/multidimensional-c-style-arrays/
217. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/multidimensional-stdarray/
218. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/chapter-17-summary-and-quiz/
219. https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/sorting-an-array-using-selection-sort/
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functions/
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