Advanced Thermofluids ENS5216

Dr Barun Kumar Das

School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University (Semester 2, 2023)
[email protected]
Topic 1 – Energy Systems | Module 3: Prime Movers
Contents
Main Learning Aspect(s) in this Module ............................................................................................................................2
Citations and Further Reading ...........................................................................................................................................2
Multi-generation System Components (Electric Power) .......................................................................................................3
Cogeneration ....................................................................................................................................................................3
Trigeneration ....................................................................................................................................................................3
Operational and Performance Indicators ..........................................................................................................................3
Internal Combustion Engines ICE [1] ..............................................................................................................................4
Waste Heat and Performance ...........................................................................................................................................4
Micro Gas Turbines MGT [1] ............................................................................................................................................6
Stirling Engines [1] ...........................................................................................................................................................9

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 Organic Rankine Cycles ...................................................................................................................................................9
References and Further Reading .....................................................................................................................................10
Main Learning Aspect(s) in this Module
 LA3.1 Identify the most common prime movers (ICE, MGT, Stirling Engines, Organic Rankine Cycles) used in
multi-generation (cogeneration, trigeneration)
 LA3.2 Review (quantitative) indicators of multi-generation system operation and performance
 LA3.3 Differentiate between multi-generation system prime movers based on their (electrical) efficiency
(partial, rated loads) and the temperature ranges associated with their working fluids
 LA3.4 Appreciate the relative (%) contribution of electrical-versus-thermal power in prime movers
 LA3.5 Compare between Micro Gas Turbines and ICE’s
Citations and Further Reading
 Sources
o All sources used in the teaching materials are accessible through ECU or online
o In-text citations are identified using numbered referencing [..]
o End-of-text references are given on the last page
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from Campus, via VPN, or access them by entering the citation(s) given into the library search
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 Figures and Tables
o Captions from the original sources are shown, but these are renumbered as they occur in the slides
 Disclaimer
o Lecture slides only provide a summarised version of the sources referred to
o Students are expected to engage in out of class study by accessing the sources and hyperlinks given

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Multi-generation System Components (Electric Power) Operational and Performance Indicators
Table 1 Table 1 Source: Chp3 [1] (<30MWe, differences between electrical and thermal efficiencies are
Various types of plant equipment feature in multi-generation captured in the total efficiency values shown )
systems. Some, but not all, of these commercially available plant
equipment can be applied to both cogeneration and trigeneration
systems.
Cogeneration
In cogeneration the most common types of equipment at the
smaller scale of these systems include:
 Prime movers for electric poweri: Internal
Combustion Engines, Micro Gas Turbines, Stirling
Engines, and Organic Rankine Cycles
 Components for thermal power: Combustion heat
generators (boilers)
Whilst some of these systems may include fuel cells, such
integration is not yet widespread.
Trigeneration
Trigeneration systems can embody one or more of the above, but
also extend to include:
Equation 1 Cogeneration Ratio or Heat-to-Power ratio (varies at partial load, but when reported is
 Compression chillers typically defined at the rated operating conditions, Q: thermal power output, W: electrical power
output) [1]
 Absorption chillers
 Adsorption chillers
 Engine driven chillers
 Heat pumps Equation 2 Electrical Efficiency (W: electrical power output, F: fuel thermal power input) [1]

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 Equation 3 Thermal Efficiency (Q: thermal power output, F: fuel thermal power input) [1]
 Liquid: diesel (compression ignition)
 Gas: Natural gas (spark ignition)
Compared to other prime movers, ICE’s have excellent (relative)
Equation 4 Overall Efficiency or Energy Utilisation Factor [1] electrical efficiencies at partial loads. Load following control
strategies are therefore well suited to the use of ICE’s. Other
considerations when choosing between liquid or gaseous fuelled
engines is the initial (capital) cost versus the operational costs
which do not only relate to fuel consumption but also emissions
control.
Whether ICE’s are air or liquid cooled depends on the size of prime
mover. In general:
 Mobile and very small sized engines are air cooled
 Larger engines are water cooled, which makes that mode of
heat recovery is easier. In some cogeneration applications,
waste heat is additionally recovered by cooling the
lubricating oil to around 10°C above the engine coolant
temperature, but below 125°C to reduce oil degradation.
When applied, heat recovery from oil is the smaller
proportion compared to that from the engine water jacket
(coolant) and exhaust gases.
Figure 1 Source: Chp3 [1] (=Cogeneration Ratio at rated conditions varies for prime movers based on
the type of waste heat recovery) Waste Heat and Performance
ICE’s integrated into CHP systems can attain thermal conversion of
up to 90% of fuel (thermal) power input, with this varying based on
Internal Combustion Engines ICE [1]ii iii iv v vi
the engine’s (power) thermal efficiency and methods of recovering
Ranging up to tens of MWe, but also the most well established
waste heat. The balance in fuel (thermal) power is attributed to
technology for power generation at <1MWe in CHP systems, these
prime movers are typically fuelled as follows:

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losses from radiation, incomplete fuel conversion, and pumping in Closed loop waste heat recovery systems in ICE’s (also known as
the engine. total energy systems) can yield heated water at 85-90C, but other
Table 2 Source: Chp3 [1] (percentiles relative to fuel thermal power input) configurations also exist that may operate at higher pressures and
so yield steam at 120-130C.

Various temperature ranges for waste heat recovery can therefore

exist with ICE’s.
Exhaust gas waste heat recovery (10-30% of fuel thermal power
input) is typically based heat exchangers employing the air-to-
water principle. In larger engines, exhaust gases thus cool down to
130-150C after leaving the engine at 400-500C. In such cases,
Figure 2 Source: Chp3 [1] (“total energy system” with cascaded / in-sequence heat recovery from
exhaust gas waste heat recovery can generate steam at 180-210C water jacket, oil cooing, and exhaust gases, before cooling water returns to jacket at ~70C).
and 10-20bar. However these ranges may not be achievable in The performance of diesel ICE’s probably outruns the other
smaller ICE’s. (thermal) prime movers used to generate electrical power.
Amongst their best characteristic is a fairly high performance even
at partial load, with electrical efficiencies of 85-90% even at 50% of
Minimum thresholds of the exhaust gas temperature (post-heat rated loads. Worth noting here is that sometimes efficiencies are
recovery) must also be maintained to avoid condensation in ducts only reported by OEM’s at a few points over the operational
and piping: envelope (e.g., 50%, 75% and rated load).
 Min ~100-120C for natural gas Factors influencing the electrical power output of ICE’s include:
 Min ~140C for diesel (sulphur containing which may
cause corrosive acids to condensate)  2-3% decrease for every 300m altitude change

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 Figure 4 Source: Chp3 [1] (gas fired ICE, “thermal, hot water generation”: 70-85C hot water produced
 1% for every 5.5C variation in temperature above from waste heat recovery in the engine coolant (water jacked), lubricating oil cooler, and intercooler;
standard conditions (15C). “thermal, steam generation”: boiler generating 10bar steam from exhaust gases entering at 500C
and leaving at 220C).

Micro Gas Turbines MGT [1]vii viii

Commercially available mostly in the range from 25-30kWe but
ranging to 300-400kWe. MGT’s (with turbines spinning up to
100,000rpm) feature (waste heat) recuperators to improve their
electrical power generating efficiency.
Compared to (full sized) Gas Turbines GT’s, MGT’s have improved
partial load characteristics, hence one of the reasons why they may
be chosen over GT’s in load-following control strategies. However,
when operated at below 50% rated load they should be switched
off due to the significant degradation in efficiency.
Figure 3 Source: Chp3 [1] (note the rate of variation in electrical efficiency over the electrical load
range for different prime movers, MGT’s and ICE’s not recommended for <50% load) Peak overall MGT efficiencies range ~80-85%, with cogeneration
ratio’s of =1.5 (recuperated) to =5 (non-recuperated).
Compared to natural gas and diesel ICE’s:
 Emissions: MGT’s have ~2-5 times less NOx compared
to gas ICE’s and 10 times less than diesel ICE’s (i.e.,
better emissions footprints, especially at full loads)
 Partial Load (Electrical) Efficiency: MGT’s are slightly
better compared to gas ICE’s
 Cogeneration Ratio: Higher in MGT’s compared to
ICE’s, but this comes at the expense of having a lower
electrical efficiency
 Gravimetric Footprint: MGT’s generally weigh less and
are smaller in size

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 Figure 5 Source: Chp3 [1] (thermal efficiency values are smaller at greater outlet water temperatures
 Noise: lower compared to ICE’s (but at high due to the larger wasted heat with greater exhaust temperature).
frequency)
 Maintainability: diesel ICE’s attract ~20:1 (ratio of
work hours-to-maintenance hours), compared to 500-
1,000 for MGT’s.
 Cost: MGT’s come at a higher costs (integration of:
recuperators and electrical power conditioning at
wider variable speeds before grid connectivity can
occur).
Recuperators (regenerators) are used to recover part of the
exhaust stream waste heat. This is used to pre-heat the air
entering the combustor (air-to-air heat exchanger). The use of
bypass valves (to route some or all of the exhaust gas to the
recuperator) means there can be some control over varying the
cogeneration ratio at the expense of the overall efficiency (and
vice-versa). Figure 6 Source: Chp3 [1]

Table 3 Source: Chp3 [1] (if bypass=0 is when 100% of the exhaust gases pass through the recuperator
and not the cogeneration heat exchanger).

In cases where (only) electrical power generation is being

quantified, the Heat Rate is expressed as the inverse of electrical

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efficiency. It basically expresses a ratio related to the fuel used for
electrical power generation only (unlike the cogeneration ratio ).
Equation 5 : Chp5 [1] (HR: Heat Rate, F: fuel thermal power input, W: electrical power output)

Figure 8 Source: Chp3 [1]

Indicative temperatures associated with MGT’s:
 Turbine outlet (exhaust) temperatures ~500-700C
 Recuperator (outlet) temperatures ~300-350C
Figure 7 Source: Chp3 [1] (higher ambient temperatures lead to reductions in both electrical power  Cogeneration heat exchanger (outlet) temperature of
output and efficiency as the heat rate increases). Note: many MGT data sheets refer to rated exhaust gases (post heat recovery) ~ 100C
conditions at 15C, 1.0123bar, and 60% humidity).
 Air-to-water waste heat recovery (boilers): exhaust to
generate heated water at 70-90C, but maybe as high
Variations in ambient (air) conditions affect the thermal power, as 150C (steam)
electrical power, and electrical efficiency. This can be remedied by  Air-to-air waste heat recovery (heat exchangers):
cooling the inlet air: exhaust to provide space heating and/or drying
applications.
 Absorption refrigeration
 Air supply (direct): industrial applications utilising the
 Electric chillers (direct) MGT exhaust gas for process heat.
 Evaporative humiliation  Absorption chillers: fed either by exhaust gases, hot
water, or low pressure steam (generated from the
MGT).

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Stirling Engines [1]ix x xi  industrial processes (annealing furnaces used in steel
Operating as an external combustion engine (heat source is outside manufacture)
the system control volume which contains its own non-combusting  Hot water generated from other thermal sources.
work fluid), it can be operated using either waste heat or from a
burner that provides the high temperature medium needed to the
SE’s heater head.
Working fluids inside the Stirling Engine are mostly helium or
hydrogen). External combustors may be operated on a variety of
fuels such as natural gas, propane, diesel, or biomass (even solar
thermal energy can be the heat source).
Overall efficiency can practically reach ~90% with waste heat
recovery employed, but electrical efficiencies in the range 10-15%
for smaller units and ~25% for larger ones (<50kWe). Systems
designated as “Micro CHP” systems (~1-10kWe + 7-50kWt) operate
with SE’s and have the advantage of negligible noise and low
pollutant emissions.
Any unrecovered heat is lost to the environment.
Organic Rankine Cycles xii xiii xiv
ORC’s are used to generate electricity in distributed energy
systems. They operate with various forms of expansion work
recovered from relatively low temperature waste heat. Different
forms of expansion work can be done, with reciprocating pistons
and rotary type turbines cited.
Waste heat recovery can occur from:
 ICE exhaust gases (landfill gas operated)

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References and Further Reading generation systems : energy models and analyses2009, Nova
1. Mancarella, P. and Chicco, G., Multi-generation components: Science Publishers: New York.
characteristics and models (Chapter 3), in Distributed multi- `

i viii
https://www.eia.gov/tools/glossary/index.php?id=P 1min https://youtu.be/M-ICC1Es9KY
ii ix
Chp3 https://ecu.on.worldcat.org/oclc/662453114 Chp3 https://ecu.on.worldcat.org/oclc/662453114
iii x
3min https://youtu.be/McGYRZJ15FA 3min https://youtu.be/4n0ScJUQ7i4
iv xi
4min https://youtu.be/5QjOgHjnHXE 4min https://youtu.be/2h6VLPS2we0
v xii
3min https://youtu.be/yzyzKvv_rlA 4min https://youtu.be/Gkd2RKHydww
vi xiii
5min https://youtu.be/c10E0wuL5UY 3min https://youtu.be/dTX7R0Uehlg
vii xiv
Chp3 https://ecu.on.worldcat.org/oclc/662453114 4min https://youtu.be/7nFALSwszlg

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