Plan of the Lecture

I Review: transient and steady-state response; DC gain and

the FVT
I Today’s topic: system-modeling diagrams; prototype
2nd-order system
Plan of the Lecture

I Review: transient and steady-state response; DC gain and

the FVT
I Today’s topic: system-modeling diagrams; prototype
2nd-order system

Goal: develop a methodology for representing and analyzing

systems by means of block diagrams; start analyzing a
prototype 2nd-order system.
Plan of the Lecture

I Review: transient and steady-state response; DC gain and

the FVT
I Today’s topic: system-modeling diagrams; prototype
2nd-order system

Goal: develop a methodology for representing and analyzing

systems by means of block diagrams; start analyzing a
prototype 2nd-order system.

Reading: FPE, Sections 3.1–3.2; lab manual

System Modeling Diagrams

decompose
large system ) * smaller blocks (subsystems)
compose
System Modeling Diagrams

decompose
large system ) * smaller blocks (subsystems)
compose

— this is the core of systems theory

System Modeling Diagrams

decompose
large system ) * smaller blocks (subsystems)
compose

— this is the core of systems theory

We will take smaller blocks from some given library and play
with them to create/build more complicated systems.
All-Integrator Diagrams

Our library will consist of three building blocks:

+
u1 y
= u1 u2
ẏ 1/s y
u a y = au
(or sY ) (or Y ) u2

integrator summing junction constant gain

All-Integrator Diagrams

Our library will consist of three building blocks:

+
u1 y
= u1 u2
ẏ 1/s y
u a y = au
(or sY ) (or Y ) u2

integrator summing junction constant gain

Two warnings:
I We can (and will) work either with u, y (time domain) or
with U, Y (s-domain) — will often go back and forth
I When working with block diagrams, we typically ignore
initial conditions.
All-Integrator Diagrams

Our library will consist of three building blocks:

+
u1 y
= u1 u2
ẏ 1/s y
u a y = au
(or sY ) (or Y ) u2

integrator summing junction constant gain

Two warnings:
I We can (and will) work either with u, y (time domain) or
with U, Y (s-domain) — will often go back and forth
I When working with block diagrams, we typically ignore
initial conditions.

This is the lowest level we will go to in lectures; in the labs, you

will implement these blocks using op amps.
Example 1

Build an all-integrator diagram for

ÿ = u () s2 Y = U
 -

Example 1

Build an all-integrator diagram for

ÿ = u () s2 Y = U

This is obvious:
ẏ
u 1/s 1/s y

or
sY
U 1/s 1/s Y
Example 2
(building on Example 1)

ÿ + a1 ẏ + a0 y = u () s2 Y + a1 sY + a0 Y = U
U (s)
or Y (s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
Example 2
(building on Example 1)

ÿ + a1 ẏ + a0 y = u () s2 Y + a1 sY + a0 Y = U
U (s)
or Y (s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
Always solve for the highest derivative:
ÿ = a1 ẏ a y+u
| {z 0 }
=v
Example 2
(building on Example 1)

ÿ + a1 ẏ + a0 y = u () s2 Y + a1 sY + a0 Y = U
U (s)
or Y (s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
Always solve for the highest derivative:
ÿ = a1 ẏ a y+u
| {z 0 }
=v

+ v ẏ
u 1/s 1/s y

a1

a0
Example 2
(building on Example 1)

ÿ + a1 ẏ + a0 y = u () s2 Y + a1 sY + a0 Y = U
U (s)
or Y (s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
Always solve for the highest derivative:
ÿ = a1 ẏ a y+u
| {z 0 }
=v

+ V 1/s sY
U 1/s Y

a1

a0
Example 3

Build an all-integrator diagram for a system with transfer

function
b1 s + b0
H(s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
Example 3

Build an all-integrator diagram for a system with transfer

function
b1 s + b0
H(s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
1
Step 1: decompose H(s) = 2 · (b1 s + b0 )
s + a1 s + a0
Example 3

Build an all-integrator diagram for a system with transfer

function
b1 s + b0
H(s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
1
Step 1: decompose H(s) = 2 · (b1 s + b0 )
s + a1 s + a0

1 X
U s2 + a1 s + a0
b1 s + b 0 Y

— here, X is an auxiliary (or intermediate) signal

Example 3

Build an all-integrator diagram for a system with transfer

function
b1 s + b0
H(s) = 2
s + a1 s + a0
1
Step 1: decompose H(s) = 2 · (b1 s + b0 )
s + a1 s + a0

1 X
U s2 + a1 s + a0
b1 s + b 0 Y

— here, X is an auxiliary (or intermediate) signal

Note: b0 + b1 s involves di↵erentiation, which we cannot

implement using an all-integrator diagram. But we will see that
we don’t need to do it directly.
Example 3, continued
1
Step 1: decompose H(s) = · (b1 s + b0 )
s2 + a1 s + a0

1 X
U s2 + a1 s + a0
b1 s + b 0 Y
Example 3, continued
1
Step 1: decompose H(s) = · (b1 s + b0 )
s2 + a1 s + a0

1 X
U s2 + a1 s + a0
b1 s + b 0 Y

Step 2: The transformation U ! X is from Example 2:

Example 3, continued
1
Step 1: decompose H(s) = · (b1 s + b0 )
s2 + a1 s + a0

1 X
U s2 + a1 s + a0
b1 s + b 0 Y

Step 2: The transformation U ! X is from Example 2:

2
+s X sX
U 1/s 1/s X

a1

a0
Example 3, continued
Step 3: now we notice that

Y (s) = b1 sX(s) + b0 X(s),

and both X and sX are available signals in our diagram. So:

Example 3, continued
Step 3: now we notice that

Y (s) = b1 sX(s) + b0 X(s),

and both X and sX are available signals in our diagram. So:

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0
Example 3, continued
b1 s + b0
All-integrator diagram for H(s) =
s2 + a1 s + a0

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0
Example 3, continued
b1 s + b0
All-integrator diagram for H(s) =
s2 + a1 s + a0

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

Can we write down a state-space model corresponding to this

diagram?
Example 3, continued

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:
Example 3, continued

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:

s2 X = U a1 sX a0 X
Example 3, continued

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:

s2 X = U a1 sX a0 X
ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u
Example 3, continued

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:

s2 X = U a1 sX a0 X Y = b1 sX + b0 X
ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u
Example 3, continued

b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:

s2 X = U a1 sX a0 X Y = b1 sX + b0 X
ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x
Example 3, continued

State-space model:

ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x
Example 3, continued

State-space model:

ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x

x1 = x, x2 = ẋ
Example 3, continued

State-space model:

ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x

x1 = x, x2 = ẋ

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ẋ1 0 1 x1 0
= + u
ẋ2 a0 a1 x2 1
Example 3, continued

State-space model:

ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x

x1 = x, x2 = ẋ

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ẋ1 0 1 x1 0 x1
= + u y = b0 b1
ẋ2 a0 a1 x2 1 x2
Example 3, continued

State-space model:

ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x

x1 = x, x2 = ẋ

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ẋ1 0 1 x1 0 x1
= + u y = b0 b1
ẋ2 a0 a1 x2 1 x2

This is called controller canonical form.

Example 3, continued

State-space model:

ẍ = a1 ẋ a0 x + u y = b1 ẋ + b0 x

x1 = x, x2 = ẋ

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ẋ1
ẋ2
=
0
a0
- -
1
a1
x1
x2
+
0
1
u
-
0
y = b0 b1
x1
x2 -

This is called controller canonical form.

I

I
Easily generalizes to dimension > 1 Ines
The reason behind the name will be made clear later in the
semester
Example 3, wrap-up
b1 s + b0
All-integrator diagram for H(s) =
s 2 + a1 s + a0
b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ẋ1 0 1 x1 0 x1
= + u y = b0 b1
ẋ2 a0 a1 x2 1 x2
Example 3, wrap-up
b1 s + b0
All-integrator diagram for H(s) =
s 2 + a1 s + a0
b1
2 +
+s X sX X +
U 1/s 1/s b0 Y

a1

a0

State-space model:
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ẋ1 0 1 x1 0 x1
= + u y = b0 b1
ẋ2 a0 a1 x2 1 x2

Important: for a given H(s), the diagram is not unique. But,

once we build a diagram, the state-space equations are unique
(up to coordinate transformations).
Basic System Interconnections

Now we will take this a level higher — we will talk about

building complex systems from smaller blocks, without
worrying about how those blocks look on the inside (they could
themselves be all-integrator diagrams, etc.)
Basic System Interconnections

Now we will take this a level higher — we will talk about

building complex systems from smaller blocks, without
worrying about how those blocks look on the inside (they could
themselves be all-integrator diagrams, etc.)

Block diagrams are an abstraction (they hide unnecessary

“low-level” detail ...)
Basic System Interconnections

Now we will take this a level higher — we will talk about

building complex systems from smaller blocks, without
worrying about how those blocks look on the inside (they could
themselves be all-integrator diagrams, etc.)

Block diagrams are an abstraction (they hide unnecessary

“low-level” detail ...)

Block diagrams describe the flow of information

Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Series connection
Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Series connection
(G is common
U G1 G2 Y
notation for t.f.’s)
Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Series connection
(G is common
U G1 G2 Y
notation for t.f.’s)

U G 1 G2 Y
Y
= G1 G2 (for SISO systems, the order of G1 and G2
U
does not matter)
Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Series connection
(G is common
U G1 G2 Y
notation for t.f.’s)

U G 1 G2 Y
Y
= G1 G2 (for SISO systems, the order of G1 and G2
U
does not matter)
Parallel connection
Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Series connection
(G is common
U G1 G2 Y
notation for t.f.’s)

U G 1 G2 Y
Y
= G1 G2 (for SISO systems, the order of G1 and G2
U
does not matter)
Parallel connection

G1
+
U Y
+
G2
Basic System Interconnections: Series & Parallel
Series connection
(G is common
U G1 G2 Y
notation for t.f.’s)

U G 1 G2 Y
Y
= G1 G2 (for SISO systems, the order of G1 and G2
U
does not matter)
Parallel connection

G1
+
U Y
+
G2

Y U G1 + G2 Y
= G1 + G2
U
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y
Find the transfer function from R
W
(reference) to Y
G2
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y
Find the transfer function from R
W
(reference) to Y
G2

U =R W
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y
Find the transfer function from R
W
(reference) to Y
G2

U =R W
Y = G1 U
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y
Find the transfer function from R
W
(reference) to Y
G2

U =R W
Y = G1 U
= G1 (R W)
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y
Find the transfer function from R
W
(reference) to Y
G2

U =R W
Y = G1 U
= G1 (R W)
= G1 R G1 G2 Y
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y
Find the transfer function from R
W
(reference) to Y
G2

G1
=) Y = R
1 + G1 G2
U =R W
Y = G1 U
= G1 (R W) G1
= G1 R G1 G2 Y U Y
1 + G1 G2
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y G1
W =) Y = R
1 + G1 G2
G2
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y G1
W =) Y = R
1 + G1 G2
G2

The gain of a negative feedback loop:

forward gain
1 + loop gain
Basic System Interconnections: Negative Feedback

+ U
R G1 Y G1
W =) Y = R
1 + G1 G2
G2

The gain of a negative feedback loop:

forward gain
1 + loop gain

This is an important relationship, easy to derive — no need to

memorize it.
Unity Feedback
Other feedback configurations are also possible:
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y
Unity Feedback
Other feedback configurations are also possible:
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

This is called unity feedback — no component on the feedback

path.
Unity Feedback
Other feedback configurations are also possible:
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

This is called unity feedback — no component on the feedback

path.
Common structure (saw this in Lecture 1):
I R = reference
I U = control input
I Y = output
I E = error
I G1 = plant (also denoted by P )
I G2 = controller or compensator (also denoted by C or K)
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
I Reference R to output Y :
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
I Reference R to output Y :
Y G1 G 2
=
R 1 + G1 G 2
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
I Reference R to output Y :
Y G1 G 2
=
R 1 + G1 G 2

I Reference R to control input U :

Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
I Reference R to output Y :
Y G1 G 2
=
R 1 + G1 G 2

I Reference R to control input U :

U G2
=
R 1 + G1 G2
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
I Reference R to output Y :
Y G1 G 2
=
R 1 + G1 G 2

I Reference R to control input U :

U G2
=
R 1 + G1 G2

I Error E to output Y :
Unity Feedback
+ E U
R G2 G1 Y

forward gain
Let’s practice with deriving transfer functions:
1 + loop gain
I Reference R to output Y :
Y G1 G 2
=
R 1 + G1 G 2

I Reference R to control input U :

U G2
=
R 1 + G1 G2

I Error E to output Y :
Y
= G1 G 2 (no feedback path)
E
Block Diagram Reduction

Given a complicated diagram involving series, parallel, and

feedback interconnections, we often want to write down an
overall transfer function from one of the variables to another.
Block Diagram Reduction

Given a complicated diagram involving series, parallel, and

feedback interconnections, we often want to write down an
overall transfer function from one of the variables to another.
This requires lots of practice: read FPE, Section 3.2 for
examples.
Block Diagram Reduction

Given a complicated diagram involving series, parallel, and

feedback interconnections, we often want to write down an
overall transfer function from one of the variables to another.
5 1
.
, 5 2
.

This requires lots of practice: read FPE, Section 3.2

⑳ for more

examples. ↳ Norman S .
Nise
General strategy:
I Name all the variables in the diagram
I Write down as many relationships between these variables
as you can
I Learn to recognize series, parallel, and feedback
interconnections
I Replace them by their equivalents
I Repeat
Prototype 2nd-Order System

So far, we have only seen transfer functions that have either

real poles or purely imaginary poles:
1 1 1
, ,
s+a (s + a)(s + b) s2 + ! 2
Prototype 2nd-Order System

So far, we have only seen transfer functions that have either

real poles or purely imaginary poles:
1 1 1
, ,
s+a (s + a)(s + b) s2 + ! 2

We also need to consider the case of complex poles, i.e., ones

that have Re(s) 6= 0 and Im(s) 6= 0.
Prototype 2nd-Order System

So far, we have only seen transfer functions that have either

real poles or purely imaginary poles:
1 1 1
, ,
s+a (s + a)(s + b) s2 + ! 2

We also need to consider the case of complex poles, i.e., ones

that have Re(s) 6= 0 and Im(s) 6= 0.

For now, we will only look at second-order systems, but this will
be sufficient to develop some nontrivial intuition (dominant
poles).
Prototype 2nd-Order System

So far, we have only seen transfer functions that have either

real poles or purely imaginary poles:
1 1 1
, ,
s+a (s + a)(s + b) s2 + ! 2

We also need to consider the case of complex poles, i.e., ones

that have Re(s) 6= 0 and Im(s) 6= 0.

For now, we will only look at second-order systems, but this will
be sufficient to develop some nontrivial intuition (dominant
poles).

Plus, you will need this for Lab 1.

Prototype 2nd-Order System

Consider the following transfer function:

!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Prototype 2nd-Order System

Consider the following transfer function:

!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Comments:
Prototype 2nd-Order System

Consider the following transfer function:

!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Comments:
I ⇣ > 0, !n > 0 are arbitrary parameters
Prototype 2nd-Order System

Consider the following transfer function:

!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Comments:
I ⇣ > 0, !n > 0 are arbitrary parameters
I the denominator is a general 2nd-degree monic polynomial,
just written in a weird way ↓ variable
polynomial
in
single
ehighest
active
Prototype 2nd-Order System

Consider the following transfer function:

!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Comments:
I ⇣ > 0, !n > 0 are arbitrary parameters
I the denominator is a general 2nd-degree monic polynomial,
just written in a weird way
I H(s) is normalized to have DC gain = 1 (provided DC gain
exists)
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1 both poles are real and negative
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1 both poles are real and negative
I ⇣=1
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1 both poles are real and negative
I ⇣=1 one negative pole
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1 both poles are real and negative
I ⇣=1 one negative pole
I ⇣<1
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1 both poles are real and negative
I ⇣=1 one negative pole
I ⇣<1 two complex poles with negative real parts
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
By the quadratic formula, the poles are:

p
s= ⇣!n ± !n ⇣ 2 1
⇣ p ⌘
= !n ⇣ ± ⇣ 2 1

The nature of the poles changes depending on ⇣:

I ⇣>1 both poles are real and negative
I ⇣=1 one negative pole
I ⇣<1 two complex poles with negative real parts

s= ± j!d
p
where = ⇣!n , !d = !n 1 ⇣2
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) = , ⇣<1
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) = , ⇣<1
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
The poles are
p
s= ⇣!n ± j!n 1 ⇣2 = ± j!d
Prototype 2nd-Order System
!n2
H(s) = , ⇣<1
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2
The poles are
p
s= ⇣!n ± j!n 1 ⇣2 = ± j!d

Im

p
!d = !n 1 ⇣2 Note that
!n
2
' + !d2 = ⇣ 2 !n2 + !n2 ⇣ 2 !n2
= ⇣!n Re
0 = !n2
⇣!n
cos ' = =⇣
!n
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 !n2
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
!n2 t
= e sin(!d t)
!d
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
!n2 t
= e sin(!d t) (table, # 20)
!d
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
!n2 t
= e sin(!d t) (table, # 20)
!d
↳
Laplace table)
I Step response:
⇢ ⇢
1 H(s) 1 !n2
L =L
s s[(s + )2 + !d2 ]
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
!n2 t
= e sin(!d t) (table, # 20)
!d
↳ Laplaces
I Step response:
⇢ ⇢ 2
1 H(s) 1 + !d2
L =L
s s[(s + )2 + !d2 ]
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
!n2 t
= e sin(!d t) (table, # 20)
!d
↳ Laplace)
I Step response:
⇢ ⇢ 2
H(s) + !d2
L 1 =L 1
s s[(s + )2 + !d2 ]
✓ ◆
t
=1 e cos(!d t) + sin(!d t)
!d
2nd-Order Response
Let’s compute the system’s impulse and step response:
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2

I Impulse response:
⇢
1 1 (!n2 /!d )!d
h(t) = L {H(s)} = L
(s + )2 + !d2
!n2 t
= e sin(!d t) (table, # 20)
!d

I Step response:
⇢ ⇢ 2
H(s) + !d2
L 1 =L 1
s s[(s + )2 + !d2 ]
✓ ◆
t
=1 e cos(!d t) + sin(!d t) (table, #21)
!d
2nd-Order Step Response
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2
✓ ◆
t
u(t) = 1(t) ! y(t) = 1 e cos(!d t) + sin(!d t)
!d
p
where = ⇣!n and !d = !n 1 ⇣ 2 (damped frequency)
2nd-Order Step Response
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2
✓ ◆
t
u(t) = 1(t) ! y(t) = 1 e cos(!d t) + sin(!d t)
!d
p
where = ⇣!n and !d = !n 1 ⇣ 2 (damped frequency)
yHtL
The parameter ⇣ is called
1.5 the damping ratio
I ⇣ > 1: system is
1.0 overdamped
I ⇣ < 1: system is
z=0.1
0.5 underdamped
z=0.9
I ⇣ = 0: no damping
z=1
t (!d = !n )
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2nd-Order Step Response
!n2 !n2
H(s) = =
s2 + 2⇣!n s + !n2 (s + )2 + !d2
✓ ◆
t
u(t) = 1(t) ! y(t) = 1 e cos(!d t) + sin(!d t)
!d
p
where = ⇣!n and !d = !n 1 ⇣ 2 (damped frequency)
yHtL
The parameter ⇣ is called
1.5 the damping ratio
I ⇣ > 1: system is
1.0 overdamped
I ⇣ < 1: system is
z=0.1
0.5 underdamped
z=0.9
I ⇣ = 0: no damping
z=1
t (!d = !n )
2 4 6 8 10 12 14