Plan of the Lecture

I Review: dynamic response; transfer functions; transient

and steady-state response
I Today’s topic: dynamic response (transient and
steady-state) with arbitrary I.C.’s
Plan of the Lecture

I Review: dynamic response; transfer functions; transient

and steady-state response
I Today’s topic: dynamic response (transient and
steady-state) with arbitrary I.C.’s

Goal: develop a methodology for characterizing the output of a

given system for a given input.
Dynamic Response

u h y

Problem: compute the response y to a given input u

under a given set of initial conditions.
Dynamic Response

u h y

Problem: compute the response y to a given input u

under a given set of initial conditions.

In particular, we wish to know both the transient response (due

to I.C.’s) and the steady-state response (once the e↵ect of the
I.C.’s “washes away”).
Laplace Transforms Revisited
(see FPE, Appendix A)

One-sided (or unilateral) Laplace transform:

Z 1
L {f (t)} ⌘ F (s) = f (t)e st dt (really, from 0 )
0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
(see FPE, Appendix A)

One-sided (or unilateral) Laplace transform:

Z 1
L {f (t)} ⌘ F (s) = f (t)e st dt (really, from 0 )
0

— for simple functions f , can compute L f by hand.

Laplace Transforms Revisited
(see FPE, Appendix A)

One-sided (or unilateral) Laplace transform:

Z 1
L {f (t)} ⌘ F (s) = f (t)e st dt (really, from 0 )
0

— for simple functions f , can compute L f by hand.

Example: unit step
(
1, t 0
f (t) = 1(t) =
0, t<0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
(see FPE, Appendix A)

One-sided (or unilateral) Laplace transform:

Z 1
L {f (t)} ⌘ F (s) = f (t)e st dt (really, from 0 )
0

— for simple functions f , can compute L f by hand.

Example: unit step
(
1, t 0
f (t) = 1(t) =
0, t<0
Z 1
1 1 1
st st
L {1(t)} = e dt = e =
0 s 0 s
Laplace Transforms Revisited
(see FPE, Appendix A)

One-sided (or unilateral) Laplace transform:

Z 1
L {f (t)} ⌘ F (s) = f (t)e st dt (really, from 0 )
0

— for simple functions f , can compute L f by hand.

Example: unit step
(
1, t 0
f (t) = 1(t) =
0, t<0
Z 1
1 1 1
st st
L {1(t)} = e dt = e = (pole at s = 0)
0 s 0 s
Laplace Transforms Revisited
(see FPE, Appendix A)

One-sided (or unilateral) Laplace transform:

Z 1
L {f (t)} ⌘ F (s) = f (t)e st dt (really, from 0 )
0

— for simple functions f , can compute L f by hand.

Example: unit step
(
f (t) = 1(t) =
1, t 0 -

(e
-

-
0, t<0
Z 1
- - )

-
1 1 1
st st
L {1(t)} = e dt = e = (pole at s = 0)
0 s 0 s

— this is valid provided Re(s) > 0, so that e st t!+1

! 0.
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt
} (linearity)
2 2
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt
} (linearity)
2 2
Z 1
jt
L {e } = ejt e st dt
0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt
0 0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
=
j s
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j s
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1 -

= (pole at s = j)
j s
Z 1
jt jt st
L {e }= e e dt
0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j s
Z 1 Z 1
jt jt st (j+s)t
L {e }= e e dt = e dt
0 0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j s
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st (j+s)t (j+s)t
L {e }= e e dt = e dt = e
0 0 j+s 0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j s
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st (j+s)t (j+s)t
L {e }= e e dt = e dt = e
0 0 j+s 0
1
=
j+s
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j s
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st (j+s)t (j+s)t
L {e }= e e dt = e dt = e
0 0 j+s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j+s
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Example: f (t) = cos t
⇢
1 jt 1 jt
L {cos t} = L e + e (Euler’s formula)
2 2
1 1
= L {ejt } + L {e jt } (linearity)
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st
L {e } = e e dt = e(j s)t
dt = e(j s)t
0 0 j s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j s
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
jt jt st (j+s)t (j+s)t
L {e }= e e dt = e dt = e
0 0 j+s 0
1
= (pole at s = j)
j+s
— in both cases, require Re(s) > 0, i.e., s must lie in the right
half-plane (RHP)
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt
}
2 2
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
✓ ◆
1 2s
=
2 1 + js js s2
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
✓ ◆
1 2s
=
2 1 + js js s2
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
✓ ◆
1 2s
=
2 1 + js js s2
s
= 2
s +1
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
✓ ◆
1 2s
=
2 1 + js js s2
s
= 2 (poles at s = ±j)
s +1
Laplace Transforms Revisited

Example: f (t) = cos t

1 1
L {cos t} = L {ejt } + L {e jt }
2✓ 2 ◆
1 1 1
= +
2 j s j+s
✓ ◆
1 j s+j s
=
2 (j s)(j + s)
✓ ◆
1 2s
=
2 1 + js js s2
s
= 2 (poles at s = ±j)
s +1
for Re(s) > 0
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
(useful because Y (s) = H(s)U (s))
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
(useful because Y (s) = H(s)U (s))

Example: ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0

Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
(useful because Y (s) = H(s)U (s))

Example: ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0

Compute the response for u(t) = cos t

Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
(useful because Y (s) = H(s)U (s))

Example: ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0

Compute the response for u(t) = cos t

We already know
1
H(s) = (from earlier example)
s+1
s
U (s) = 2 (just proved)
s +1
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
(useful because Y (s) = H(s)U (s))

Example: ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0

Compute the response for u(t) = cos t

We already know
1
H(s) = (from earlier example)
s+1
s
U (s) = 2 (just proved)
s +1

s
=) Y (s) = H(s)U (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
1
y(t) = L {Y }
Laplace Transforms Revisited
Convolution: L {f ? g} = L {f }L {g}
(useful because Y (s) = H(s)U (s))

Example: ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0

Compute the response for u(t) = cos t

We already know
1
H(s) = (from earlier example)
s+1
s
U (s) = 2 (just proved)
s +1

s
=) Y (s) = H(s)U (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
1
y(t) = L {Y }

— can’t find Y (s) in the tables. So how do we compute y?

Method of Partial Fractions
⇢
1 s
Problem: compute L
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
⇢
1 s
Problem: compute L
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
This Laplace transform is not in the tables, but let’s look at the
table anyway. What do we find?
Method of Partial Fractions
⇢
1 s
Problem: compute L
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
This Laplace transform is not in the tables, but let’s look at the
table anyway. What do we find?
⇢
1 1 1
L =e t (#7)
s+1 s+1
⇢
1 1 1
L = sin t (#17)
s2 + 1 s2 + 1
⇢
s 1 s
2
L 2
= cos t (#18)
s +1 s +1
— so we see some things that are similar to Y (s), but not quite.
Method of Partial Fractions
⇢
1 s
Problem: compute L
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
This Laplace transform is not in the tables, but let’s look at the
table anyway. What do we find?
⇢
1 1 1
L =e t (#7)
s+1 s+1
⇢
1 1 1
L = sin t (#17)
s2 + 1 s2 + 1
⇢
s 1 s
2
L 2
= cos t (#18)
s +1 s +1
— so we see some things that are similar to Y (s), but not quite.
This brings us to the method of partial fractions:
I boring (i.e., character-building), but very useful
I allows us to break up complicated fractions into sums of
simpler ones, for which we know L 1 from tables
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)

We seek a, b, c, such that

a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)

We seek a, b, c, such that

a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find a: multiply by s + 1 to isolate a

Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)

We seek a, b, c, such that

a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find a: multiply by s + 1 to isolate a

s (s + 1)(as + b)
(s + 1)Y (s) = =a+
s2 + 1 (s2 + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)

We seek a, b, c, such that

a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find a: multiply by s + 1 to isolate a

s (s + 1)(as + b)
(s + 1)Y (s) = =a+
s2 + 1 (s2 + 1)

— now let s = 1 to “kill” the second term on the RHS:

1
a = (s + 1)Y (s) =
s= 1 2
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y
(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We seek a, b, c, such that
a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We seek a, b, c, such that
a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find b: multiply by s2 + 1 to isolate bs + c

Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We seek a, b, c, such that
a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find b: multiply by s2 + 1 to isolate bs + c

s a(s2 + 1)
(s2 + 1)Y (s) = = + bs + c
s+1 s+1
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We seek a, b, c, such that
a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find b: multiply by s2 + 1 to isolate bs + c

s a(s2 + 1)
(s2 + 1)Y (s) = = + bs + c
s+1 s+1
— now let s = j to “kill” the first term on the RHS:
j
bj + c = (s2 + 1)Y (s) =
s=j 1+j
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We seek a, b, c, such that
a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find b: multiply by s2 + 1 to isolate bs + c

s a(s2 + 1)
(s2 + 1)Y (s) = = + bs + c
s+1 s+1
— now let s = j to “kill” the first term on the RHS:
j
bj + c = (s2 + 1)Y (s) =
s=j 1+j
Match Re(·) and Im(·) parts:
j j(1 j) 1 j
c + bj = = = +
1+j (1 + j)(1 j) 2 2
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We seek a, b, c, such that
a bs + c
Y (s) = + 2 (need bs + c so that deg(num) = deg(den) 1)
s+1 s +1

I Find b: multiply by s2 + 1 to isolate bs + c

s a(s2 + 1)
(s2 + 1)Y (s) = = + bs + c
s+1 s+1
— now let s = j to “kill” the first term on the RHS:
j
bj + c = (s2 + 1)Y (s) =
s=j 1+j
Match Re(·) and Im(·) parts:
j j(1 j) 1 j 1
c + bj = = = + =) b = c = 2
1+j (1 + j)(1 j) 2 2
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y
(s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We found that
1 s 1
Y (s) = + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We found that
1 s 1
Y (s) = + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
Now we can use linearity and tables:
⇢
1 1 s 1
y(t) = L + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We found that
1 s 1
Y (s) = + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
Now we can use linearity and tables:
⇢
1 1 s 1
y(t) = L + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
⇢ ⇢ ⇢
1 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1
= L + L + L
2 s+1 2 s2 + 1 2 s2 + 1
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We found that
1 s 1
Y (s) = + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
Now we can use linearity and tables:
⇢
1 1 s 1
y(t) = L + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
⇢ ⇢ ⇢
1 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1
= L + L + L
2 s+1 2 s2 + 1 2 s2 + 1
1 t 1 1
= e + cos t + sin t (from tables)
2 2 2
Method of Partial Fractions
Problem: compute L 1 {Y (s)}, where
s
Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s2 + 1)
We found that
1 s 1
Y (s) = + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
Now we can use linearity and tables:
⇢
1 1 s 1
y(t) = L + 2
+ 2
2(s + 1) 2(s + 1) 2(s + 1)
⇢ ⇢ ⇢
1 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1
= L + L + L
2 s+1 2 s2 + 1 2 s2 + 1
1 t 1 1
= e + cos t + sin t (from tables)
2 2 2
1 t 1
= e + p cos(t ⇡/4) (cos(a b) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b)
2 2
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
1 t 1
u(t) = cos t ! y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
| 2{z } | 2 {z }
transient steady-state
response response
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
1 t 1
u(t) = cos t ! y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
| 2{z } | 2 {z }
transient steady-state
response response

— transient response vanishes as t ! 1 (we will see later why)

Let’s compare against the frequency response formula:
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
1 t 1
u(t) = cos t ! y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
| 2{z } | 2 {z }
transient steady-state
response response

— transient response vanishes as t ! 1 (we will see later why)

Let’s compare against the frequency response formula:
1 1
H(s) = =) H(j!) =
s+1 j! + 1
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
1 t 1
u(t) = cos t ! y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
| 2{z } | 2 {z }
transient steady-state
response response

— transient response vanishes as t ! 1 (we will see later why)

Let’s compare against the frequency response formula:
1 1
H(s) = =) H(j!) =
s+1 j! + 1
u(t) = cos t has A = 1 and ! = 1, so

y(t) = M (1) cos t + '(1)

1
= p cos t ⇡/4
2
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M(1 )! =>
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Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
1 t 1
u(t) = cos t ! y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
| 2{z } | 2 {z }
transient steady-state
response response

— transient response vanishes as t ! 1 (we will see later why)

Let’s compare against the frequency response formula:
1 1
H(s) = =) H(j!) =
s+1 j! + 1
u(t) = cos t has A = 1 and ! = 1, so

y(t) = M (1) cos t + '(1)

1
= p cos t ⇡/4
2
— the freq. response formula gives only the steady-state part!!
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
We computed the response to u(t) = cos t in two ways:
1 t 1
y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
2 2
— using the method of partial fractions;
1
y(t) = p cos t ⇡/4
2
— using the frequency response formula.
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
We computed the response to u(t) = cos t in two ways:
1 t 1
y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
2 2
— using the method of partial fractions;
1
y(t) = p cos t ⇡/4
2
— using the frequency response formula.
Q: Which answer is correct? And why?
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
We computed the response to u(t) = cos t in two ways:
1 t 1
y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
2 2
— using the method of partial fractions;
1
y(t) = p cos t ⇡/4
2
— using the frequency response formula.
Q: Which answer is correct? And why?
1
A: At t = 0, p cos(t ⇡/4) = 12 6= 0, which is inconsistent
2
with the initial condition y(0) = 0. The term 12 e t = 1
2
t=0
cancels the steady-state term, so indeed y(0) = 0.
Transient and Steady-State Response
Consider the system ẏ = y+u y(0) = 0
We computed the response to u(t) = cos t in two ways:
1 t 1
y(t) = e + p cos(t ⇡/4)
2 2
— using the method of partial fractions;
1
y(t) = p cos t ⇡/4
2
— using the frequency response formula.
Q: Which answer is correct? And why?
1
A: At t = 0, p cos(t ⇡/4) = 12 6= 0, which is inconsistent
2
with the initial condition y(0) = 0. The term 12 e t = 1
2
t=0
cancels the steady-state term, so indeed y(0) = 0.
Therefore, the first formula is correct.
Transient and Steady-State Response

Main message: the frequency response formula only gives the

steady-state part of the response, but the inverse Laplace
transform gives the whole response (including the transient
part).
Transient and Steady-State Response

Main message: the frequency response formula only gives the

steady-state part of the response, but the inverse Laplace
transform gives the whole response (including the transient
part).
— we will now see how to deal with nonzero I.C.’s ...
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Z 1
1
st
= f (t)e +s e st f (t)dt
0 0
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Z 1
1
st
= f (t)e +s e st f (t)dt (integrate by parts)
0 0
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Z 1
1
st
= f (t)e +s e st f (t)dt (integrate by parts)
0 0
= f (0) + sF (s)
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Z 1
1
st
= f (t)e +s e st f (t)dt (integrate by parts)
0 0
= f (0) + sF (s)
— provided f (t)e st ! 0 as t ! 1
Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Z 1
1
st
= f (t)e +s e st f (t)dt (integrate by parts)
0 0
= f (0) + sF (s)
— provided f (t)e st ! 0 as t ! 1

L {f 0 (t)} = sF (s) f (0) — this is how we account for I.C.’s

Laplace Transforms and Di↵erentiation
Given a di↵erentiable function f , what is the Laplace transform
L {f 0 (t)} of its time derivative?
Z 1
L {f 0 (t)} = f 0 (t)e st dt
0
Z 1
1
st
= f (t)e +s e st f (t)dt (integrate by parts)
0 0
= f (0) + sF (s)
— provided f (t)e st ! 0 as t ! 1

L {f 0 (t)} = sF (s) f (0) — this is how we account for I.C.’s

Similarly:
L {f 00 (t)} = L {(f 0 (t))0 } = sL {f 0 (t)} f 0 (0)
= s2 F (s) sf (0) f 0 (0)
Example

Consider the system

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ẏ(0) = 0

Example

Consider the system

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ẏ(0) = 0

(need two I.C.’s for 2nd-order ODE’s)

Example

Consider the system

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ẏ(0) = 0

(need two I.C.’s for 2nd-order ODE’s)

Y (s)
Let’s compute the transfer function: H(s) =
U (s)
Example

Consider the system

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ẏ(0) = 0

(need two I.C.’s for 2nd-order ODE’s)

Y (s)
Let’s compute the transfer function: H(s) =
U (s)
— take Laplace transform of both sides (zero I.C.’s):
Example

Consider the system

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ẏ(0) = 0

(need two I.C.’s for 2nd-order ODE’s)

Y (s)
Let’s compute the transfer function: H(s) =
U (s)
— take Laplace transform of both sides (zero I.C.’s):

s2 Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) = U (s)

Example

Consider the system

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ẏ(0) = 0

(need two I.C.’s for 2nd-order ODE’s)

Y (s)
Let’s compute the transfer function: H(s) =
U (s)
— take Laplace transform of both sides (zero I.C.’s):

Y (s) 1
s2 Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) = U (s) H(s) = = 2
U (s) s + 3s + 2
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

s2 Y (s) sy(0) ẏ(0) + 3sY (s) 3y(0) + 2Y (s) = U (s)
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) = U (s)
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) = U (s)
U (s) = L {1(t)} = 1/s, which gives
1
s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) =
s
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) = U (s)
U (s) = L {1(t)} = 1/s, which gives
1
s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) =
s

1
↵s + (3↵ + ) + s
Y (s) =
s2 + 3s + 2
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) = U (s)
U (s) = L {1(t)} = 1/s, which gives
1
s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) =
s

1
↵s + (3↵ + ) + s ↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1
Y (s) = =
s2 + 3s + 2 s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Example (continued)
ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =
Compute the step response, i.e., response to u(t) = 1(t)

Caution!! Y (s) = H(s)U (s) no longer holds if ↵ 6= 0 or 6= 0

Again, take Laplace transforms of both sides, mind the I.C.’s:

s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) = U (s)
U (s) = L {1(t)} = 1/s, which gives
1
s2 Y (s) s↵ + 3sY (s) 3↵ + 2Y (s) =
s

1
↵s + (3↵ + ) + s ↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1
Y (s) = =
s2 + 3s + 2 s(s + 1)(s + 2)
1
Note: if ↵ = = 0, then Y (s) = = H(s)U (s)
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Example (continued)
Compute the step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

Example (continued)
Compute the step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 1
Y (s) = y(t) = L {Y (s)}
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Example (continued)
Compute the step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 1
Y (s) = y(t) = L {Y (s)}
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Use the method of partial fractions:

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 a b c
= + +
s(s + 1)(s + 2) s s+1 s+2
Example (continued)
Compute the step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 1
Y (s) = y(t) = L {Y (s)}
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Use the method of partial fractions:

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 a b c
= + +
s(s + 1)(s + 2) s s+1 s+2
— this gives a = 1/2, b = 2↵ + 1, c = ↵ + 1/2
Example (continued)
Compute the step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 1
Y (s) = y(t) = L {Y (s)}
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Use the method of partial fractions:

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 a b c
= + +
s(s + 1)(s + 2) s s+1 s+2
— this gives a = 1/2, b = 2↵ + 1, c = ↵ + 1/2
1 1 ↵ + 1/2
Y (s) = + (2↵ + 1) +
2s s+1 s+2
Example (continued)
Compute the step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 1
Y (s) = y(t) = L {Y (s)}
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Use the method of partial fractions:

↵s2 + (3↵ + )s + 1 a b c
= + +
s(s + 1)(s + 2) s s+1 s+2
— this gives a = 1/2, b = 2↵ + 1, c = ↵ + 1/2
1 1 ↵ + 1/2
Y (s) = + (2↵ + 1) +
2s s+1 s+2
1 1 t 2t
y(t) = L {Y (s)} = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
What are the transient and the steady-state terms?
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
What are the transient and the steady-state terms?
I The transient terms are e t , e 2t
(decay to zero at exponential
rates 1 and 2)
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
What are the transient and the steady-state terms?
I The transient terms are e t , e 2t
(decay to zero at exponential
rates 1 and 2)
1
Note the poles of H(s) = at s = 1 and s = 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
What are the transient and the steady-state terms?
I The transient terms are e t , e 2t
(decay to zero at exponential
rates 1 and 2)
1
Note the poles of H(s) = at s = 1 and s = 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
— these are stable poles (both lie in LHP)
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
What are the transient and the steady-state terms?
I The transient terms are e t , e 2t
(decay to zero at exponential
rates 1 and 2)
1
Note the poles of H(s) = at s = 1 and s = 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
— these are stable poles (both lie in LHP)
I the steady-state part is 12 1(t)
Example (continued)
The step response of

ÿ + 3ẏ + 2y = u, y(0) = ↵, ẏ(0) =

is given by
1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
What are the transient and the steady-state terms?
I The transient terms are e t , e 2t
(decay to zero at exponential
rates 1 and 2)
1
Note the poles of H(s) = at s = 1 and s = 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)
— these are stable poles (both lie in LHP)
I the steady-state part is 12 1(t) — converges to steady-state value
of 1/2
DC Gain

u h y

Definition: the steady-state value of the step response is called

the DC gain of the system.
DC Gain

u h y

Definition: the steady-state value of the step response is called

the DC gain of the system.

DC gain = y(1) = lim y(t) for u(t) = 1(t)

t!1
DC Gain

u h y

Definition: the steady-state value of the step response is called

the DC gain of the system.

DC gain = y(1) = lim y(t) for u(t) = 1(t)

t!1

In our example above, the step response is

1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
DC Gain

u h y

Definition: the steady-state value of the step response is called

the DC gain of the system.

DC gain = y(1) = lim y(t) for u(t) = 1(t)

t!1

In our example above, the step response is

1 t 2t
y(t) = 1(t) + (2↵ + 1)e + (1/2 ↵ )e
2
therefore, DC gain = y(1) = 1/2
Steady-State Value
u h y
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a>0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
1
I Y (s) = , a < 0 (pole at s = a > 0)
s+a
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
1
I Y (s) = , a < 0 (pole at s = a > 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 1
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
1
I Y (s) = , a < 0 (pole at s = a > 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 1
1
I Y (s) = , ! 2 R (poles at s = ±j!, purely imaginary)
s2 + ! 2
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
1
I Y (s) = , a < 0 (pole at s = a > 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 1
1
I Y (s) = , ! 2 R (poles at s = ±j!, purely imaginary)
s2 + ! 2
y(t) = sin(!t) =) y(1) does not exist
Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?

#
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
1
I Y (s) = , a < 0 (pole at s = a > 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 1
1
I Y (s) = , ! 2 R (poles at s = ±j!, purely imaginary)
s2 + ! 2
y(t) = sin(!t) =) y(1) does not exist
c
I Y (s) = (pole at the origin, s = 0)
s
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Steady-State Value
u h y

1 H(s)
u(t) = 1(t) U (s) = =) Y (s) =
s s
— can we compute y(1) from Y (s)?
Let’s look at some examples:
1
I Y (s) = , a > 0 (pole at s = a < 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 0
1
I Y (s) = , a < 0 (pole at s = a > 0)
s+a
at
y(t) = e =) y(1) = 1
1
I Y (s) = , ! 2 R (poles at s = ±j!, purely imaginary)
s2 + ! 2
y(t) = sin(!t) =) y(1) does not exist
c
I Y (s) = (pole at the origin, s = 0)
s
↳ y(t) = c1(t) =) y(1) = c
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

15
0
y(1) = lim sY (s).
s!0 <
2
y(x) -
lim Y(+)
t-1 D
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) =
s+a s+a
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) =
s+a s+a
if a > 0, then y(1) = 0; if a < 0, FVT does not give correct
answer
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) =
s+a s+a
if a > 0, then y(1) = 0; if a < 0, FVT does not give correct
answer
1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) = 2
s2 + ! 2 s + !2
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) =
s+a s+a
if a > 0, then y(1) = 0; if a < 0, FVT does not give correct
answer
1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) = 2
s2 + ! 2 s + !2
poles are purely imaginary (not in OLHP), FVT does not give
correct answer
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) =
s+a s+a
if a > 0, then y(1) = 0; if a < 0, FVT does not give correct
answer
1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) = 2
s2 + ! 2 s + !2
poles are purely imaginary (not in OLHP), FVT does not give
correct answer
c
I Y (s) = sY (s) = c
s
The Final Value Theorem
We can now deduce the Final Value Theorem (FVT):
If all poles of sY (s) are strictly stable or lie in the open left
half-plane (OLHP), i.e., have Re(s) < 0, then

y(1) = lim sY (s).

s!0

In our examples, multiply Y (s) by s, check poles:

1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) =
s+a s+a
if a > 0, then y(1) = 0; if a < 0, FVT does not give correct
-
unique
answer finite
1 s
I Y (s) = sY (s) = 2
s2 + ! 2 s + !2
poles are purely imaginary (not in OLHP), FVT does not give
e correct
- answer

I Y (s) =
c
sY (s) = c
s
poles at infinity, so y(1) = c –I FVT gives correct answer
Back to DC Gain
u h y
Back to DC Gain
u h y

H(s)
Step response: Y (s) =
s
Back to DC Gain
u h y

H(s)
Step response: Y (s) =
s
— if all poles of sY (s) = H(s) are strictly stable, then
y(1) = lim H(s)
s!0
by the FVT.
Back to DC Gain
u h y

H(s)
Step response: Y (s) =
s
— if all poles of sY (s) = H(s) are strictly stable, then
y(1) = lim H(s)
s!0
by the FVT.
Example: compute DC gain of the system with transfer function
s2 + 5s + 3
H(s) =
s3 + 4s + 2s + 5
Back to DC Gain
u h y

H(s)
Step response: Y (s) =
s
— if all poles of sY (s) = H(s) are strictly stable, then
y(1) = lim H(s)
s!0
by the FVT.
Example: compute DC gain of the system with transfer function
s2 + 5s + 3
H(s) =
s3 + 4s + 2s + 5
All poles of H(s) are strictly stable (we will see this later using
the Routh–Hurwitz criterion), so
3
y(1) = H(s) = .
s=0 5