TANDY 102 Cat, No, 26-3803 Applications and BASIC Reference GuideTandy® 102 Software: © 1985 Microsoft Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. The software in the Tandy 102 microcomputer is retained in a read-only memory (ROM) format. All portions of this software, whether in the ROM format or other source code form format, and the ROM circuitry, are copyrighted and are the pro- prietary and trade secret information of Tandy Corporation and Microsoft. Use, reproduction or publication of any portion of this material without the prior written authorization by Tandy Corporation is strictly prohibited. Tandy® 102 Applications and BASIC Reference Guide © 1985 Tandy Corporation All Rights Reserved. Reproduction or use, without express written permission from Tandy Corporation and/or its licensor, of any portion of this manual is prohibited. While reasonable efforts have been taken in the preparation of this manual to assure its accuracy, Tandy Corporation assumes no liability resulting from any errors or omissions in this manual, or from the use of the information contained herein.Contents Part 1/ Applications Reference Guide 1/ Tandy 102 ................ 4 2/ SCHEDL/ADDRSS........ 5 3/ TEXT ........ eee eee eee ee 6 4/ TELCOM ............22055 8 Part 2/ BASIC Reference Guide 5/ BASIC Operation .......... 12 6/ BASIC Data............... 14 7/ BASIC Input/Output ....... 20 8/ BASIC Files............... 24 9/ BASIC Program Flow ...... 29 10/ BASIC Keywords .......... 32 11/ BASIC Machine-Code Calls .75 12/ BASIC Variable Storage ....77 13/ BASIC Codes ............. 82 15/ BASIC Sample Programs ...95 1PART 1/ Applications Reference Guide This part is a quick reference guide to the information presented in the Tandy 102 Owner’s Manual.1/ Tandy 102 CNUM) Turns on and off the numeric keypad. (PRINT) Prints the display. Turns on and off the function-key display. (SHTFT)(BREAK) Stops the current operation. To set the day, date, and time: Enter BASIC and use the DAY$, DATES, and TIME$, commands. (See ‘‘BASIC Keywords”’ in Part 2 of this guide.) To rename or kill a file: Enter BASIC and use the NAME and KILL commands. (See ‘‘BASIC Keywords”’ in Part 2 of this guide.)2/ SCHEDL/ADDRSS Finds records from NOTE.DO (SCHEDL) or ADRS.DO (ADDRSS) and lists them on the display. Finds records from NOTE.DO (SCHEDL) or ADRS.DO (ADDRSS) and prints them on the printer. Returns to the Main Menu.3/ Text TEXT Cursor Movement © @ @ GHIFDG) (GHIFDE) (CTR) CTRL SHIFT) SHIFT)C) CTRL) CTRL) Moves right 1 character. Moves left 1 character. Moves up | character. Moves down | character. Moves to the next word. Moves to the previous word. Moves to the right end of the line. Moves to the left end of the line. Moves to the top of the display. Moves to the bottom of the display. Moves to the top of the file. Moves to the bottom of the file.TEXT Editing CSHTFT)DEL) (SHIFD(PRINT) (PASTE) ED 2) 8 8 8 8 8 Deletes a character. Backspaces and erases. Prints a text file. Pastes the contents of the paste buffer. Finds text. Loads a text file from cassette tape, RS-232C or modem. Saves a text file on cassette tape, line printer, RS-232C or modem. Copies text into the paste buffer. Cuts text into the paste buffer. Selects text to cut or copy into the paste buffer.. Returns to the Main Menu.4/ TELCOM TELCOM Interactive Mode Finds and autodials a number stored in ADRS.DO. (The number must follow a colon (:).) Autodials the number that you type and enter. (F3) Enters or displays TELCOM’s parameters. Enters the terminal mode. Returns to the Tandy 102 Main Menu.TELCOM Terminal Mode Displays the previous screen. (F2) Saves all transmitted information into a text file. ES Sends the information stored in a text file. : Switches between the full- duplex and half-duplex echo modes. (F5) Prints all transmitted information on the printer. Disconnects from the terminal mode and returns to the interactive mode. 8Part 2/ BASIC Reference Guide This part is a reference to Tandy 102 BASIC. It assumes you already know how to program in BASIC and need to find out how BASIC is implemented on the Tandy 102. To learn how to program in BASIC, we suggest the following book: The TRS-80 Model 100 Portable Computer, David A. Lien, CompuSoft Publishing, 1983. ll5/ BASIC Operation BASIC Modes BASIC lets you operate it in the immediate mode, program execution mode, and edit mode: To use the immediate mode: Type and enter any statement, for example, NEW (ENTER). This causes the statement to immediately execute. To use the execution mode: Type and enter the RUN statement or press (F4). This causes the current BASIC program to run. To use the edit mode: Type and enter the EDIT statement. This causes BASIC to load program lines into the Tandy 102 TEXT program. To return the lines to BASIC from TEXT, press the key. BASIC Keys BASIC recognizes these special keys: same as typing FILES (F2) same as typing LOAD “ same as typing SAVE “ same as typing RUN (F5) same as typing LIST 12not used not used same as typing MENU same as typing LCOPY same as typing LLIST pauses execution of a BASIC program SHIFT )(BREAK) breaks execution of a BASIC program You can redefine the 8 of these keys—the 8 function keys—with the KEY statement. BASIC Programs BASIC lets you execute programs that contain: © Up to 65529 lines © Up to 255 characters per line. ¢ 1 or more BASIC statements per line, separated by colons (:). These are examples of simple BASIC program lines. As these examples show, the spaces between the keywords are optional: 10 CLEAR : CLS : PRINT @ 35, ‘‘MENU”’; 20 PRINT@75,‘‘1.Enter Data’’;:PRINT@115, “2.Update Data’’; 136/ BASIC Data BASIC lets you enter data into a program as a string or as a number. A string can contain any kind of characters; BASIC can store up to 255 characters in a string. A number can contain only numeric characters; BASIC can store a number in 1 of 3 levels of precision. (More precision requires more memory.) ¢ Double precision numbers—These numbers range between +/— 10° to +/— 10°4 and consist of up to 14 significant digits, plus a decimal point. To represent a double precision in exponential form, use the E notation. Examples: 1.3402100054 3.1415926535898 1.44343455331E-40 ¢ Single precision numbers—These numbers range between +/— 10° to +/— 10°* and consist of up to 6 significant digits, plus a decimal point. To represent a single precision in exponential form, use the E notation. Examples: 100.003 — 23.4212 4.552E-14 14e Integer numbers—These numbers range between — 32768 to 32767 and include whole numbers only (no decimal numbers). Examples: 1 32000 -2 500 — 12345 Many statements let you enter data as an expression. An expression can consist of constants, variables, operations, and BASIC functions. These are examples of numeric expressions: 52 N N+2 TAN(N)+5 These are examples of string expressions: “FRANK” A$ A$+ “FRANK” A$+CHR§(13) Constants BASIC lets you use constants in string or numeric expression. To use a constant in a string expression, enclose the value in quotes. Example: “Enter Check 123” To use a constant in a numeric expression, omit the quotes. Example: 1234. BASIC treats all numeric constants as double-precision numbers. Variables BASIC lets you use variables in any kind of expression. To use a variable, first equate the variable’s name to a constant (for example, N=17); then use the variable name to refer to the constant. 15A variable name can consist of any number of characters—the first of which needs to be a letter—however, BASIC recognizes only the first 2 characters in the variable name. For example, BASIC treats all the following variable names as 1 name—the variable name SU: SU SUPER SUPERLATIVE BASIC initially assumes that all variables are double precision numbers. To change this assumption, you can use these type definition statements: DEFINT DEFSNG DEFSTR DEFDBL You can also use any of these type declaration tags: % integer variable ! single precision variable # double precision variables $ string variables A type declaration tag takes precedence over a type definition statement. For example, DEFINT L defines the variable L1 as an integer variable; however, L1$ is a string variable. A variable name can be simple or subscripted. These are examples of simple variable names: SU Di VA 16These are examples of subscripted variable names (often called array variables): SU(3,5,9) DATA(2,5,3,5,5,) When using subscripted variable names, you need to include a DIM statement at the start of the program to dimension enough memory. The only limit on the number of subscripts you can use is the amount of free memory. Operations BASIC lets you use only 1 operator in a string expression: + concatenate BASIC lets you use any of the following operators in a numeric expression: + positive - negative + addition - subtraction * multiplication / division \ integer division (enter the ‘‘\”’ by pressing (GRAPH)(-) at the same time) a exponentiation MOD modulus < less than > greater than 17-= equal to <> or >< not equal to = or >= greater than or equal to AND logical AND OR logical OR XOR logical XOR EQV logical EQV IMP logical IMP NOT logical NOT When you use more than one operator, BASIC performs the operations according to this hierarchy: A +,— (positive or negative) You can override this hierarchy by enclosing operations in parentheses—BASIC works from the inner parentheses outwards. For example, C=(A+B)/54+3 18Functions BASIC lets you use any of these functions in a string expression: CHR$ DATE$ DAY$ INSTR LEFT$ MID$ RIGHT$ SPACE$ STR$ STRINGS TIME$ BASIC lets you use any of these functions in a numeric expression: ABS ASC ATN CDBL CINT COS CSNG_ ERL ERR EXP FIX FRE INT LEN LOG RND SGN SIN SQR TAN VAL VARPTR 197/ BASIC Input/Output BASIC has statements and functions that let you input and output to 7 devices. These statements and functions are listed on Table 1. Screen Positions BASIC lets you use the LINE, PSET, and PRESET statements to produce graphics on 15,360 screen positions (240 x positions and 64 y positions). The graphics screen positions are shown on Figure 1. BASIC lets you use the PRINT @ statement, and the POS and CSRLIN functions, to control the cursor’s location on the 320 positions. The cursor screen positions are shown in Figure 2. Sound Frequencies BASIC lets you use the SOUND statement to produce music, using the sound-generator frequency chart shown in Table 2. 20RAM CLOSE EOF INPUT# INPUTS IPL KILL LINE INPUT# LOAD LOADM MERGE NAME OPEN PRINT# PRINT# USING RUN RUNM SAVE SAVEM TAB Cassette CLOAD CLOAD? CLOADM CLOSE CSAVE CSAVEM EOF INPUT# INPUT$ LINE INPUT # LOAD LOADM MERGE MOTOR OPEN PRINT # USING PRINT# RUN RUNM SAVE SAVEM TAB Modem and RS-232 TAB MDM CLOSE EOF INPUT# INPUT$ LOAD MERGE RUN SAVE ON MDM GOSUB OPEN PRINT# PRINT # USING COM ON COM GOSUB Screen CLS CSRLIN LIST POS PRINT PRINT @ PRINT USING SCREEN PRINT # TAB PRINT USING # CLOSE OPEN Line Printer LCOPY LLIST LPOS LPRINT LPRINT USING CLOSE OPEN PRINT # SAVE PRINT # USING TAB Keyboard INKEY$ INPUT INPUT$ KEY KEY LIST KEY LINE INPUT ON KEY GOSUB Sound generator BEEP SOUND Table 1. BASIC Device Statements and Functions 21ae a Re Re t Sp a> Re arly > g > \ o> om A a a a a ° 2 3 ° a Figure 1. Figure 2. Graphic Screen Cursor Screen Positions Positions 22Octave Note 1 2 3 4 5 G 12538 | 6269 | 3134 | 1567 783 G# 11836 | 5918 | 2959 | 1479 739 A 11172 | 5586 | 2793 | 1396 698 A# 10544 | 5272 | 2636 | 1318 659 B 9952 | 4976 | 2488 | 1244 622 Cc 9394 | 4697 | 2348 | 1174 587 C# 8866 | 4433 | 2216 | 1108 554 D 8368 | 4184 | 2092 | 1046 523 D# 7900 | 3950 | 1975 987 493 E 7456 | 3728 | 1864 932 466 F 7032 | 3516 | 1758 879 439 F# 6642 | 3321 1660 830 415 Table 2. Sound frequencies. 23&8/ BASIC Files BASIC has many statements and functions that let you input and output to ‘‘device files,’”’ and, in many cases, these statements and functions are “‘device generic.’? For example, PRINT # is a device generic statement—It lets you output to files on 6 devices: RAM, cassette tape, modem, RS-232, screen, and printer. Using device generic statements makes it easy to modify a program for a different device. For example, assume a program uses device generic statements to output to the screen. You can easily modify this program to output to the printer, rather than the screen, simply by changing the screen file specifications to printer file specifications. File Specifications When inputting or outputting to a device file, you need to give a file specification. The formats for file specifications are: RAM files: “RAM:name”’ Cassette files: “CAS:name’’ Modem files: “MDM: wpbs”’ RS-232 files: “COM: rwpbs”’ Screen files: “LCD:” Line printer files: “LPT:” 24name can contain 1-6 characters. With RAM files, BASIC will add the following 2-letter extensions: “«“ BA”’, if the file is a BASIC program, or ““DO”’, if the file is ASCII data. rwpbs specifies the following communication parameters: r baud rate (omit if the device is MDM) 1=75; 2=110; 3=300; 4=600; 5 = 1200; 6=2400; 7 = 4800; 8 = 9600; 9= 19200. w word length 6=6 bits; 7=7 bits; 8=8 bits. Pp parity O=Odd; I =Ignore; N=None; E=Even. b stop bits 1=1 stop bit; 2=2 stop bits. 5 start/stop (XON/XOFF) enablement E=enable;D = disable. Examples of using the same statement to open a file for outputting data to RAM, cassette tape, the modem line, the RS-232 line, the screen, and the line printer: OPEN ‘‘RAM:ACCTS”’ FOR OUTPUT AS 1 OPEN ‘‘CAS:DATA1”’ FOR OUTPUT AS 1 OPEN ‘‘COM:37EI1E’’ FOR OUTPUT AS | OPEN ‘‘MDM:7E1E” FOR OUTPUT AS 1 OPEN ‘‘LCD:”’ FOR OUTPUT AS 1 OPEN ‘‘LPT:”? FOR OUTPUT AS 1 25File Types BASIC uses 2 kinds of files: BASIC program files (which contain BASIC’s compressed codes) or ASCII data files (which contain standard ASCII codes). In both cases, BASIC can access the file only 1 way—using sequential access. When inputting or outputting to a BASIC program file, you need to use only 1 BASIC statement. For example: SAVE ‘“‘RAM:PROG”’ LOAD ‘“‘MDM:7EI1B” When inputting or outputting to an ASCII data file, you need to use a combination of BASIC statements: 1. Use the OPEN statement to open a file buffer for input, output, or appending to a file. (On startup, BASIC lets you use only 1 file buffer, but you can reset this with the MAXFILES statement.) 2. If outputting to a file, use either the PRINT # or PRINT # USING statement, depending on how you want to format the data. (See PRINT and PRINT USING for information on the 2 kinds of formats.) 26If inputting from a file, use either the INPUT #, INPUTS, or LINE INPUT # statements depending how you want to input the data. (See INPUT, INPUTS, and LINE INPUT for information on the 3 ways of inputting data.) You may also need to use the EOF function to test whether you have reached the end of the file. 3. Use the CLOSE statement to close the file buffer. This is an example of a program that outputs data to an ASCII file: 10 MAXFILES = 1 20 OPEN ‘“‘NAMES” FOR OUTPUT AS 1 30 FOR 1% =1 TO 10 40 INPUT “ENTER A NAME”’;A$ 50 PRINT #1, A$;’’,’’; 60 NEXT I% 70 CLOSE #1 This is an example of a program that updates an ASCII file: 10 MAXFILES =2 20 OPEN ‘“‘NAMES”’ FOR INPUT AS 1 30 OPEN “UPDATE” FOR OUTPUT AS 2 40 IF EOF(1) THEN 100 50 INPUT #1, A$ 60 PRINT A$ 2770 INPUT ‘“‘PRESS OR ENTER NEW NAME” ;B$ 80 IF B$<>‘‘”? THEN PRINT #2, B$;‘‘,”’; ELSE PRINT #2 A$;‘‘,”; 90 GOTO 40 100 CLOSE 1,2 289/ BASIC Program Flow BASIC executes the statements in a BASIC program sequentially. You can alter this program flow with these statements: CALL END FOR/NEXT GOSUB GOTO IF/THEN ON GOTO ON GOSUB RESUME RETURN ON TIME$ GOTO ON KEY GOTO ON MDM GOTO ON COM GOTO ON ERROR GOTO Interrupt-Handling Routines BASIC lets you use the ON TIME$ GOSUB, ON KEY GOSUB, ON MDM GOSUB, and ON COM GOSUB to set an interrupt condition which causes BASIC to branch to an interrupt-handling subroutine. For example, the statement ON TIME$ = ‘11:30:00’? GOSUB 1000 sets an interrupt condition to occur when the time is 11:30—At 11:30, BASIC will go to the subroutine at line 1000. Before BASIC can recognize an interrupt condition, you need to ‘‘turn on’’ the appropriate interrupt with the TIME$, KEY, MDM, COM statement. For example, TIME$ ON tells BASIC to start watching the time so that it can handle the interrupt set at 11:30. 29You can also ‘‘turn off’’ or ‘“‘stop’’ an interrupt using the same statements. For example, TIMES OFF tells BASIC to quit watching the time. TIME$ STOP tells BASIC to keep watching the time, but not to handle the 11:30 interrupt until it encounters another TIME$ ON statement. This is an example of a program using an interrupt-handling subroutine: 10 ON TIMES$ = ‘20:00:00’ GOSUB 1000 20 TIMES ON e e 1000 TIME$ = ‘‘19:00:00”" 1010 TIME$ OFF 1020 RETURN The first time that the clock reaches 20:00:00, BASIC jumps to line 1000, resets the clock, and returns to what it was doing before the subroutine call. The next time the clock reaches 20:00:00, nothing happens because the interrupt was disabled in line 1010. Error Handling Routines Another of the above statements—ON ERROR GOTO—causes BASIC to interrupt program flow if an error occurs and goto an error-handling portion of the program. To return to the main portion of the program, you need to use the RESUME statement. 30This is an example of a program using an error- handling routine: 100 ON ERROR GOTO 1000 e e 200 X e 300 X 10000 / Y 300 / Y e 1000 IF ERR<>11 THEN PRINT “‘Error Code‘‘;ERR;”’ in line ”:ERL : STOP ELSE X= 100000: RESUME NEXT If an error occurs, BASIC jumps to line 1000. If the error is error 11 (division by zero), X is set to a high value, 100000, and execution returns to the line following the error line. If some other error occurs, BASIC prints out the message and stops. 3110/ BASIC Keywords ABS(numeric expression) returns the absolute value of numeric expression. ABS(- 5) returns the number 5. ASC(string expression) returns the ASCII code for the first character in string expression. (See BASIC codes.) ATN (numeric expression) returns the arctangent of number (in radians). The resulting value ranges from —7 to 7. 10 AN = ATN(.5) sets AN to 0.46364760900081 . BEEP causes the sound generator to beep for about 1/2 second. 10 BEEP CALL entry address, expressionl, expression2 calls a machine level subroutine beginning at entry address. expression! and expression2 are optional; if used, Register A will contain expression! (a value from 0 to 255) and Register HL will contain expression2 (a value from -32768 to 65535). 10 CALL 60000,10,VARPTR(A%) calls a subroutine beginning at address 60000. Upon entry to the subroutine, register A contains 10, and register HL contains the address of the variable A%. 32CDBL (numeric expression) converts the value of numeric expression to a double-precision number. 10 A# = CDBL (A%) If A% contains 344, then A# contains 344. CHRS (numeric expression) returns the ASCII character for the value of numeric expression. numeric expression must lie in the range of 0 to 255. CHR$ is the inverse of the function ASC. See the Appendices for a list of ASCII codes. 10 PRINT CHR$(65) prints the character A. CINT (numeric expression) truncates the decimal portion of numeric expression. The resulting value must lie in the range -32768 to 32767. 10 A% = CINT(45.67) sets A% equal to 45. CLEAR string space, high memory clears the values in all numeric and string variables and closes all open files. Also allocates memory for string space and sets high memory (the highest address BASIC can access). If you omit string space, BASIC allocates 256 bytes. If you omit high memory, BASIC uses all memory up to the top of RAM. 3310 CLEAR clears all variables, closes open files, sets the available string space to 256 bytes. and releases all available memory to BASIC. CLEAR 100,50000 clears all variables, closes open files, sets the available string space to 100 bytes, and sets 50000 as the highest memory address available to BASIC. CLEAR 0 clears all memory. CLOAD ‘file”,R clears the current BASIC program and loads file, a BASIC program, from cassette tape. If you omit file, BASIC loads the first BASIC program it finds. If R is used, BASIC executes the new program as soon as the load is complete. CLOAD “‘ACCT’’,R loads and runs the BASIC program ACCT stored on tape. CLOAD loads the first BASIC program found on the cassette tape. CLOAD? file compares file with the BASIC program currently in memory. If there are any differences, BASIC displays the message VERIFY FAILED; otherwise BASIC simply prints OK. CLOAD? ‘“‘ACCT”’ compares the cassette file ACCT with the program currently in memory. 34CLOADM “file” loads the machine-code program called file from cassette into memory, at the addres specified when it was written to the cassette tape. CLOADM ‘‘MEMTST”’ loads the machine program MEMTST from the cassette. CLOSE file buffer closes the specified file buffer. If omitted, BASIC closes all open file buffers. (See OPEN.) CLOSE 1, 2, 3 closes file buffers 1, 2, and 3. CLS clears the screen and moves the cursor to the upper-left corner. CLS: PRINT ‘‘The old screen is gone!’’ COM ON / COM OFF / COM STOP turns on, turns off, or temporarily stops the ON COM interrupt. (See ON COM GOSUB.) COM ON turns on the ON COM interrupt. CONT resumes execution of a program after you have pressed or after BASIC has encountered a STOP statement in the program. CONT resumes execution of the BASIC program. 35COS (numeric expression) returns the cosine of angle given by numeric expression. You must give this angle in radians. 10 Y = COS(60*0.01745329) assigns Y the value 0.50000013094004. CSAVE “file”,A stores the current BASIC program on cassette tape using the specified file .A is optional; if used, BASIC saves the program as an ASCII file— Otherwise, BASIC stores the program as a BASIC program file. CSAVE ‘‘TANDY”’ saves the current program on cassette tape as a compressed BASIC file under the name “TANDY.”’ CSAVE ‘“‘TANDY”’ ,A saves the current program on cassette tape as an ASCII file. CSAVEM “‘file’’, start address, end address, entry address writes the machine-code program stored from start address to end address on cassette.tape using the specified file. entry address is optional; if omitted, BASIC assumes that the program entry address is the same as the start address. CSAVEM ‘‘MEMTST”’ ,50000,50305,50020 writes the program stored from addresses 50000 to 50305 with the entry point at 50020 on cassette tape, giving the file the name ‘“MEMTST.” 36CSNG (numeric expression) returns the single-precision form of numeric expression. 10 A! = CSNG(0.66666666666) sets A! equal to 0.666667. CSRLIN returns the vertical position (line number) of the cursor where 0 is the top line and 5 is the bottom line. 10 CLS: A% = CSRLIN clears the screen and assigns A% the value 0. DATA constant list defines a set of constants (numeric and/or string) to be accessed by a READ command elsewhere in the program. See also READ and RESTORE. DATA 10,25,50,15,‘‘Probabilities”’ ,‘‘Total”’ stores the given values. DATE$ returns the date. The date has the form MM/DD/YY. DATE$ = “11/02/84” sets the date to November 02, 1984. PRINT DATE$ prints the date. 37DAYS returns the day. The day is a 3-letter abbreviation: ‘Mon’’, ‘‘Tue’’, ‘‘Wed’’, “‘Thu’’, ‘‘Fri’’, ‘‘Sat’’, or ‘‘Sun’’. DAY$ = ‘Fri’ sets the day to Friday. PRINT DAYS$ prints the day. DEFDBL letter list defines all the variables which begin with the letters in Jetter list as double-precision variables. letter list consists of individual letters and/or letter ranges of the form /etter]—letter2. 100 DEFDBL D, X-Z defines as double-precision all variables beginning with the letters D, X, Y, and Z. DEFINT letter list defines all the variables which begin with the letters in /etter list as integer variables. Jetter list consists of individual letters and/or letter ranges of the form /etter]—letter2. 120 DEFINT D, X-Z. defines as integer type all variables beginning with the letters D, X, Y, and Z. DEFSNG letter list defines all the variables which begin with the letters in /etter list as single precision variables. letter list consists of individual letters and/or letter ranges of the form /etter]—letter2. 38100 DEFSNG D, X-Z defines as single precision all variables beginning with the letters D, X, Y, and Z. DEFSTR letter list defines all the variables which begin with the letters in /etter list as string variables. letter list consists of individual letters and/or letter ranges of the form /etter] —letter2. 100 DEFSTR D, X-Z defines as string all variables beginning with the letters D, X, Y, and Z. DIM variable name (dimensions) defines variable name as an array with one or more dimensions. The number of dimensions you can use depends on the amount of available memory. To redimension an array, you must first use the CLEAR command to clear the array. DIM A$ (10), BAL%(10,10) defines a string array, A$, which consists of 11 elements, A$(0) through A$(10), and an integer array, BAL%, which consists of 121 elements, BAL%(0,0) through BAL%(10,10). EDIT line number range enters the TEXT program so that you can edit the specified lines. To return to BASIC, press (F8). EDIT lets you edit the entire program. EDIT 100-500 lets you edit lines 100 through 500 EDIT. lets you edit the current line. 39EDIT 100- lets you edit from line 100 to the end of the program. END terminates execution of the BASIC program. If omitted, BASIC executes up to the physical end of the program. END EOF (file buffer) checks to see if the file assigned to the specified file buffer has reached the end of the file. If so, EOF returns a -1; if not EOF returns a 0. IF EOF(1) THEN 200 checks the file assigned to buffer 1 for end of file. If it has reached the end of file, the program jumps to line 200. ERL returns the line number of the last error. If the last error is not from a program line but from a direct mode command, ERL returns the value 65535. ERL is useful in an error-handling routine. (See ON ERROR and ERR.) 2000 IF ERR = 23 THEN RESUME ELSE PRINT “‘Error’’;ERR; ‘‘in line’’;ERL: STOP If the error is an I/O error (ERR = 23), BASIC simply retries the I/O(RESUME). If there is some other error, such as a syntax error, BASIC displays ‘‘Error 2 in line 1000’’ and stops the program. 40ERR returns the error code number of the last error. ERR is useful in an error-handling routine. (See ON ERROR and ERL.) 2000 IF ERR = 18 THEN PRINT “‘I/O Error” ELSE STOP ERROR numeric expression simulates the error specified by numeric expression. BASIC acts as if your program has committed the error. ERROR is useful in an error-handling routine. (See ON ERROR.) 100 ERROR 10 prints DD Error in 100 and stops execution of the program. EXP (numeric expression) returns the exponential (or natural antilog) of numeric expression. numeric expression must be in the range +145.062860858624 /—147.365445951624 or an overflow error occurs. EXP is the opposite of the function LOG. PRINT EXP(14) prints 1202604.2841644, the natural antilog of 14. FILES causes BASIC to display all the files currently stored in RAM, without exiting BASIC. BASIC will display an asterisk (*) next to the program that is currently running. 41FIX (numeric expression) returns the whole number portion of numeric expression. 10 A = FIX(1440.43) sets A equal to 1440. 10 A + FIX(-33494123.4442) sets A equal to -33494123. FOR variable=initial value TO final value STEP increment NEXT variable executes the statements between the FOR and NEXT loop repetitively, from initial value to final value using the specified STEP increment. STEP increment is optional; if omitted, BASIC assumes STEP 1. 10 FOR I=10 TO 1 STEP -1 20 PRINT I; 30 NEXT I prints the numbers 10 through 1. FRE (0) returns the current amount of unused memory. PRINT FRE(0) FRE (“”’) returns the current amount of unused string space. PRINT FRE(‘‘”’) 42GOSUB line number transfers program control to the subroutine beginning at /ine number. You must terminate the subroutine with a RETURN command. GOSUB 1000 goes to the subroutine beginning at line 1000. GOTO line number goes to the specified line number. GOTO 10 HIMEM returns the top address of memory available to BASIC. You may change this value with the CLEAR statement. PRINT HIMEM IF relational or logical expression THEN command(s) ELSE command(s)2 tests a relational or logical expression. If true, BASIC executes command(s)1. If false, BASIC executes command(s)2. ELSE command(s)2 is optional; if omitted, BASIC assumes the ELSE clause is the next line. 10 IF A < 90 THEN GOTO 100 tests A < 90. If true, BASIC goes to line 100; if false, BASIC continues with the next line. 10 IF A = 10 ORA = 20 THEN B$ = “PAID” ELSE B$ = ‘‘Not Paid’ tests the condition A=10 OR A =20. If true, BASIC assigns B$ the string ‘‘Paid’’; if false, BASIC assigns B$ the string ‘‘Not Paid.’’ 43INKEYS returns the value of the key currently pressed, if any. If no key is pressed, the function returns a null character (‘‘’’). If you press an undefined function key, or the key, INKEY$ returns an ASCII 0 with a length of 1. 10 A$ = INKEY$: IF A$ = ‘‘”? THEN 10 INP (port number) returns a byte from the specified port. port number must be a numeric expression in the range of 0 to 255. INP is the complement function to the OUT command. (See the Tandy 102 Technical Reference Manual for information about ports.) A% = INP(5) sets A% equal to the byte value at Port 5. INPUT “prompt”;variable list awaits input from the keyboard and assigns the input to the variables in variable list. ‘‘prompt’’ is optional. 10 INPUT ‘‘Enter your name’’;A$ prompts the operator with ‘‘Enter your name’’; then assigns the value entered to A$. INPUT #file buffer,variable list inputs data sequentially from the file opened under file buffer. (See OPEN.) 10 INPUT #1,A$,B$,C inputs values for A$, B$ and C from the file opened as file #1.INPUTS (numeric expression) returns a string of numeric expression characters from the keyboard. numeric expression must be in the range of 1 to 255. INPUT$ does not display the input. A$ = INPUTS(5) waits for the operator to input 5 characters and assigns this value to A$. INPUTS (numeric expression,file buffer) Same as INPUTS except input is from the specified file buffer. A$ = INPUTS(5,1) inputs the next 5 characters from file buffer 1. INSTR (start position, search string, match string) searches search string for match string and, if found, returns the position of match string; otherwise, returns a 0. start position is optional; if omitted, INSTR starts the search at position 1. PRINT INSTR(‘‘dimethylsulfate”’, ‘‘sulfate’’) displays 9 (‘‘sulfate’’ starts at position 9). INT (numeric expression) returns the whole number representation of numeric expression, not greater than numeric expression. A# = INT(214441113.443) sets A# equal to 2144433113. A# = INT(-214.995) sets A# equal to -215. 45IPL “file” defines a RAM file named file as the startup program. After executing this command, the program named file runs whenever you turn on the computer. IPL executes properly only if the computer is turned off while in BASIC. IPL ‘“‘TIMSET.BA”’ To disable auto startup type IPL CENTER). KEY function key, string expression defines function key as string expression. string expression must be 15 or less characters. KEY 6,‘‘PRINT TIME$” + CHR$(13) defines function key 6 as PRINT TIME$ followed by a carriage return. Now whenever you press function key 6, BASIC returns the time. (See also ON KEY and KEY ON.) To reset the function keys to the cold start default, you must call two subroutines: CALL 23164,0,23366 CALL 27795 These calls reset the function keys to their original value. KEY (function key) ON/OFF/STOP enables, disables, or temporarily stops the ON KEY interrupt. (See ON KEY GOSUB.) 100 KEY (2) ON enables function key 2. 100 KEY ON enables all function keys. 100 KEY (4) OFF disables function key 4. 46KEY LIST lists on the display the current definitions for the function keys in the format: key 1 key 2 key 3 key 4 key 5 key 6 key 7 key 8 KILL “file” deletes a RAM file. You must include the file’s extension. KILL ‘‘BILLS.BA”’ deletes the RAM file BILLS.BA. Note: If you have 200 bytes or less of free memory, KILL may not delete a file. If this situation occurs, delete program lines manually or g0 to TEXT, select a file, and put it in the PASTE buffer. Then return to BASIC and KILL the unwanted files. Also, please note that you cannot kill a BASIC program while it is in the work area. LCOPY prints the text on the display. LCOPY ignores non-text data. LEFT$ (string expression, portion) returns the left portion of string expression. portion is a numeric expression. 10 AC$ = LEFTS$(‘‘817552161”’,3) sets AC$ to “817”. 47LEN (string expression) returns the number of characters in string expression. PRINT LEN(‘‘HELLO’’) prints 5. LET variable name=value equates a variable name with value. The word LET can be omitted; it is included to be compatible with older forms of BASIC. LET A$ = ‘‘The’”’ assigns ‘‘The’’ to A$. AS = “The” assigns ‘‘The’’ to A$. LINE (x1,y1)—(x2,y2), switch, BF draws a line from coordinates x/,y/ to x2,y2. (See “Graphic Screen Locations’’ in ‘“-BASIC Input/Output’’.) If (x/,y/) is omitted, BASIC starts the line from the x,y coordinates of the last LINE command, or from 0,0 if this is the first LINE command. switch tells BASIC whether to set or reset the pixels: odd values tell BASIC to set the pixels; even values tell BASIC to reset the pixels. If omitted, BASIC uses set. B tells BASIC to draw a box, rather than a line. BF tells BASIC to fill in the box. Both B and BF require that you specify switch. 10 LINE (20,20)—(50,63) 20 LINE—(30,30) draws lines from (20,20) to (50,63), and from (50,63) to (30,30). 4810 LINE (20,20)—(50,63) ,0 resets (erases) all points on a line from (20,20) to (50,63) 10 LINE (0,0)—(239,63) ,1,B draws a box with corners at (0,0) and (239,63). 10 LINE (0,0)—(239,63) ,1,BF draws a box with corners at (0,0) and (239,63) and then sets all the points inside the box. LINE INPUT ‘prompt’; string variable awaits for the operator to enter a line of data from the keyboard; then, when the operator presses the carriage return (ENTER), assigns that string to string variable. prompt is optional. 10 LINE INPUT ‘‘ENTER NAME AND ADDRESS:”’;NA$ displays ‘ENTER NAME AND ADDRESS” and waits for the operator to enter this information. If the operator enters ‘‘John ‘Rocky’? Smith, 5641 Lancaster, East Pearoe, Ohio‘, this entire value is assigned to NAS. LINE INPUT# file buffer, string variable reads the next line (all text up to the carriage return) from the specified file buffer and assigns the value of this line to string variable. LINE INPUT #1,Z$ reads the next line from the file assigned to buffer #1, and assigns the value of this line to Z$. 49LIST lines displays the specified program /ines. LIST displays the entire program. LIST 100-300 displays from line 100 to line 300. LIST .- displays from the current line to the end of the program. (The period (.) represents the current line.) LLIST lines Same as list except output is to the printer. (See also LIST.) LLIST LOAD ‘file’; R loads a BASIC program file from RAM, cassette, the RS-232, or the modem. If you omit the device in the file specification, BASIC assumes RAM. LOAD ‘‘RAM:TIMSET”’ loads the BASIC program TIMSET.BA from RAM. LOAD ‘“‘CAS:ACCT”’ ,R loads and runs the BASIC program ACCT from cassette tape. LOAD ‘‘COM:78NI1E” loads a BASIC program from the RS-232C line, using 4800 baud, 8-bit words, no parity, 1 stop bit, and start/stop enabled. 50LOAD “‘MDM:702E” ,R loads a BASIC program from the modem, using 7-bit words, odd parity, 2 stop bits, and start/stop enabled. LOADM ‘‘file” loads a machine-language program file from RAM or cassette tape. If you omit the device in the file specification, BASIC assumes RAM. When BASIC loads the file, it prints out its start address, end address, and entry point, if any. LOADM ‘“‘MEMTST”’ loads the machine-language program called MEMTST.CO from RAM. LOADM ‘“‘CAS:MEMTST”’ loads the machine-language program called MEMTST from cassette tape. LOG (numeric expression) returns the natural logarithm (base ‘‘E’’) of numeric expression. numeric expression must be greater than zero. 10 A = LOG(10) sets A equal to 2.302585092994. LPOS (0) returns the current position of the printer print head within the printer buffer. LPRINT ‘‘Printer head positon:’’ LPOS(0) prints the message followed by the number. 51LPRINT expression list same as print except output is to the line printer. (See PRINT.) LPRINT “‘The total for ”;A$;‘* was ”’; TT If A$ contains the string April and TT contains the value 1332.44, this statement prints: The total for April was 1332.44 LPRINT X,Y,Z prints the value of X beginning in column 0, Y in column 14, and Z in column 28. LPRINT X,,,Z prints the value of X beginning in column 0, and Z in column 42 (two columns are skipped because of the two commas.) LPRINT USING ‘format string”;expression list same as PRINT USING except output is to the line printer. (See PRINT USING.) MAXFILES stores the maximum number of file buffers that you can have open at the same time. On startup, MAXFILES equals 1. 10 MAXFILES = 5 sets MAXFILES to 5. PRINT MAXFILES prints the current value of MAXFILES. 52MAXRAM contains the memory size of Tandy 102. CLEAR 1000,MAXRAM clears 1000 bytes for string storage and sets the high memory to the maximum amount for the Tandy 102. MDM ON/OFF/STOP enables, disables, or stops the ON MDM interrupt. (See ON MDM.) 10 MDM ON enables the ON MDM interrupt. MENU exits BASIC and returns to the Tandy 102 Main Menu. If you are editing a current RAM file, BASIC rewrites the file before returning to the Menu. MENU MERGE ‘file” loads a BASIC program stored as an ASCII file from RAM, cassette tape, the RS-232, or the modem, and merges it with the current program. If BASIC finds a duplicate line number, the line from file replaces the current line. If you omit the device from the file, BASIC assumes RAM. MERGE ‘“‘RAM:ACT.DO”’ loads ACT.DO from RAM and merges it with the current program. MERGE ‘‘CAS:ACCT”’ loads ACCT from cassette tape and merges it with the current program. 33MERGE ‘‘COM:78E1E”’ loads the the file coming in on the RS-232C line using the TELCOM parameter settings of “78E1E”’ and merges it with the current program. MIDS$ (string expression, position, length) returns a portion of string expression that starts at the specified position and continues for the specified length. length is optional. 10 HASH$ = MID§$(A$,2,2) If A$ contains the string 003449953, then this statement assigns string 03 to HASH$. MIDS$ (string expression1,position,length) = string expression2 replaces characters of string expression!, starting at position, with string expression2. length is optional and, if present, it is ignored. 10 MID$(A$,5) = ‘‘FF”’ If A$ contains the string 00000000, this statement changes A$ to 0000FFOO. 1000 MID$(A$,4) = ‘‘ABCDEF”’ If A$ contains the string OOOABCDE, this statement changes A$ to 0OOOABCD. MOTOR ON or OFF turns on or off the cassette recorder motor. MOTOR ON turns on the cassette recorder motor. 54NAME “RAM:old file” AS ‘“‘RAM:new file” renames a RAM file. You must include the extensions in the files. NAME “‘ACCTS.DO” AS ““OLDACT.DO”’ renames the RAM file ACCTS.DO to OLDACT.DO. NEW erases the current program, sets numeric variables equal to zero, and sets string variables equal to null(‘*’’). NEW does not change the string space allocation. NEW ON COM GOSUB line number tells BASIC to go to the subroutine at line number when it receives data from the RS-232. The COM interrupt must be on. (See COM ON.) 10 ON COM GOSUB 1000 20 COM ON e e 1000 OPEN ‘‘COM:78NIE”’ FOR INPUT AS 1 1010 OPEN “IMPDAT.DO”’ FOR OUTPUT AS 2 1020 LINE INPUT -1, A$ 1030 PRINT -2, A$ 1040 IF NOT EOF(1) THEN GOTO 1020 1050 CLOSE 1,2 1060 RETURN 55When data comes in on the RS-232C line, control transfers to line 1000, where it copies the input into a RAM file called ““IMPDAT.DO’’. ON ERROR GOTO line number tells BASIC to go to an error-handling routine at line number when an error occurs. To return from the error-handling routine, use RESUME. 100 ON ERROR GOTO 1000 when an error occurs, goes to Line 1000. ON numeric expression GOSUB line number list goes to subroutine starting at the nth line number. n is specified by the numeric expression. 10 ON X GOSUB 100,200,300 calls the subroutine beginning at line 100, 200, or 300, if X equals 1, 2, or 3, respectively. ON numeric expression GOTO line number list goes to the mth line number. n is specified by the numeric expression. 10 ON X GOTO 100,200,300 branches to 100, 200, or 300, if X equals 1, 2, or 3, respectively. ON KEY GOSUB line number list tells BASIC to go to a subroutine beginning at one of the /ine numbers when a function key is pressed. The function key interrupt must be on. (See KEY ON.) 5610 ON KEY GOSUB 1000,2000,3000, 5000 tells BASIC to go to the following subroutines if a function key is pressed: Function Key 1—Line 1000, Function Key 2—Line 2000, Function Key 3—Line 3000, Function Key 4 —not defined in this statement, Function Key S—Line 5000, Function Key 6, 7, and 8—not defined in this statement. ON MDM GOSUB line number tells BASIC to go to a subroutine at line number when it receives data over the modem line. The modem interrupt must be on. (See MDM ON.) 10 ON MDM GOSUB 1000 defines a modem interrupt routine beginning at line 1000. ON TIMES= “time” GOSUB line number tells BASIC to go to a subroutine starting at line number when TIME$ = time. time is a string expression of the form HH:MM:sSS. The TIME$ interrupt must be enabled. (See TIMES ON.) 10 ON TIME$ = ‘14:20:00’? GOSUB 1000 tells BASIC to go to Line 1000 at 2:20PM (14:20:00). OPEN “‘file’’ FOR mode AS file buffer opens a file buffer for accessing a file in RAM, cassette tape, the RS-232, the modem, the screen, or the line printer using any of these modes: OUTPUT-sequential output, starting at the file’s 57beginning INPUT—sequential input, starting at the file’s beginning APPEND—sequential output, starting at the file’s end. 10 OPEN “‘RAM:ACCT.DO”? FOR APPEND AS 1 opens a RAM file called ACCT.DO for appending, and assigns it the file buffer 1. 10 OPEN ‘‘CAS:”? FOR OUTPUT AS 3 opens an output file on cassette and assigns it to file buffer 3. 10 OPEN ‘“‘MDM:6E1E”’ FOR INPUT AS 4 opens a modem file for input as file buffer 4, using the ‘‘6E1E’? TELCOM parameters. 10 OPEN “‘LCD:”? FOR OUTPUT AS 1 opens a screen file as file buffer 1. OUT port number, byte value outputs byte value to port number. port number and byte value are numeric expressions in the range 0 to 255. (See the Tandy 102 Technical Manual for information about ports.) 10 OUT 55, 100 outputs 100 to CPU port 55. PEEK (memory address) returns the byte value stored at memory address. memory address and the returned value are both in decimal form. 10 A$ = PEEK(16999) assigns the byte value at address 16999 to A%. 58POKE memory address, byte value loads memory address with byte value. Both must be expressed as decimal numeric expressions. 100 POKE 60000, 104 loads 104 into address 60000. POS (dummy numeric expression) returns the current horizontal screen position of the cursor. 100 OP% = POS(0) assigns OP% the current horizontal cursor position. POWER numeric expression changes the Tandy 102’s automatic power down period to numeric expression X 0.1 minutes. (See also the Tandy 102 Owner’s Manual.) 10 POWER 10 resets the automatic power down period to one minute (10 X 0.1). POWER CONT disables the automatic power down feature of the Tandy 102. 10 POWER CONT 59POWER OFF,RESUME immediately turns off the power. RESUME is optional; if present when you turn the power back on, the Tandy 102 resumes execution of the program at the statement following the POWER OFF,RESUME. If not present, the Tandy 102 returns to the Main Menu upon power up. 10 IF TIME$>*‘11:30:00°? THEN POWER OFF turns off the power if the clock is past 11:30 A.M. PRESET (x-coordinate,y-coordinate) turns off the LCD pixel at (x-coordinate, y- coordinate). x-coordinate may range from 0 to 239, and y-coordinate may range from 0 to 63. (See also PSET.) 10 PRESET (55,10) turns off the pixel at (55,10). PRINT expression list prints expression list on the display. You can separate the data in expression list with a comma or a semi-colon. A comma causes BASIC to move to the next print zone, a semi-colon causes it to stay in the same position. No punctuation at the end of expression list causes BASIC to move to the next line. BASIC prints positive numbers with leading blanks, all numbers (positive and negative) with trailing blanks, and strings without any leading or trailing blanks. 60PRINT ‘‘JOHN’’, ‘‘DOE” prints JOHN DOE on the display; then moves the cursor to the next line. PRINT ‘‘JOHN’’;‘‘,”’;‘“‘DOE”’; prints JOHN,DOE on the display and leaves the cursor in the position immediately following the E in DOE. PRINT @ screen position, expression prints expression at the specified screen position. (See BASIC Input/Output.) PRINT @ 140, ‘“MENU”’ prints ‘‘“MENU”’ at screen position 140. PRINT #file buffer, expression list same as PRINT except the output is to a file. 200 PRINT #1,‘‘JOHN’’;‘‘,’’;“‘DOE”’; prints JOHN,DOE to file buffer #1 and leaves the file pointer at the position immediately after the E in DOE. PRINT #file number, USING “format’’ expression list same as PRINT USING except output is to a file buffer. (See PRINT USING.) PRINT USING “format”;expression list prints the data in expression list using the specified format. The data in expression list may be separated either by commas or semi-colons. 61format consists of field specifiers which describe the type and the format to use in printing the data. If there is more data in expression list than field specifiers, BASIC reuses the field specifiers. The string field specifiers are: capes “\n\” prints the first character in a string. PRINT USING “‘!’?:‘‘Tandy’’ T prints +2 characters in a string. n is any number of blank spaces. (To enter the ‘‘\’’, press GGRAPH)(—).) PRINT USING “‘\ \’’;‘‘Tandy” Tand The numeric field specifiers are: # prints a number, right justified, in the specified digit positions. If the number is larger than the field, BASIC precedes the number with %. PRINT USING ‘“‘#####?’;5 5 inserts the algebraic sign of a number. PRINT USING “+ #####”’; — 13 -13 PRINT USING “##### +514 14+ if negative, inserts a minus sign in a number; if positive, inserts a blank space in a number. PRINT USING “‘ — #####’314 — 14 PRINT USING “#####.## —”; — 0.45 - 0.45 62se $$ #*g AAAA replaces a number’s leading spaces with asterisks. PRINT USING ‘‘**#####;145 HRRKTAS precedes a number with a dollar sign. PRINT USING ‘“‘$$#####?’;450 $450 precedes a number with asterisks and then a dollar sign. PRINT USING ‘‘**$###312 ATID inserts a decimal point in a number. PRINT USING ‘‘#####.4# 514.5 14.50 PRINT USING ‘“‘#####.##?’ 50.588 0.59 inserts commas in a number. PRINT USING ‘“‘#########,” 14432 14,432 prints number in exponential format. (To enter ‘‘*”’, press GHIFT)(6).) PRINT USING ‘“‘###4*44”; 150000 ISE + 04 PSET (x-coordinate,y-coordinate) turns on the graphics pixel at specified x,y coodinate. (See ‘‘Graphic Screen Coordinates”’ in the ‘‘BASIC Input/Output Section.’’) 10 PSET (40,45) turns on the pixel at 40,45. 63READ variable list reads the next constants in a DATA statement and assigns them to the variables in variable list. (See also DATA and RESTORE.) 100 DATA 0,4, 0.2 ‘‘Trinity River’’ 120 READ A,B%,C$ assigns A the value 0.4, B% the value 0.2, and C$ the string Trinity River. REM comment statement tells BASIC that the remainder of the line is a comment. You may abbreviate REM with an apostrophe. If the comment follows another BASIC command, you must either use the apostrophe or precede REM with a colon. 10 REM This program finds the standard deviation 10’ This program finds the standard deviation 100 AVE = SUM / TT ’Calculate the average 100 AVE = SUM / TT :REM Calculate the average RESTORE line number resets the DATA statement pointer to the first item in the DATA statement on /ine number. line number is optional; if omitted, BASIC uses the first DATA statement. (See also DATA and READ.)100 DATA “‘Nuts’’, ‘Bolts’’, ‘‘Screws’’, “Hammers” e ° 300 READ ITEM$(1),ITEM$(2), ITEMS$(3), ITEM$(4) e e 600 RESTORE 100 610 READ CTS$(1),CT$(2),CT$(3),CT$(4) Line 300 assigns the strings of the DATA statement in line 100 to ITEM$ 1 through 4. Line 600 resets the DATA pointer so that line 610 reassigns the strings to CT$ 1 through 4. RETURN ends subroutine and returns to the statement immediately following the last GOSUB statement. RETURN RESUME line number ends an error handling routine by branching to line number where BASIC begins normal execution. If line number is omitted, BASIC returns to the line which caused the error. You can specify NEXT as the line number, in which case BASIC returns to the line immediately following the error-causing line. 1000 IF ERR = 18 THEN PRINT @0, “Printer Not Ready!!!’’: RESUME 65If an I/O error occurs, BASIC prints the message and resumes execution at the offending statement. RESUME NEXT BASIC proceeds to the next statement. RIGHTS (string expression, portion) returns the right portion of string expression. portion is a numeric expression. 10 SEC$ = RIGHTS(TIMES,2) assigns the current second count to SEC$. RND numeric expression returns a pseudo-random number between 0 and 1. If numeric expression is non-zero, RND returns a new random number. If numeric expression equals 0, RND returns the last random number generated. 20 PRINT RND(1) 30 PRINT RND(0) prints the same random number twice. RND always generates the same random number series. If your application requires a different random number starting the sequence each time, you can use the clock to establish a starting point in the sequence. For example, the following routine points the random number generator to one of 60 starting points in the generator: 10 SEC = VAL(RIGHTS(TIMES,2)) 20 FOR I = 1 TO SEC 30 DUMMY = RND(1) 40 NEXT IRUN line number,R clears all variables, closes all open files, and executes the current program, starting at /ine number. line number is optional; if omitted, BASIC starts execution at the first line of the program. R is also optional; it tells BASIC to leave current files open. RUN 100 clears all variable values and starts executing the program at line 100. RUN “file”,R same as RUN, except the program is loaded from the specified file before BASIC runs it. 1000 RUN “‘PART2.BA”’,R loads and executes the RAM file PART2.BA, keeping all open files open. 100 RUN ‘‘MDM:7E2E”’ loads and executes the BASIC program coming in over the modem lines. RUNM “‘file’’ closes all open files; then loads and executes file, an executable machine-code program stored in RAM or cassette tape. If the file does not include a device specification, RAM is assumed. 67RUNM ‘“‘MEMTST”’ loads the program MEMTST.CO from RAM and executes it. RUNM “‘CAS:” loads and runs the first machine-language program found on the cassette tape. SAVE ‘file”,A writes the current BASIC program to a file in RAM, cassette tape, the RS-232, the modem, the screen, or the printer. A is optional; if used, the program is saved as an ASCII data file. SAVE ‘‘TIMSET”’ writes the current BASIC program to the RAM file TIMESET.BA. SAVE ‘“‘PART3” ,A writes the current BASIC program to the RAM file PART3.DO. The file is stored in ASCII format. SAVE ‘‘CAS:CLOCK”’ writes the current program to cassette tape naming the file CLOCK (identical to the command CSAVE“CLOCK”’). SAVE ‘““MDM:7N1E” sends the current program out the modem, using the configuration 7 bit words, no parity check, | stop bit, and stop/start enable. (You do not need to save the changes that you make to a program stored in RAM. BASIC automatically does this for you.) 68SAVEM “file, start address, end address, entry address writes the machine-code program stored from start address to end address to cassette tape or RAM under the name file. entry address is optional; if not present, BASIC assumes the program entry address is the same as the start address. SAVEM ‘‘CAS:MEMTST’’,50000,50305,50020 writes the program stored from addresses 50000 to 50305 with the entry point at 50020 to cassette tape, giving the file the name MEMTST. SAVEM ‘‘MEMTST’’,50000,50305,50020 writes the program stored from addresses 50000 to 50305 with the entry point at 50020 to RAM, giving the file the name MEMTST.CO. SCREEN on/off locks or unlocks the bottom (LABEL) line on the display for scrolling. on is 0,0 and off is 0,1. SCREEN 0,0 causes LABEL line to disappear and allows you to scroll with all eight lines. SCREEN 0,1 causes LABEL line to reappear. SGN (numeric expression) returns a -1 for negative numbers, 0 for zero, and 1 for positive numbers. 200 TTL = 10 * SGN(CR) sets TTL equal to either 10, 0, or -10, depending on whether CR is positive, zero, or negative. 69SIN (numeric expression) returns (in radians) the trigonometric sine of numeric expression. 100 Y = SIN(1.5) assigns Y the value 0.99749498660406. SOUND pitch,length “‘plays’’ a given pitch for the given length. /ength ranges from 0 to 255. Dividing length by 50 gives the approximate length in seconds. pitch ranges from 0 to 16383, with the smaller values corresponding to higher pitches. (See ‘‘Sound Frequencies”’ in the ‘“‘BASIC Input/Output’’ section for the frequencies to use for musical notes.) SOUND ON or OFF Turns on or off the beep BASIC uses when: (1) You load a file from cassette, and (2) the Tandy 102 is waiting for a carrier signal from the telephone modem lines. This statement has no affect on the BEEP or SOUND statement. SPACES (length) returns a string of length spaces. 100 B$ = SPACE$(20) + A$ sets B$ equal to a string of 20 spaces followed by the string stored in A$. 70SQR (numeric expression) returns the square root of numeric expression. numeric expression must be a positive number. 10 C = SQR(A“2 + B%2) sets C equal to the square root of the sum of A’ and B?. STOP stops execution of a BASIC program. You can continue execution with the CONT statement. STOP and CONT are useful for debugging a program. 100 STOP stops execution at line 100. STR$ (numeric expression) converts numeric expression to its string representation. This function is the inverse of VAL. BS = ‘‘$’? + STRS(BAL) + ‘.00” If BAL contains the value 133, this statement sets B$ equal to $ 133.00. STRINGS (n,character) returns a string in which character is repeated n times. 1 can be between 0 to 255. character can be a string or an ASCII code. (‘‘See BASIC Codes.’’) PRINT STRING$(20,‘‘*’’) prints a string of 20 asterisks. PRINT STRING$(40,239) prints a string of 40 solid blocks (239 is the ASCII code for a solid block.) 71TAB (numeric expression) skips numeric expression spaces before printing the next data item. mumeric expression ranges between 0 and 255. 10 PRINT TAB(30);‘‘Table 1”” prints ‘‘Table 1”’ starting in column 30. 20 LPRINT TAB(10);‘‘Total’’; TAB(20); “‘Number’’;TAB(30); ‘‘Balance’’ skips 10 spaces and prints Total on the printer, skips another 20 spaces and prints Number, and finally skips another 10 spaces and prints Balance. TAN (numeric expression) returns the tangent of numeric expression. numeric expression must be in radians. 10 SLOPE = TAN(THETA) assigns SLOPE the value of the tangent of THETA. TIME$ sets or returns the time, using the format HH:MM:&ssS. TIME$= ‘‘ 10:00:00’’ sets the time to 10:00 AM. PRINT TIME$ prints the current time. TIMES ON / TIME OFF / TIME STOP turns on, turns off, or stops the ON TIME$ GOSUB interrupt. (See ‘‘BASIC Program Flow.’’) 10 ON TIME$ = ‘‘20:00:00’? GOSUB 1000 At 8:00 P.M., BASIC goes to the subroutine at Line 1000. 72VAL (string expression) converts string expression to a numeric representation of the string. If string expression contains non-numeric characters, VAL returns only the value of the leading number, if any. VAL is the inverse of the function STR$. 5 BS = ‘100.44824 10 A = VAL(BS$) sets A equal to 100.44824. 5 B$ = ‘‘no balance’”’ 10 A = VAL(B$) sets A equal to 0. 5 B$ = ‘3.00313354E33” 10 A = VAL(B$) sets A equal to 3.00313354 X 10°. VARPTR (file buffer) returns the memory address that points to the first byte of data in file buffer. LINK = VARPTR(1) returns the first address of the data stored in file buffer 1. 73VARPTR (variable) returns a memory address that points to an individual variable: either a simple variable or a subscripted variable. If variable is numeric, this address points to the actual variable. If variable is string, this address points to the variable’s string descripter. LINK = VARPTR(A%) sets LINK equal to the first address of A%. LINK = VARPTR(AS(1)) sets LINK equal to the first address of the string descripter which points to of array element A$(1). 7411/ Machine-Code Calls BASIC includes statements and functions that you can use to call machine-code routines. These statement and functions are for technical applications. Calling a Machine-Code Routine BASIC lets you call a Tandy 102 machine-code routine stored in ROM or your own machine-code routine. To call a ROM machine-code routine: Use the CALL statement to call the routine at the specified address. For the addresses of the ROM routines, you need to purchase the Tandy 102 Technical Manual. To call your own machine-code routine: 1. Use the CLEAR statement to reserve an area in high memory that BASIC cannot destroy. 2. Insert a machine-code routine into this area of high memory. You can do this in 2 ways: (a) by using the BASIC POKE statement to directly insert the machine-code routine into high memory, or (b) by using the BASIC CLOADM statement to load a preassembled machine-code routine into high memory. (To preassemble a routine, you need a Model 100 or a Tandy 102 assembler product.) 753. Use the CALL statement to jump to this area of high memory that contains the machine-code routine. 4. Return from the machine code routine by using the following machine-code instruction: RTS Passing Values to a Machine-Code Routine The CALL statement lets you pass two values to a machine-code routine. The first value must be in the range of 0-255; you can use this value to pass a character’s code to the routine. The second value must be in the range of -32768 to 65535; you can use this value to pass the address of a variable or a file buffer to the routine. (You can obtain this address by using the BASIC VARPTR statement.) Before returning from the routine, you can pass a value back to BASIC. To do so, insert this value in the address of a BASIC variable or in the address of a BASIC file buffer. (See also, ‘‘BASIC Codes,”? the VARPTR statement and ‘‘BASIC Variable Storage.’’) 7612/ BASIC Variable Storage Integer Variables BASIC stores integer variables in 2 bytes of memory using two’s complement notation: The first byte is the least significant byte (LSB); the second, the most significant byte (MSB). With two’s complement notation, the highest bit of the MSB is indicates the sign of the number. If this bit is 1, the number is negative; if this bit is 0, the number is positive. If the number is negative it is stored as its binary inverse plus 1. BASIC calculates a number’s inverse by changing all the bits that are 1’s to 0’s and all the bits that are 0’s to 1’s. For example, this is how BASIC stores the integer 513: Byte Binary Decimal Meaning 0 00000001 1 1 1 00000010 2 512 This is how BASIC stores the integer -513 Byte Binary Decimal Meaning oO 11111111 255 the binary inverse of 1 plus 1 1 11111101 253 the binary inverse of 512 77Single and Double Precision Variables BASIC stores single- and double-precision numbers in 4 bytes (single-precision) or 8 bytes (double-precision) of memory using floating-point notation. With floating point notation, BASIC converts a number to a mantissa and an exponent. The mantissa is the significant digits in the number represented as a decimal fraction. For example, the mantissa of -51.25 is .5125. The exponent is whatever power of 10, when multiplied by the mantissa, will produce the number’s actual value. For example, the exponent of -51.25 is 2. (.5125 times 10 to the power of 2 equals -51.25). The first byte of a single- or double-precision variable contains the number’s sign (in bit 7) and exponent (in bits 0-5). The 6th bit of this byte always contains a 1. For example, the number -51.25 is a negative number with an exponent of 2. BASIC uses a binary 11000010 to store this information. The remaining bytes contain the variable’s mantissa stored in binary-coded decimal (BCD) notation. BCD format uses 4 bits to store each mantissa digit. 78For example, the first two digits of the mantissa of -51.25 is 51. BASIC uses binary 01010001 to store this information. (Binary 0101 represents the digit 5; 0001 represents the digit 1). The number -51.25 is stored as follows: Byte 0 1 2 3 Binary Decimal Meaning 11000010 194 negative number exponent =2 01010001 81 digits 51 00100101 37 digits 25 00000000 0 digits 00 String Variables BASIC uses a 3-byte string descriptor to indicate where in memory a string is stored. The string descriptor contains: Byte Neo Meaning Length of the string LSB of string address MSB of string address 79Array Variables BASIC stores arrays in memory using an array descriptor, which is immediately followed by each of the array elements. The array descriptor is in this format: Byte Meaning 0 and 1 ASCII code for the array name 2 and 3 Length of the array 4 Number of dimensions in the array 5 and 6 Number of elements in first dimension 7 and 8 Number of elements in the second dimension BASIC reserves bytes 7 and 8 for the number of elements in the second dimension, even if the array has only 1 dimension. If the array has 3 or more dimensions, each of the next groups of 2 bytes store the number of elements in each additional dimension. For example, if the array has 4 dimensions, bytes 9 and 10 contain the number of elements in the third dimension, and bytes 11 and 12 contain the number of elements in the fourth dimension. 80The array descriptor is followed immediately by each of the array elements. For example, in a 2-dimensional array, Byte 9 contains the first byte of the first element in the array. BASIC stores the array elements in the same way it stores simple variables. For example, in a 2-dimensional integer array, Bytes 9 and 10 contains two’s complement notation of the first element; in a 2-dimensional string array, Bytes 9-11 contain the string descriptor of the first element. 8113/ BASIC Codes These tables list the codes that you can use with the CHR$ and ASC statements in a BASIC program. For example, you could use PRINT CHR$(128) to display a small telephone, PRINT CHR$(27);‘A”’ to move the cursor up | line, and PRINT CHR$(ASC(‘‘A’’) + 32) to display the letter ‘‘a’’. 82Decimal Hex Binary Printed Keyboard Character Character 00 ~=—00000000 CHD @ 01 00000001 CTAD A 02 00000010 8 03 00000011 CYADC 4 04 00000100 (TRL) O 5 05 00000101 (CTAD E 6 06 00000110 (CTRD F 7 07 00000111 bell CTRD G 8 08 00001000 backspace (CYAD) H 9 o9 00001001 tab (TAD! 10 OA 00001010 line feed (CTAD J W OB 00001011 cursor home (CTAD K 12 OC 00001100 13 OD 00001101 carriage return (CTR M 14 OE 00001110 CYR N 15 OF 00001111 16 10 00010000 CTRL P 17 11 00010001_+~=—« XON CTA Q 18 12 00010010 CTADR 19 13 00010011 XOFF TADS. 20 14 00010100 CTRDT 21 15 00010101 IRD U 22 16 00010110 CAD V 23 17 00010111 TRAD W 24 18 00011000 (CTRD X 25 19 00011001 (TAD Y 26 1A 00011010 EOF CTRD Z 83Decimal Hex Binary Printed Keyboard Character Character 27 1B 00011011 ESC 28 1€ 00011100 = 29 1D 00011101 oS 30 YE 00011110 a 31 1F 00011111 HD 32 20 00100000 (SPACEBAR) 33 21 00100001 ! ! 34 22 00100010 35 23 00100011 # # 36 24 00100100 $ $ 37 25 00100101 % % 38 26 ~—00100110 & & 39 27 ~—:00100111 " ' 40 28 00101000 ( ( 4 29 00101001 ) ) 42 2A 00101010 * ' 43 2B 00101011 + + 44 2C 00101100 : 45 2D 00101101 = = 46 2E 00101110 47 2F = 00101111 / / 48 30 00110000 0 0 49 31 00110001 1 1 50 32 00110010 2 2 51 33 00110011 3 3 52 34 00110100 4 4 53 35 00110101 5 5 54 36 00110110 6 6 84Decimal Hex Binary Printed Keyboard Character Character 55 37 00110111 7 7 56 38 00111000 8 8 57 3900171001 9 9 ~ se GAoom0.—“‘(‘(sés?T*sS~*~S;S2S; Ft”! 59 3B 00111011 : : ~ 630 o100=2=~*~*«~sé=“‘ 63 SF oot ? 2 64 4001000000 @ @ 65 4101000001 A A 66 42 __ 01000010 B B 67 4301000011 Cc Cc 68 44 01000100 D D 69 4501000101 E E 70 46 01000110 F F 71 4701000111 G G 72 48 01001000 H H * Foruppercase letters A-Z, press GHIFT or CAPS_LOCH before pressing the Keyboard Character. 85Decimal Hex Binary Printed Keyboard Character Character 73 49 01001001 ' \ 74 4A 01001010 J J 75 4B 01001011 K K 76 4C 01001100 L L 77 4D 01001101 M M 78 4E 01001110 N N 79 4F 01001111 ° ° 80 50 01010000 P P 81 51 01010001 Q Q 82 52 01010010 R R 83 53 01010011 s Ss 84 54 01010100 T T 85 55 01010101 uU uU 86 56 01010110 Vv Vv 87 57 01010111 Ww Ww 88 58 01011000 x x 89 59 01011001 Y Y 90 5A 01011010 z Zz 91 5B 01011011 [ { 92 5C 01011100 \ GRD - 93 5D 01011101 ] ] 94 SE 01011110 . - 95 SF 01011111 _ _ 97 61 01100001 a A * For lowercase letters a-z, be sure CAPS_LOGK) is not pressed “down.” 86Decimal Hex Binary Printed Keyboard Character Character 98 62 01100010 b 8 99 63 01100011 c c 100 64 01100100 d D 101 65 01100101 e E 102 66 01100110 t F 103 6701100111 g G 104 68 01101000 h H 105 69 01101001 i | 106 6A 01101010 j J 107 6B 01101011 k K 108 6C 01101100 I L 109 6D 01101101 m M 110 6E 01101110 a N 111 6F 01101111 ° oO 112 70 01110000 Pp P 113 71 01110001 q Q 114 72 01110010 t R 115 7301110011 s s 116 74 01110100 t T 117 75 01110101 u U 118 76 01110110 v Vv 119 7701110114 w w 120 78 01111000 x x 121 79 01111001 y Y 122 7A 01111010 z z 123 7B 01111011 { (ay 124 7 (01111100 ! GP _ 87