PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS USER GUIDE

FOR

LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS

(S1-S3)
 © 2022 Rwanda Basic Education Board
All rights reserved
This experiments user guide is the property of the Government of Rwanda.
Credit must be provided to REB when the content is quoted.
FOREWORD

Dear Teacher,
Rwanda Basic Education Board is honored to present to you this Physics
experiment user guide which serves as a guide to competence-based
teaching and learning to ensure consistency and coherence in the
learning of physics subject. The Rwandan educational philosophy is to
ensure that you achieve full potential at every level of education which
will prepare you to be well integrated in society and exploit employment
opportunities.
The government of Rwanda emphasizes the importance of aligning
teaching and learning materials with the syllabus to facilitate your
learning process. Many factors influence what you learn, how well
you learn and the competences you acquire. Those factors include the
instructional materials available among others. Special attention was
paid to the activities that facilitate the learning process in which you can
develop your ideas and make new discoveries during concrete activities
carried out individually or with peers.
In competence-based curriculum, learning is considered as a process of
active building and developing knowledge and meanings by the learner
where concepts are mainly introduced by an activity, a situation or a
scenario that helps the learner to construct knowledge, develop skills
and acquire positive attitudes and values.
For efficiency use of this guide, your role as teacher is to:
• Ensure that laboratory working conditions are safe, with
proper equipment on hand to deal with any potential extreme
hazard or mishap.
• Plan your experiment and prepare appropriate equipment.
• Provide instructions in laboratory technique and in handling
materials before students conduct experiments
• Provide supervised opportunities for students to develop
different competences by giving tasks which enhance critical
thinking, problem solving, research, creativity and innovation,
communication, and cooperation.
• Facilitate students while they conduct experiments.

iii
I wish to sincerely extend my appreciation to REB staff who organized the
development process of this book. Special gratitude goes to the university
Lecturers, lEE, AIMS, teachers, independent people, illustrators, and
designers who diligently worked to successful completion of this book.
Any comment or contribution would be welcome for the improvement
of this book.

Dr. MBARUSHIMANA Nelson

Director General, REB

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my appreciation to all the people who played a major

role in the development of Physics experiments user guide for lower
secondary. It would not have been successful without their active
participation.
Special thanks are given to IEE, AIMS, independent people, teachers,
illustrators, designers and all other individuals whose efforts in one
way or the other contributed to the success of the development of this
user guide.
I owe gratitude to the Rwanda Basic Education Board staff particularly
those from Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources Department
who were involved in the whole process of the development work.
Finally, my word of gratitude goes to RQBE Project for its financial
support towards improving the quality of education.

Joan MURUNGI,
Head of Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT
FOREWORD ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT������������������������������������������������������������������������������� v

GENERAL INTRODUCTION������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1

DATA MANAGEMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS������������������������������� 22

1. RECORDING MEASUREMENTS IN AN EXPERIMENT������������������������������������������������� 22
2. DESIGN OF THE TABLE OF RESULTS������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
3. MANIPULATION OF DATA ........................................................................................25
4. APPROXIMATIONS������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
5. MANIPULATION OF DATA IN THE TABLE OF RESULTS���������������������������������������������� 28
6. GRAPH WORK�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
7. ERROR PROPAGATION ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 36

UNIT 1: LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND MEASUREMENTS

OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.����������������������������������������������������� 40
Experiment 1.1: Measurement of length, width, and height of a glass block����������������� 40
Experiment 1.2: Measurement of diameter of optical pin by using Micrometer screw
gauge������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 42
Experiment 1.3: Measurement of internal diameter of the test tube by using a
vernier caliper.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
Experiment 1.4: Measurement of the external diameter of the test tube����������������������� 45
Experiment 1.5: Measurement of the depth of the beaker using a vernier caliper.��������� 47
Experiment 1.6: Measurement of the thickness of the test tube������������������������������������ 48
Experiment 1.7. Measurement of the mass of an object by using a spring balance�������� 50
Experiment 1.8. Measurement of the time by using stopwatch������������������������������������� 51
Experiment 1.9: Determination the volume of an irregular shaped solid (stone) using
Eureka can���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Experiment 1.10: Determination of the volume of a regular shaped solid using a
measuring cylinder.���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54
Experiment 1.11. Measurement of density by using spring .balance and a measuring
cylinder��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56
Experiment 1.12: Measurement of relative density of a solid..........................................57
Experiment 1.13: To measure Density of liquid (water or any other)������������������������������ 59

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UNIT 2: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MOTION����������������������� 62
Experiment 2.1: Measurement of acceleration due to gravity by using spring balance �� 62
Experiment 2.2: Measurement of velocity of a moving body ���������������������������������������� 63
Experiment 2.3: Determination of the linear acceleration of a moving object ��������������� 65

UNIT 3: FORCE (I)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68

Experiment 3.1: Demonstration of effect of friction force on the motion����������������������� 68
Experiment 3.2: Demonstration of upthrust force��������������������������������������������������������� 69
Experiment 3.3: Determination of spring constant and the verification of Hook’s
law...............................................................................................����� 71
Experiment 3.4: Demonstration of the existence of an electrostatic force�������������������� 73
Experiment 3.5: Demonstration of the existence of a magnetic force��������������������������� 74
UNIT 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION (I)�������������������������������������������� 76
Experiment 4.1: Demonstration of inertia using a coin�������������������������������������������������� 76
UNIT 5: CENTRE OF GRAVITY���������������������������������������������������������������� 78
Experiment 5.1: Location of the position of centre of gravity of a regular object.���������� 78
Experiment 5.2: To locate the centre of gravity of a regular lamina................................79
Experiment 5.3.: Determination of centre of gravity (c.o.g) of irregular lamina.�������������� 81
UNIT 6: WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY (1)������������������������������������������� 83
Experiment 6.1: Determination of work done in pulling an object along a horizontal
surface.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
Experiment 6.2: Demonstration of the law of conservation of Mechanical Energy
using a swinging pendulum��������������������������������������������������������������� 84
UNIT 7: SIMPLE MACHINES (I)��������������������������������������������������������������� 86
Experiment 7.1: Determination of the mass of the meter rule by using principle of
levers������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 86
Experiment 7.2: Determination of velocity ratio of a system of pulleys�������������������������� 87
Experiment 7.3: Determination of the mechanical advantage of a system of pulleys������ 89
Experiment 7.4: Determination of the efficiency of a system of pulleys using spring
balance��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91

UNIT 8: KINETIC THEORY AND STATES OF MATTER������������������������������� 93

Experiment 8.1: Comparison of viscosity of two liquids (Water and cooking Oil)����������� 93
Experiment 8.2: Determination of melting point of water��������������������������������������������� 94
Experiment 8.3: Determination of boiling point of water���������������������������������������������� 96

UNIT 9: HEAT AND TEMPERATURE���������������������������������������������������������� 98

Experiment 9.1: Investigation of the difference between heat and temperature������������ 98

vii
UNIT 10: MAGNETISM (I)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Experiment 10.1: Determination of the poles of bar magnet using the earth’s
magnetic field.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Experiment 10.2: Demonstration of difference in magnetic, ferromagnetic and non-
magnetic materials.�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Experiment 10.3: Demonstration of poles of a bar magnet.���������������������������������������� 103
Experiment 10.4: Demonstration of magnetic field by using a compass needle.����������� 104
Experiment 10.5: Demonstration of the action of one pole of a magnet to another. ��� 106

UNIT 11: ELECTROSTATIC (I)������������������������������������������������������������������� 108

Experiment 11.1: Find out materials that produce static electric charges when they
are rubbed together.������������������������������������������������������������������������ 108
Experiment 11.2: Demonstration of charging a body by rubbing.�������������������������������� 110
Experiment 11.3: Demonstration of charging a body by conduction.�������������������������� 111
Experiment 11.4: Charging a body by induction.�������������������������������������������������������� 113
Experiment 11.5: Determination of type of charge of charged body using electroscope.
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 114

UNIT 12: CURRENT ELECTRICITY (I)������������������������������������������������������� 116

Experiment: 12.1: Measurement of electric current, potential difference, and
resistance in simple circuit.��������������������������������������������������������������� 116
Experiment 12.2: Verification of Ohm’s law.��������������������������������������������������������������� 118
Experiment 12.3: Investigation of the chemical effect of electric current.�������������������� 120
Experiment 12.4: Investigation of the heating effect of electric current ���������������������� 121
Experiment 12.5: Investigation of the magnetic effect of electric current �������������������� 123

UNIT 13: RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT���������������������������������� 125

Experiment 13.1: Image formed by pin hole camera��������������������������������������������������� 125
Experiment 13.2: Verification the laws of reflection using optical pins.������������������������ 126
Experiment 13.3: Location of image on plan mirror���������������������������������������������������� 129
Experiment 13.4: Verification of rectilinear propagation of light���������������������������������� 130
Experiment 13.5: Construction of a simple periscope������������������������������������������������� 132
Experiment.13.6: Determination of the number of the images formed by two plane
mirrors inclined at an angle of θ ������������������������������������������������������� 134

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SENIOR TWO EXPERIMENTS ����������������������������������136
UNIT 1: SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 137
Experiment 1.1: Determination of absolute error in single measured physical ..........
quantities..�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 137
Experiment 1.2: Investigation of compound errors in measurements of length ����������� 138
Experiment 1.3: Investigating of propagation of errors in measurement of volume.����� 140
Experiment 1.4: Rounding of numbers����������������������������������������������������������������������� 141
Experiment 1.5: Investigation of the good position on an eye to give a correct reading
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ .142

UNIT 2: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MOTION���������������������� 145

Experiment 2.1: Determination of acceleration due to gravity.������������������������������������ 145
Experiment 2.2: Determination of acceleration due to gravity by using simple
pendulum���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Experiment 2.3: Determination of acceleration of a body using inclined plane and
marble��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 149

UNIT 3: FRICTION FORCE������������������������������������������������������������������������ 151

Experiment 3.1: Determination of the coefficient of friction���������������������������������������� 151
Experiment 3.2: Investigation of tension force������������������������������������������������������������ 152

UNIT 4: DENSITY AND PRESSURE IN SOLIDS AND FLUID��������������������� 154

Experiment 4.1: Investigation of pressure of a solid���������������������������������������������������� 154
Experiment 4.2: Investigation of pressure in liquids���������������������������������������������������� 156
Experiment 4.3: Determination of the densities of two liquids by means of Hare’s
apparatus���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 157
Experiment 4.4: Measurement of atmospheric pressure using barometer�������������������� 158
Experiment 4.5: Demonstration of the use of a Siphon����������������������������������������������� 159
Experiment 4.6: Making a simple air pressure drinks dispenser.���������������������������������� 161
Experiment 4.7: A can/ plastic bottle crushing (deformation) experiment��������������������� 163
Experiment 4.8: Investigation of atmospheric pressure by using candle����������������������� 164

UNIT 5: MEASURING LIQUID PRESSURE WITH MANOMETER������������� 166

Experiment 5.1: Investigating pressure in liquids using communicating vessel������������� 166
Experiment 5.2. Investigation of the pressure in liquids���������������������������������������������� 167
Experiment 5.3. Determination of relative density using a manometer������������������������ 169

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UNIT 6: APPLICATION OF PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE ������������������������������������ 171
Experiment 6.1. Investigation of the variation of Pressure with Depth������������������������� 171
Experiment.6.2: Verification of Pascal’s principle�������������������������������������������������������� 172

UNIT 7: ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ��� 175

Experiment 7.1. Demonstration of the existence of atmospheric pressure�������������������� 175
Experiment 7.2. Investigation of atmospheric pressure using capillary tube����������������� 176
Experiment 7.3. Investigation of the upthrust (buoyancy) of water������������������������������ 178
Experiment 7.4. Verification of Archimedes’ principle�������������������������������������������������� 179
Experiment 7.6. Determination of the density and relative density of a solid using
Archimedes principle.����������������������������������������������������������������������� 181

UNIT 8: WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY (II)������������������������������������������� 183

Experiment 8.1. Determination of the personal power��������������������������������������������������� 183

UNIT 9: CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY IN ISOLATED

SYSTEM���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Experiment 9.1. Demonstration of energy conversion������������������������������������������������� 185
Experiment.9.2: Investigating elastic potential energy������������������������������������������������ 186
Experiment 9.3. Investigation of the open and closed system�������������������������������������� 188

UNIT 10: GAS LAWS’ EXPERIMENTS������������������������������������������������������ 190

Experiment 10.1. Verification of Boyle’s law��������������������������������������������������������������� 190
Experiment 10.2. Verification of Charles’s law������������������������������������������������������������ 191
Experiment 10.3. Verification of Pressure law������������������������������������������������������������� 192
Experiment 10.4. Verification of Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures�������������������������������� 194

UNIT 11: MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION������������������������� 196

Experiment 11.1. Magnetization by electric current���������������������������������������������������� 196
Experiment 11.2. Magnetization a steel bar by single-touch method��������������������������� 197
Experiment 11.3. Magnetization by induction������������������������������������������������������������ 199
Experiment 11.5. Demagnetization by electric heating������������������������������������������������ 200
Experiment 11.6. Demagnetization by Hammering����������������������������������������������������� 201

UNIT 12: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS�������������������������������������� 203

Experiment 12.1. Investigation of the electric charges on a rubbed balloon����������������� 203
Experiment 12.2. Investigation of electric field����������������������������������������������������������� 204

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UNIT 13: ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT���� 206
Experiment 13.1. Investigation of the magnetic effect of the electric current��������������� 206
Experiment 13.2. Investigation of the heat effect of the electric��������������������������������� 207
Experiment 13.3. Investigation the chemical effect of the electric current.������������������� 209
Experiment 13.4. Designing a simple electric circuit���������������������������������������������������� 210
Experiment 13.5. Measurement of electric current using Ammeter������������������������������ 211
Experiment 13.6. Measure potential difference using voltmeter��������������������������������� 213
Experiment 13.7. Investigation of series and parallel connections������������������������������ 214
Experiment 13.8. Investigation of Ohm’s law.������������������������������������������������������������ 216

UNIT 14: REFLECTION OF LIGHT iN CURVED MIRRORS������������������������ 219

Experiment 14.1. Verification of laws of reflection for plane mirror����������������������������� 219
Experiment 14.2. Determination of the focal length of concave mirror������������������������ 221
Experiment 14.3. Determination of the focal length of a convex mirror����������������������� 223

UNIT 15: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS���������������������������������������� 225

Experiment 15.1. Analyzing Diodes and transistors in an electronic device.������������������ 225
Experiment 15.2. Verification of working principle of Light Emitting Diode (LED).�������� 226

xi
SENIOR THREE EXPERIMENTS ��������������������������������228
UNIT 1: GRAPHS OF LINEAR MOTION��������������������������������������������������� 229
Experiment 1.1: .To verify if the distance moved by a uniformly accelerating body is
directly proportional to the square time�������������������������������������������� 229

UNIT 2: FRICTION FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION.���������� 231

Experiment 2.1: Verification of friction force��������������������������������������������������������������� 231
Experiment 2.2: Illustration of linear momentum.������������������������������������������������������� 232
Experiment 2.3: Demonstration of Newton’s second law of motion����������������������������� 233
Experiment 2.4: Demonstration of action and reaction force��������������������������������������� 235
Experiment 2.7: Determination of the coefficient of friction���������������������������������������� 236

UNIT 3: APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE������������������������� 238

Experiment 3.1: Measurement of atmospheric pressure using mercury barometer������� 238
Experiment 3.2: Demonstration of some applications of atmospheric pressure ����������� 239

UNIT 4: RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES������� 242

Experiment 4.1: Making a simple wind turbine.���������������������������������������������������������� 242
Experiment 4.2: Demonstration of effects of solar energy using a convex lens. ����������� 243
Experiment 4.3: Demonstration of the transformation of potential energy into kinetic
energy.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 245
Experiment 4.4: Making a simple motor.�������������������������������������������������������������������� 246
Experiment 4.5: Demonstration of transformation of mechanical energy into electrical
energy.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 248

UNIT 5: HEAT TRANSFER AND QUANTITY OF HEAT����������������������������� 250

Experiment 5.1: Verification of thermal expansion of solid������������������������������������������ 250
Experiment 5.2: Verification of thermal expansion of liquid.���������������������������������������� 251
Experiment 5.3: Experiment on thermal expansion of given gas.�������������������������������� 253
Experiment 5.4: Demonstration of causes of expansion and contraction.��������������������� 254
Experiment 5.5: Demonstration of heat transfer in solids ������������������������������������������� 256
Experiment 5.6: Investigation of heat transfer by conduction�������������������������������������� 258
Experiment 5.7: Investigation of heat transfer by convection�������������������������������������� 259
Experiment 5.8: Investigation of heat transfer by radiation����������������������������������������� 261
Experiment 5.9: Determination of the specific heat capacity of a solid by the electrical
method.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263

xii
 Experiment 5.10: Determination the specific heat capacity of water by the method
of mixtures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 265
Experiment 5.11: Determination of the specific heat capacity of a liquid by electrical
method.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 267
Experiment 5.12: Determination of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice ��������������� 269
Experiment 5.13: Determination of the specific latent heat of Vaporization of water
by electric method.�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 270
Experiment 5.14: Demonstration of working principle of bimetallic strip.��������������������� 272

UNIT 6: LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS������������������������������������������������� 274

Experiment 6.1: Demonstration of the first law of thermodynamic������������������������������ 274
Experiment 6.2: Demonstration of the Second law of thermodynamics����������������������� 275
Experiment 6.3: Demonstration of heat exchange using cold and hot water���������������� 277
Experiment 6.4: Determination of the quantity of heat using the method of mixture��� 278
Experiment 6.5: Verification of the heating curve of ice���������������������������������������������� 280

UNIT 7: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION������������ 282

Experiment: 7.2: Induction of an electromotive force in a straight conductor (wire).���� 282
Experiment 7.3: Demonstration of the induced current produced when there is a
relative motion between the magnet and the Solenoid��������������������� 283
Experiment 7.4: Verification of factors affecting the magnitude of the induced EMF���� 285

UNIT 8: ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION��������������������������������������� 288

Experiment 8.1: Verification of working principle of transformers�������������������������������� 288
Experiment 8.2: Investigation of the relationship between number of coils and the
induced E.M.F��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 290

UNIT 9: ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY������������������������������������������������������� 292

Experiment 9.1: Demonstration of the electrostatic law between two negatively
charged polythene rods.������������������������������������������������������������������� 292
Experiment 9.2: Demonstration of the electric fields produced by charged bodies������� 293
Experiment 9. 3: Verification of the strength of an electric field varies with magnitude
of charge and distance from the charge.������������������������������������������� 295

UNIT 10: HOUSE ELECTRIC INSTALLATION�������������������������������������������� 297

Experiment 10.1: Demonstration of simple house circuit installation��������������������������� 297

xiii
UNIT 11: BASIC ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS������������������������������ 299
Experiment 11.1: Determination of Inductance of a coil (inductor)������������������������������ 299
Experiment 11.2: Demonstration of an electric circuit consisting of Ac voltage and
capacitor.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 300

UNIT 12: REFRACTION OF LIGHT����������������������������������������������������������� 303

Experiment 12.1: Verification of the laws of refraction of light������������������������������������ 303
Experiment 12.2: Investigation the relationship between the angle of incidence and
the angle of refraction��������������������������������������������������������������������� 305
Experiment 12.3: Determination of refractive index of a glass block���������������������������� 307
Experiment 12.4: Investigation of the critical angle and total internal reflection���������� 309
Experiment 12.5: Illustration of dispersion of white light�������������������������������������������� 311
Experiment 12.6: Illustration of total internal reflection of light using a right-angled
prism.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 312
Experiment 12.7: Determination of critical angle of glass prism���������������������������������� 314
Experiment 12.8: Determination of the image formed by converging lenses���������������� 316
Experiment 12.9: Determination of the characteristics of images formed by convex
lenses when the object is at infinity�������������������������������������������������� 318
Experiment 12.10: Determination of images formed by convex lens when the
object is beyond 2F�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 319
Experiment 12.11: Determination of images formed by convex lens when the
object is at 2F���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 320
Experiment 12.12: Determination of the images formed by convex lens when the
object is between F and 2F�������������������������������������������������������������� 322
Experiment12.13: Characterization of images formed by convex lens when the
object is between F and lens������������������������������������������������������������ 323
Experiment 12.14. Determination of the focal length, of a converging lens���������������� 324
Experiment 12.15: Determination of the images formed by concave lens�������������������� 326

UNIT 13: ENVIRONMENTAL PHENOMENA AND RELATED PHYSICS

CONCEPTS������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 329
Experiment 13.1: Explanation of the laws that govern heat transfer in the environment
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 329

xiv
APPENDIXES �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 331

SENIOR ONE EXPERIMENTS’ EXPECTED RESULTS��������������� 331

UNIT 1: LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 332
UNIT 2: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MOTION������������������������������������������ 342
UNIT 3: APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ����������������������������������������� 343
UNIT 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION (I)������������������������������������������������������������ 346
UNIT 5: CENTRE OF GRAVITY������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 347
UNIT 6: WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY (1)����������������������������������������������������������� 349
UNIT 7: SIMPLE MACHINES (I)����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 351
UNIT 8: KINETIC THEORY AND STATES OF MATTER��������������������������������������������� 354
UNIT 9: HEAT AND TEMPERATURE����������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
UNIT 10: MAGNETISM (I)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 357
UNIT 11: ELECTROSTATIC (I)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 360
UNIT 12: CURRENT ELECTRICITY (I)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 363
UNIT 13: RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT��������������������������������������������������� 367

SENIOR TWO EXPERIMENTS’ EXPECTED RESULTS��������������� 371

UNIT 1: SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES���������� 372
UNIT 2: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR MOTION���������������������������������������������� 377
UNIT 3: FRICTION FORCE�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 381
UNIT 4: DENSITY AND PRESSURE IN SOLIDS AND FLUID�������������������������������������������� 383
UNIT 5: MEASURING LIQUID PRESSURE WITH MANOMETER������������������������������������� 388
UNIT 6: APPLICATION OF PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE ���������������������������������������������������������� 391
UNIT 7: ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE �������������������������� 392
UNIT 8: WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY (II)����������������������������������������������������������������� 395
UNIT 9: CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY IN ISOLATED SYSTEM��������������� 396

xv
UNIT 10: GAS LAWS’ EXPERIMENTS��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 398
UNIT 11: MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION������������������������������������������������ 399
UNIT 13: ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT���������������������������� 402
UNIT 14: REFLECTION OF LIGHT iN CURVED MIRRORS���������������������������������������������� 408
UNIT 15: BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS�������������������������������������������������������������� 412

SENIOR THREE EXPERIMENTS’ EXPECTED RESULTS������������ 413

UNIT 1: GRAPHS OF LINEAR MOTION�������������������������������������������������������������������������������
UNIT 2: FRICTION FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION.����������������������������������� 414
UNIT 3: APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE������������������������������������������������ 418
UNIT 4: RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES������������������������������ 419
UNIT 5: HEAT TRANSFER AND QUANTITY OF HEAT���������������������������������������������������� 423
UNIT 6: LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS������������������������������������������������������������������������ 431
UNIT 7: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION������������������������������������ 435
UNIT 8: ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION������������������������������������������������������������� 437
UNIT 9: ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 439
UNIT 10: HOUSE ELECTRIC INSTALLATION������������������������������������������������������������������ 441
UNIT 11: BASIC ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS���������������������������������������������������� 442
UNIT 12: REFRACTION OF LIGHT�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 443
UNIT 15: ENVIRONMENTAL PHENOMENA AND RELATED PHYSICS CONCEPTS���������� 460

REFERENCES��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 462

xvi
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1. Laboratory experiments in the Competence Based Curriculum

Physics, and natural science in general, is a reasonable enterprise based

on valid experimental evidence, criticism, and rational discussion. It
provides us with knowledge of the physical world, and it is experiment
that provides the evidence that grounds this knowledge. Experiment
plays many roles in science. One of its important roles is to test theories
and to provide the basis for scientific knowledge. It can also call for
a new theory, either by showing that an accepted theory is incorrect,
or by exhibiting a new phenomenon that is in need of explanation.
Experiment can provide hints toward the structure or mathematical
form of a theory, and it can provide evidence for the existence of the
entities involved in our theories. Finally, it may also have a life of its
own, independent of theory. Scientists may investigate a phenomenon
just because it looks interesting. Such experiments may provide evidence
for a future theory to explain. A single experiment may play several of
these roles at once.
Physics experiments are largely concerned with the verification of physics
laws and determination of constants, e.g refractive index, acceleration
due to gravity, spring constant, etc. Some of the experiments are however
designed to investigate the relationship between physical quantities. In
every case there is need for an accurate use of the apparatus involved
in order to realise the purpose of the experiment. Physics as a subject
of study consists of two parts.i.e the theory part and the practical part.
The theory involves the study of physics laws and principles. The practical
part on the other hand involves the application of the theory knowledge
to practical situations, assessment of experimental procedures and
observations made. A course in practical physics is therefore designed to
give the students an opportunity of acquiring the skills and techniques
in the manipulation of apparatus, the use and understanding of the
instruments involved. These skills and techniques can easily be acquired
by students through regular practice.
Common mistakes made in physics practicals
• Wrong recording of units and symbols.
• Wrong use of instruments
• Wrong recording of experimental values

1
 • Wrong manipulation of data in the main table of results.
• Use of scales which are not suitable and convenient
• Wrong substitution of values into the given expression
• Drawing tables which are not detailed, thus leaving out some
of the data.
• Misinterpretation of the given expressions
• Failure to hand in tracing papers for questions involving tracing
the outline of glass block or prism
• Labelling columns of the table of results and axes of the graph
wrongly.

A competence-based curriculum (CBC) focuses on what learners can do

and apply in different situations by developing skills, attitudes, and values
in addition to knowledge and understanding. This learning process is
learner-focused, where a learner is engaged in active and participatory
learning activities, and learners finally build new knowledge from prior
knowledge. Since 2015, the Rwanda Education system has changed
from Knowledge Based Curriculum to Competence Based Curriculum
for preparing students that meet the national and international job
market requirements and job creation. Therefore, implementing the
CBC education system necessitates qualitative laboratory experiments.
2. Type of lab experiments

The goal of the practical work defines the type of practical work and how
it is organized. Therefore, before doing practical work, it is important to
have a clear idea of the objective.
• Equipment-based practical work: the goal is for students to
learn to handle scientific equipment like using a microscope,
doing titrations, making an electric circuit, etc.
• Concept-based practical work: learning new concepts.
• Inquiry-based practical work: learning process skills. Examples
of process skills are defining the problem and good research
question(s), installing an experimental setup, observing,
measuring, processing data in tables and graphs, identifying
conclusions, defining limitations of the experiment etc.

2
Note:
• To learn the new concept by practical work, the lesson should
start with the practical work, and the theory can be explained
afterward (explore – explain). Starting by teaching the theory
and then doing the practical work to prove what they have
learnt is demotivating and offers little added value for student
learning.
• The experiments should be useful for all learners and not only
for aspiring scientists. Try to link the practical work as much as
possible with their daily life and preconceptions.

3. Safety rules and precautions during lab experiments

Regardless of the type of lab you are in, there are general rules enforced
as safety precautions. Each lab member must learn and adhere to the
rules and guidelines set, to minimize the risks of harm that may happen
to them within the working environment. It is important to know
that some laboratories contain certain inherent dangers and hazards.
Therefore, when working in a laboratory, you must learn how to work
safely with these hazards to prevent injury to yourself and other lab
mates around you. You must make a constant effort to think about the
potential hazards associated with what you are doing and think about
how to work safely to prevent or minimize these hazards as much as
possible. Before doing any scientific experiment, you should make sure
that you know where the fire extinguishers are in your laboratory, and
there should also be a bucket of sand to extinguish fires. You must ensure
that you are appropriately dressed whenever you are near chemicals
or performing experiments. Please make sure you are familiar with the
safety precautions, hazard warnings, and procedures of the experiment
you perform on a given day before you start any work. Experiments
should not be performed without an instructor in attendance and must
not be left unattended while in progress.
A. Hygiene plan
A laboratory is a shared workspace, and everyone has the responsibility
to ensure that it is organized, clean, well-maintained, and free of
contamination that might interfere with the lab members' work or
safety.
For waste disposal, all chemicals and used materials must be discarded
in designated containers. Keep the container closed when not in use.

3
When in doubt, check with your instructor.

B. Hazard warning symbols

To maintain a safe workplace and avoid accidents, lab safety symbols
and signs need to be posted throughout the workplace. Chemicals pose
health and safety hazards to personnel due to innate chemical, physical,
and toxicological properties. Chemicals can be grouped into several
different hazard classes. The hazard class will determine how similar
materials should be stored and handled and what special equipment
and procedures are needed to use them safely.
Each of these hazards has a different set of safety precautions associated
with them.
C. Safety rules
Safety is the number one priority in any laboratory. All students are
required to know and comply with good laboratory practices and safety
norms; otherwise, they will be asked to leave the laboratory. Make
sure you understand all the safety precautions before starting your
experiments, and you are requested to help your learners to understand
too.
The following are some general guidelines that should always be
followed:
Lab coat
While working in the lab, everyone must always wear a lab coat to
prevent incidental and unexpected exposures to the skin and clothing.
The primary purpose of a lab coat is to protect against splashes and
spills. The lab coat must be wrist-fitted and must always keep buttoned.
A lab coat should be non-flammable and should be easily removed.
Safety glasses
For eyes protection, goggles must always be worn over by all persons in
the laboratory while students are working with chemicals. Safety glasses,
with or without side-shields, are not acceptable. The eyes protection
safety indicates the possibility of chemical, environmental, radiological,
or mechanical irritants and hazards in the laboratory.

4
Breathing Masks
Respirators are designed to prevent contamination from volatile
compounds that may enter in your body through the respiratory
system. “Half mask” respirators cover just the nose and mouth; “full
face” respirators cover the entire face, and “hood” or “helmet” style
respirators cover the entire head. The breathing mask safety sign lets you
know that you are working in an area with potentially contaminated air.
Eye Wash Station
Eyes wash stations consist of a mirror and a set of bottles containing
saline solution that can be used to wash the injured eye with water. The
eye wash station is intended to flood the eye with a continuous stream
of water.
Eyes wash stations provide a continuous, low-pressure stream of aerated
water in laboratories where chemical or biological agents are used
or stored and in facilities where non-human primates are handled.
The eyewash stations should easily be accessed from any part of the
laboratory, and if possible, located near the safety shower so that if
necessary, the eyes can be washed while the body is showered.
Footwear
Shoes that cover entirely the toes, heel, and top of the foot provide
the best general protection. Closed shoes must always be worn while
in the laboratory, regardless of the experiment or curricular activity.
Shoes must fully cover your feet up to the ankles, and no skin should be
shown. Socks do not constitute a cover replacement for shoes. Sandals,
backless and open shoes are unacceptable.
Gloves
When handling chemical, physical, or biological hazards that can enter
the body through the skin, it is important to wear the proper protective
gloves. Butyl, neoprene and nitrile gloves are resistant to most chemicals,
e.g., alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, most inorganic acids, and caustics.
Hair dressing
If hair is long, it must be tied back. It is good to report all accidents
including minor incidents to your instructor immediately.

5
Eat and drink
Never drink, eat, taste, or smell anything in the laboratory unless you
are allowed by the lab instructor.
Hot objects
Never hold very hot objects with your bare hands. Always hold them
with a test tube holder, tongs, or a piece of cloth or paper.
4. Guidance on the Management of laboratory materials

A good management of science laboratory is characterized by:

• Clean laboratory room or shelves, without dust and any other
undesirable materials. All materials should also be cleaned.
• Well stored and arranged materials with labels in the shelves
or boxes.
• Timetable showing when classes occupy the laboratory room.
• Updated Soft or hard copies showing physical state and all
quantities found in laboratory rooms held by persons in charge
of the school laboratory. This copy may show also all quantities
received during the delivery process.
• Inventory of laboratory or science kit items including received,
damaged, stolen, expired and used up chemicals, and remaining
items carried out every term. This should be printed and signed
by the school representative.
• All waste materials should be stored in properly labeled closed
containers in a secure waste storage area waiting for their
disposal. The disposal may not take a long time.
5. Storage of laboratory materials and science kits
a) Storage of science kits
Science kits are supplied to schools without laboratory rooms. They are
then stored in metal boxes designed to store the kits safely, but they
can also be stored in shelves where they are available and accessible.
It is recommended to store the box with the contents to a safe place
where kit’s items are not lost, stolen or intentionally damaged. It is
preferred to keep them in the safe room equipped with shelves or
cupboard to store items and tables. When the kits materials are stored
in the cupboard, their items are grouped according to their types and
purpose and labelling to facilitate the localization of items.

6
N.B: Only one teacher of science and/or mathematics chosen from his
colleagues should manage the store of the kit materials.
b) Storage of laboratory materials (apparatuses and chemicals)
Normally, a laboratory is composed of two parts: A preparation room
and learning and teaching room.
A preparation room is a room where science materials are stored, and
a science teacher or laboratory technician prepare solutions prior to
teaching. The Learning and teaching room is a room where science
practical lessons are conducted. In the laboratory we find apparatuses
and chemicals. Apparatuses are sometimes stored depending on the
materials they are made of. In the laboratory, chemicals are whether
solids or liquids. Science laboratory materials are supplied to schools
with laboratory rooms. They are stored in shelves in the preparation
room.
i) Storage of laboratory glassware
Laboratory glassware requires serious attention or mindful care. Once
it’s been cleaned and inspected, it should be stored to prevent it from
becoming dirty, getting broken, or getting lost. Glassware is stored inside
shelves in the preparation room out of the way of regular daily activities.
Glass items are consistently in use in laboratories; when you need them,
it’s important to be able to find them without wasting time walking
and searching. Glassware can be grouped with others of its type, size, or
according to the purpose. For example, test tubes, bakers, conical flasks,
measuring cylinders, distillation set of apparatus, …; all these placed
in shelves with clear labels. This will ensure that they are easily found
when needed. Before storing them, the glassware equipment should
have been cleaned.
Specific glassware may require certain guidelines to ensure their safety
in storage. These are volumetric flasks, Burettes, Pipettes and Round-
Bottom Flasks.
ii) Storage of other materials
Science laboratories are not equipped only by Glassware but also by other
materials made of wood, plastic, rubber and metals. These laboratory
materials are also stored in the preparation room arranged following
their types or their usage. To facilitate their localization, labeling is
needed.

7
 6. Maintenance of laboratory materials and science kits

The care and maintenance of laboratory equipment is an important

part of quality assurance in the lab. Keeping your lab equipment clean
means that it will always be ready for use when you need it, and ensures
that no impurities contaminate samples and skew data. Lab equipment
or science kits should be cleaned after every use.
Making sure that devices are properly stored, cleaned, and well
maintained will save you time and money, as well as making your
projects and jobs much more comfortable.Inadequate maintenance can
lead to dangerous situations, accidents and health problems.
a) How to clean laboratory equipment in general?
• Carry out a daily wipe down of all equipment exteriors.
• Carry out a weekly deep clean of all equipment.
• Carry out a regular deep clean of microscopes using a 70:30
mixtures of ether and alcohol – this ensures that they are
sufficiently clean to yield most accurate results.

b) How to clean laboratory glassware?

• To remove organic residues, rinse glassware briefly with an
organic solvent (acetone or ethanol, hexane). ...
• Use warm tap water and a brush with soapy water to scrub the
inside of curved glassware. ...
• Remove soapsuds with deionized water to avoid harsh water
stains.

c) Rinse All Glassware

• First, rinse glassware very thoroughly with running tap water,
filling, shaking and emptying it at least six times. ...
• Then, rinse all glassware in a large bath of distilled or high
purity water.
• Finally, rinse each piece individually in high purity water.

8
 7. Role and responsibilities of teacher and learners in lab experiment
a) The roles and responsibilities of teacher during a lab experiment
Before conducting an experiment, the teacher will do the following:
• Decide how to incorporate experiments into class content best,
• Prepare in advance materials needed in the experiment,
• Prepare protocol for the experiment,
• Perform in advance the experiment to ensure that everything
works as expected,
• Designate an appropriate amount of time for the experiment.
Some experiments might be adapted to take more than one
class period, while others may be adapted to take only a few
minutes.
• Match the experiment to the class level, course atmosphere,
and your students' personalities and learning styles.
• Verify lab equipment before lab practices.
• Provide the experiment protocol and give instructions to
learners during lab session.

During practical work, the teacher's role is to coach instead of helping

with advice or questions. It is better to answer a learner's question with
another question than to immediately give the answer or advice. The
additional question should help learners to find the answer themselves.
b) The Role of a lab technician during a laboratory-based lesson
In schools having laboratory technicians, they assist the science teachers
in the following tasks:
• Maintaining, calibrating, cleaning, and testing the sterility of
the equipment,
• Collecting, preparing and/or testing samples,
• Demonstrating procedures.

9
 c) The learners’ responsibilities in the lab work
During the lab experiment, both learners have different activities to do.
General learner’s activities are:
• Experiment and obtain data themselves,
• Record data using the equipment provided by the teacher,
• Analyze the data often this involves graphing it to produce the
related graph,
• Interpret the obtained results and deduct the theory behind
the concept under the experimentation,
• Discuss the error in the experiment and suggest improvements
and make a conclusion of the experiment,
• Cleaning and arranging material after a lab experiment.
8. Usage of the main laboratory equipment.

NAME PICTURE USE

Used for weighing substances or
objects, usually in grams.
Electronic
balance

Used to hold items being heated.

Clamps or rings can be used so that
items may be placed above the lab
Retort stand table for heating by Bunsen burners
or other items.
Used also to hold burette

Used to take temperature of solids,

liquids, and gases.
Thermometer

10
Microscope A microscope is an instrument that
can be used to observe small objects,
even cells.

Triple beam The triple beam balance is measuring

balance instrument that measures mass very
precisely. It has a reading error of +/-
0.05 gram..

Resistor A resistor is an electrical component

that provides electrical resistance in
a circuit. It is used to reduce current
flow, adjust signal levels, to divide
voltages, bias active elements etc.

Multimeter A multimeter is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines
several measurement functions in
one unit. It can measure voltage,
current, and resistance

Voltmeter A voltmeter is an instrument used

for measuring electrical potential
difference between two points in an
electric circuit.

Ammeter An ammeter is an instrument used

to measure the current, either direct
or alternating electric current, in a
circuit.

11
Galvanometer The galvanometer is the device used
for detecting the presence of small
current and voltage or for measuring
their magnitude. The galvanometer
is mainly used in the bridges and
potentiometer where they indicate
the null deflection or zero current. It
works as an actuator, by producing a
rotary deflection (of a “pointer”), in
response to electric current flowing
through a coil in a constant magnetic
field.
Compass A compass is an instrument that
shows directions. It has a needle,
called a compass rose, which points
in North-South direction. The “N”
mark on the rose points northward.

Prism A prism is a transparent optical

element with flat, polished surfaces
that refract light. It can be used to
split light into its constituent spectral
colours (the colours of the rainbow)
where each colour has different
wavelengths

Optical bench The optical bench is a long steel pipe

with a linear scale applied to it. It is
used in optics experiments.

Pendulum bob A pendulum is a weight suspended

from a pivot so that it can swing
freely. It is used in many experiments.
Eg. Determination of acceleration
due to gravity, etc

12
Spring balance Spring Balance is used to measure
force using Hooke’s law. It is also used
to measure the mass of an object.

Meter scale Meter Scale is the most common

measuring tool that we use in day-
to-day activity. Often know as ruler,
it as equally spaced markings along
its length used to measure distances
long the straight lines.
Vernier calliper Vernier Calliper is a measuring
apparatus that can measure objects
up to 15 cm in length. It is made up
of a main scale and a vernier scale.
It can measure in the increments
of 0.1 cm on the main scale. It
has a pair of external jaws to
measure external diameter, pair of
internal jaws to
measure internal diameter and a
long rod to measure depth

Screw gauge Screw Gauge is a measuring apparatus

that can measure dimensions in the
range of millimetres up to 5 cm.
With a least count of 0.01mm, it can
measure the dimension in increments
of 0.01mm. Screw Gauges are widely
used to measure diameter of wires,
screws and bolts

13
Handheld A centrifuge is a device that uses
Centrifuge centrifugal force to separate
various components of a fluid. This
is achieved by spinning the fluid
at high speed within a container,
thereby separating fluids of different
densities (e.g. cream from milk) or
liquids from solids.

Ball and ring A useful apparatus for demonstrating

apparatus thermal expansion. The ball fits
easily through the ring at room
temperature. When the ball is
heated over a flame, it expands and
no longer fits in the ring.

Bar magnet Bar magnets are used as stirrers in

laboratory for magnetic experiments.
They also find applications in medical
procedures. Electronic devices such
as telephones, radios, and television
sets use magnets.

Bimetallic Strip A bimetallic strip is used to convert a

temperature change into mechanical
displacement. The strip consists of
two strips of different metals which
expand at different rates as they are
heated.

14
Calorimeter set Calorimeter is a device for measuring
joule the heat developed during a
mechanical, electrical, or chemical
reaction, and for calculating the heat
capacity of materials

Capacitor Capacitors are used for storing

energy, which can be used by the
device for temporary power outages
whenever they need additional
power. Capacitors are used for
blocking DC current after getting
fully charged and yet allow the AC
current to pass through the circuit of
a circuit.
Cell holder A cell holder is a simple device for
holding 1.5V cells {batteries} for use
in school laboratories.

Copper wire A copper wire allows the flow of

electricity through them easily and
to protect this copper wire from
surrounding environment, generally
copper wires are coated with
insulator materials such as plastic or
enamel which prevents the charging
of wire and it helps in managing any
other environmental effects.

15
Crocodile clips They are typically used to connect
two wires or to connect one wire to
the anode or cathode of a device.

Drawing pins They are used to fasten papers to a

soft board during optics experiments.

Electromagnet An electromagnet is a temporary

magnet which behaves like a
magnet when an electric current is
passed through the insulated copper
wire and loses its magnetism when
current is stopped

Electrostatic kit The Electrostatics Kit is a collection

of materials designed for students to
investigate the creation of charges
through friction between various
rods and fabrics.

Fuses The fuse breaks the circuit if a fault in

an appliance causes too much current
to flow. This protects the wiring and
the appliance if something goes
wrong.

16
Glass block Rectangular Glass Block is used
to verify the laws of refraction in
your physics class. Determine the
refractive index of this glass block by
determining the angle of incidence
and the angle of emergence of
the ray. Determine the lateral
displacement of the emergent ray
from the initial incident ray.

Gold leaf A gold-leaf electroscope is an

electroscope instrument used (mainly historically)
for the measurement of electric
charge or potential, based on one
or two fine gold foils suspended
vertically and free to deflect under
electrostatic repulsion when an
electric charge was applied.

Iron fillings They are very often used in science

demonstrations to show the direction
of a magnetic field.

Lamp/bulb A lamp holder is the device for

holder holding a light bulb or lamp.

17
Lens It is used to form an image of an
object by focusing rays of light from
the object.

Light bulb A bulb gives out (emits) light.

Light Emitting Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and

Diode produce light when a current
flows through them in the forward
direction.

Lovemeter It is used in the expansion of liquid .

When the gas in the bottom bulb is
heated with your hand, the increase
in temperature creates an increase in
air pressure. This increased pressure
pushes the liquid up the tube to the
top bulb

Magnifier A simple magnifier is a converging

lens and produces a magnified
virtual image of an object located
within the focal length of the lens.

18
Manometer A manometer is a scientific instrument
used to measure gas pressures. Open
manometers measure gas pressure
relative to atmospheric pressure

Curved mirrors They are used to focus light.

Plane mirror A plane mirror makes an image of

objects in front of the mirror; these
images appear to be behind the
plane in which than mirror lies.

Nichrome wire Nichrome is used for making heating

element of electrical appliances.
Because nichrome does not oxidize
and burn easily at high temperature.

Optical pins They are used to map light patterns

in optical experiments

19
Diode A diode is a device that allows current
to flow in one direction but not the
other.

Switch A switch is an electrical component

that is used to turn on and turn
off any equipment like television,
washing machine, lights, fans, etc.
When the switch is off, the circuit is
open and there is no flow of current.

Aneroid An aneroid barometer is an

barometer instrument used for measuring air
pressure as a method that does not
involve liquid.

Pulley It is used as a simple machine to lift

objects.

Electric cable/ It is used to connect electric circuit and

wire used for transmission of electricity or
electrical signals.

20
Resistance coil It is a coil of wire introduced into an
electrical circuit to provide resistance.

Spring A spring can be seen as a device that

stores potential energy, specifically
elastic potential energy, by straining
the bonds between the atoms of an
elastic material.

Slotted masses The slotted masses and weight

hanger combination allows a student
or researcher to quickly create any
desired amount of mass, to use
in experiments involving force,
acceleration, and mass.

stopwatch It is used to measure time in physics

experiments.

Tape measure A tape measure is a portable

measurement device used to quantify
the size of an object or the distance
between objects.

21
DATA MANAGEMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1. RECORDING MEASUREMENTS IN AN EXPERIMENT

In physics practicals, there are two types of measurements or readings

i.e. single and repeated measurements.

1.1 RECORDING SINGLE MEASUREMENTS

Single measurements are measurements whose procedure is not
repeated e.g measurement of diameter of the wire, thickness of wood
or glass block, breadth (width) of wood or glass block, length of thread
or wire etc. the common instruments for taking single measurements
are:
micrometer screw gauge, vernier callipers and meter rule, other
instruments can also be used. Single measurements should be carried
out three times, at different points of the objects under test. The
measurements should be recorded according to the unit and the precision
of the instrument being used. As an example, consider the measurement
of the diameter d of a wire using a micrometer screw gauge.

Measure the diameter of the wire at A, B and C. suppose the

measurements obtained are 0.34 mm, 0.34 mm, 0.35 mm, respectively.
The measurements should be recorded as follows:

d1 /mm d2/mm d3 /mm

0.34 0.34 0.35

d1 + d 2 + d3
Average d :
3
0.34 + 0.34 + 0.35
=
3
= 0.34 mm

22
Note:
1. The average should be recorded according to the precision of the
instrument being used; in the above example a micrometer screw
gauge precision is to 2 dp. In the case the value of the diameter
is to be recorded in meters, the units in the table and average
should be meters and the values converted from mm to m.
2. For measurement of the mass of an object, the measurement is
carried out once thus there is no need to measure three times.
This also applies to measurement of room temperature and focal
length of converging lens or concave mirror.

1.2 RECORDING REPEATED READINGS

Repeated readings are noted twice in the procedure. They are reading
taken on variable quantities like current, voltage, extension, angle of
refraction, balance length for experiments involving potentiometer or
meter bridges, etc. such readings must be recorded in the main table of
results.

2. DESIGN OF THE TABLE OF RESULTS

The table of results should be in columns and not in rows. This is by the
agreed convention. The table should be closed at the top and bottom.
The table of results can be drawn and written in pencil or pen (blue or
black).
Each column should have a heading which includes: the physical quantity
and its appropriate unit where applicable. The physical quantities should
be separated from its unit by use of forward slash /, e.g. L/m, t/s, m/kg etc.
The physical quantities should be on the same level with the unit except
for the degree symbol, which should be written slightly the level of the
quantity. The case (capital or small letter) of the symbol of the physical
quantity given in the procedure must not be altered e.g. L should not
1
be written as l, y should not be written as Y, x should not be written as
x −1 or 1 x , t etc. this also applies when writing the title of the graph
and labeling axes . units of the derived quantities should be written
−3 3 −2 2
in a recommended way e.g. kgm not kg m , Nm not N m etc. in case a
power of ten is used in the heading of a particular column, it should be
( )
written inside the brackets e.g. L ( 102m), sin θ 10−1

23
The examples below show typical tables of results:

1.

L/m 1 t/s T/s T2/s2

/m-1
L

2.

1
x/cm X2/cm2 I/ 0 Sin i Sin2 i sin 2 i

Note:
Once the units are written in the heading of a column, there is no need
of repeating them within the column. The table of results should be
systematic, neat and well organized as shown in the two examples
above. The table of results must be as detailed as possible. As an example,
consider an experiment to determine the width of a glass block. Suppose
the student is given values of angle i and is required to obtain values of
angle r, length x and to tabulate the results including values of sin r, 1/x2
and sin2 i the table of results should be drawn as:

i/o Sin i Sin2 i r /o Sin r x/cm x2 /cm 1 x 2 /cm2

24
The table of results must be self-explanatory.
In a given experiment the student is required to measure time for 20
oscillations. In case the symbol for time for 20 oscillations has not been
given, the student can use any symbol say t, but must define it e.g. let t
= time for 20 oscillations.
In a particular column in a table of results, values must be recorded to
the same number of decimal places although the number of decimal
places may differ from one column to another.
The method of calculation should not be shown in the table of results
instead the final values should be recorded. Values recorded in the
table of results from instruments must be according to the precision
(decimal places) of the instruments. The trend of the values recorded
from instruments varies; they can increase or decrease or both.
Note: The table of results should be drawn well in advance before the
experiment is done, and there is no need to have a rough table.

3. MANIPULATION OF DATA

There are two categories of operations used in manipulation of data

from the table of results:
i) Addition and subtraction
ii) Multiplication and division

3.1. Rule for adding and subtraction numbers

When adding and subtraction numbers, the answer should be expressed
using the same number of decimal places as the quantity with the least
number of decimal places.
Examples:
1. 2347.56(2dp) + 53.9521(4dp) =
2401.51(2dp)

2. 3.2576(4dp) − 1.1(1dp) = 2.2(1dp)

3. 43( float ) + 0.62(2dp ) =

43.62(2dp )

Note:
i. When adding two whole numbers, the total should be a whole
number.

25
 ii. The difference between two whole numbers should be a whole
number.

3.2 Significant figures

Non-zero digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are counted as significant figures
whether they’re in the left hand side or right hand side of the decimal
point. Zero (s) in the middle of a number is/are just as important as any
digit and should therefore be counted as significant figures. Zero at the
end of a number may be significant or not. If the zeros at the end of
the numbers are as a result of rounding off, then they are not counted
as significant. For example, if some distance is measure as 211 km, it can
be written to one significant figure as 200 km, the zeros at the end are
not significant but they keep/show place values and hence are called
place values zeros. Without them the meaning of the number would
change. To two significant figures 211 km would be written as 210 km.
As a further example, consider a value 3623.67. This can be expressed to
different number of significant figures as follows:
4 significant figures the values is 3624
3 significant figures the values is 3620
2 significant figures the values is 3600
1 significant figures the values is 4000
If a distance is measured as 30.0cm, the zeros at the end are not as
a result of rounding-off and thus they are counted as significant, in
this case there are three significant figures. Zeros at the beginning of
the number are present only to locate the decimal point and are not
significant figures. Therefore, the number 0.0003405 has four significant
figures. Significant figures are used to show the sensitivity or least count
of the instrument from which the measurements were derived.

3.3 Rule for multiplying and dividing numbers.

When multiplying and diving numbers, the answer should be expressed
to the same number of significant figures as that quantity with the least
number of significant figures (sf).
Example:

1. 2.5765(5sf ) × 1.27(3sf ) = 3.27(3sf )

2. 0.265(3sf ) × 0.265(3sf ) = 0.0702(3sf )

26
 3. 0.782(3sf ) ÷ 0.218(3sf ) = 3.59(3sf )

4. 30.78(4sf ) ÷ 1.9(2sf ) = 16(2sf )

When multiplying/dividing a whole number or recurring decimal with

another number, the numbers of significant figures of the number are
used. When adding/ subtracting a whole number or recurring decimal
to/from another number, the numbers of decimal places of the number
1
are used. For example , the numbers of significant figures to be
0.356
used are those of 0.356 not of 1. This is because 1 is called a float
value which has infinite number of significant figures. In this case the
answer should be expressed to three significant figures of 0.356, thus
1
= 2.81( sf )
0.356
Example:
a) Evaluate 4π (2.71)2.

(2.71)2= 7.34(3sf × 3sf = 3sf ) 4 and π are float values. Therefore, the
final answer should be expressed to three significant figures of 2.71.
Thus 4π (2.71)2 = 4π × 7.34 = 92.2(3sf )

b) 0.678(sf ) × 3( float) = 2.03(3sf )

4. APPROXIMATIONS

In every calculation, the answer obtained either terminates or recurs.

It may be necessary to approximate the answer obtained to a whole
number, to one or more number of decimal places.
When approximating to a required number of decimal places, check
the digit in the next (right hand side) number of decimal places. If the
next digit is greater than five (5), then one is added to the digit in the
number of decimal places required.
Example:
Express 2.786 to two decimal places. 2.786 ≈ 2.79(2dp)
If the next digit is less than five (5), then one is not added to the digit in
the number of decimal places required.

27
Express 13.726 to one decimal place 13.726 ≈ 13.7(1dp)
If the next digit is exactly five (5) and there is no digit on the right hand
side of side (5), then the number is just half way and one is not added to
the digit to the number of decimal places required.
Example:
Express 0.625 to two decimal places 0.625 ≈ 0.62(2dp)
If the next digit is exactly five (5) and there are digits on the right hand
side of five (5), then the number is beyond half way and 1 is added to
the digit in the number of decimal places required.
Example:

Express 1.72501 to two decimal places. 1.72501 ≈ 1.73(2dp)

5. MANIPULATION OF DATA IN THE TABLE OF RESULTS

When manipulating data in the table of results, there is need to recall

the rules for adding and subtracting numbers, multiplying and dividing
numbers and approximations. When multiplying/dividing numbers,
significant figures are used to determine the number of decimal places
in a column.The following examples have been carefully selected to
guide the students on how to manipulate data.
Table 1: y = 0.950m
x
x/m d/m
y
0.100 0.002 0.105
0.200 0.004 0.211
0.300 0.006 0.316
0.400 0.008 0.421
0.500 0.011 0.526
0.600 0.014 0.632

In the column of x, the first value 0.100 has 3sf and the value of y has
3sf. The column of involves division, so significant figures are used when
manipulating data in this column.
Thus, 3sf divided by 3sf give 3sf.

28
 0.100(3sf ) ÷ 0.950(3sf ) =0.105(3sf ) The value 0.105 has 3sf but 3dp.
x
Therefore, values in the column of should be recorded to 3dp.
y
Table 2:

x/m t/s T/s 1

x /m-1
0.90 19.0 0.950 1.1
0.80 21.0 1.050 1.2
0.70 23.0 1.150 1.4
0.60 27.0 1.350 1.7
0.50 32.5 1.625 2.0
0.40 39.5 1.975 2.5

Where: t = time for 20 oscillations

T = period
Column of T:
The values in the column of t are used to calculate the values of T. The
first value 19.0, in the column of t has 3sf. To obtain the value of T, the
value of t is divided by 20, which is a float.
Therefore the values in the column of T will depend on only the number
of significant figures to the first value in the column of t. The value of T
should be recorded to 3sf.

19.0(3sf ) ÷ 20( float) = 0.950(3sf )

The value 0.950 has 3sf but 3dp therefore; the values in the column of T
should be recorded to 3dp.
Note: The number of sf and therefore number of dp of T will depend
on the number of sf of the first value in the column of t but not on the
number of sf of the values in the entire column.

Column of 1 x :

The number of significant figures in the column of 1 x depends on only

the number of significant figures in the first value of x since 1 is a float.

29
The first value 0.90, in the column of x has 2 significant figures, thus
1( float) ÷ 0.90(2sf ) = 1.1(2sf )

The values in the column of 1 x should be recorded to 1 dp.

Table 3:
x/m x2/m2 t/s T/s T2/s2
0.10 0.010 14.5 0.725 0.526
0.15 0.022 15.0 0.750 0.562
0.20 0.040 16.0 0.800 0.640
0.25 0.062 17.0 0.850 0.722
0.30 0.090 18.0 0.925 0.856
0.35 0.122 20.0 1.000 1.000

T = time for 20 oscillations

Column of x2:
The first value 0.10, in the column of x has 2 sf therefore the first value
in the column of x2 should have 2sf, 0.10(2sf ) × 0.10(2sf ) = 0.010(2sf )
The value 0.010 has 2sf but 3dp, therefore the values in the column of x2
should be recorded to 3dp.
Column of T:
The first value 14.5 in the column of t has 3sf. The first value in the column
of T should be recorded to 3sf. Thus 14.5(3sf ) ÷ 20( float) = 0.725(3sf )
The value 0725 has 3sf but 3dp therefore the values in the column of T
should be recorded to 3dp.
Column of T2:
The first value 0.725 in the column of T has 3sf. The first value of T2
should be recorded to 3sf. 0.725(3sf ) ÷ 0.725(3sf ) = 0.526(3sf ) . The value
0.526 has 3sf but 3dp, therefore the values in column of T2 should be
recorded to 3dp.

30
6. GRAPH WORK

Graph work is yet another method of analyzing data obtained from

experiments. The main components of a good graph are:

6.1. TITLE OF THE GRAPH

The graph must have a title clearly written at the top of the graph paper.
A title of graph should show what is being plotted on the graph e.g. A
graph of T2 against l. This means the values of T2 are plotted along the
vertical axis and the values of l along the horizontal axis. The title of a
graph must not have units on the physical quantities being plotted. The
case (capital or small letters) of the physical quantity must be maintained
on the graph, as in the procedure. The word versus can be used in place
of against, in the title but not vs. The title of a graph must not be written
as: A plot of T2 against l or A graph showing T2 against l or Graph of T2
against l. The title of a graph should be written on only one line.

6.2 AXES
The axes should be drawn perpendicular to each other with an arrow
on each axis, showing increasing values. Axes should be drawn without
broken lines. Each axis must be clearly and correctly marked after every 10
small squares (2 cm) starting from the origin. It’s important to note that
the graph may not necessarily start from the origin (0,0). Axes should be
labeled correctly with their appropriate units where applicable. When
labeling the axis if a unit exists, it must be written on the same level
with the physical quantity except for the unit degrees, which should be
written slightly above the level of the physical quantity. The physical
quantity should be separated from its unit by use of a forward slash /.
When drawing the axes, select a suitable position on the graph paper
and draw the axes so as to cover all the values (positive and negative if
any) in your table.

6.3 SCALE
Each axis must have a single scale, which should be uniform. The plotted
points should cover at least half of the graph page except for intercept
where the pints may or may not cover at least half the graph page. The
origins of each axis must be indicated i.e where exactly the axis starts.
The origins of the axes may or may not be the same. When the intercept
on the vertical axis is required, the origin of the horizontal axis must be

31
zero; the origin of the vertical axis may be zero. When the intercept on
the horizontal axis is required, the origin of the vertical axis must be
zero; the origin of the horizontal axis may be zero. It is advisable that
the values of the scale must not be recurring. It is also advisable that the
multiples and sub-multiples of 1, 2, 5, be used as values are easy to use
when plotting.
How to obtain convenient scale:
a) Obtain the range on both the vertical and horizontal axes.
b) Divide the vertical range by 110 or 100 small squares and the
horizontal range by 90 or 80 small squares.
c) The figure values obtained in (b) is what one small square represents
on the vertical and horizontal axes respectively.
For convenience we use scales involving digits 1,2,4,5,8 and 10, their
multiples or their submultiples such as 0.1,0.2,0.4,0.5,0.8,1.0 or
0.01,0.02,0.04,0.05,0.08,0.1 or 10,20,40,50,80,100 etc. if the figure value
obtained in (c) falls exactly on one of the convenient scale like the ones
above, then use it as it is.
d) If the value obtained in (b) does not fall exactly on one of the
convenient scales, take the nearest upper value from the set of
convenient scales e.g. if the figure value in (b) is 0.043, take 0.05, if
the value obtained is 3.3, take 4, if the value in 0.008356, take 0.01
etc. the value chosen is what 1 small square will represent on the
particular axis.
e) Multiply the figure value obtained in (d) by 10 to obtain what 2 cm
(10 small squares) will represent.
If the scale used leaves out some values, then use a greater value from
the set of convenient scales in (c) above e.g. if 0.01 fails try 0.02, if 0.02
fails try 0.04 or 0.05 etc.

6.4. PLOTTING POINTS ON THE GRAPH PAPER

How to use the scales to plot points on the graph paper.
To plot a given point on the graph paper, divide the values for the
quantities to be plotted by their respective scales to obtain the number
of small squares to be counted on each axis. Then locate the position of
the point by counting the small squares obtained on each axis.

32
Example
Suppose you want to plot the value 0.174 on the vertical axis and 0.139
on the horizontal axis using the scales HA 1:0.005 and VA 1:0.01 then,
Horizontal axis
0.139
Number of small squares = = 27.8
0.005

Vertical axis
0.174
Number of small squares = = 17.4
0.01

Thus, to plot the point (0.139,0.174), we count 27.8 (and not 27 or 28)
small squares on the horizontal axis and 17.4 (not 17 or 18) small squares
on the vertical axis. This will give the exact position where the point lies.
This is only true if the axes begin from zero. If a given axis does not
begin from zero, subtract the starting value (on that particular axis)
from the value to be plotted and divide the figure value obtained by
what 1 small square represents to get the number of small squares to be
counted along that axis.
Symbols or signs used when plotting points
The experimental points should be plotted on the graph paper using a
hard sharp pointed pencil marking them with a dot, . or a cross, or a
dot encircled or across encircled but not *
The cross and the circle should cover less than four small squares of your
graph paper. When plotting, be consistent in the marking of points i.e
points must be marked with the same sign. Do not use for some points
and X or for others.
Note:
• The intersection of the cross is the correct point plotted and
the circling is to enable the visibility of your plotted points.
• If the points are marked with a dot and a circle, the circle must
be of half small square radius

33
The diagram below shows how this should be done for points lying at
different positions on the graph paper.

• If the point is in the middle of the square (A), the inclosing

circle should not go beyond the boundaries of the square.
• If the point is at the intersection of lines (B), then the circle
must cut the midpoints of the perpendiculars from it.
• If the point is on the horizontal (C), the enclosing circle must
be between the boundaries of vertical lines before and after
the point and should not touch the upper and lower lines.
• If a point is on the vertical (D), the enclosing circle must be
between the boundaries of the upper and the lower lines and
should not touch the lines before and after the point.

6.5. BEST STRAIGHT LINE OR BEST CURVE

For the best straight line use a 30cm transparent ruler and a sharp pencil.
The best straight line is the line which passes through most or all the
points plotted, leaving equal number of points below as above the line.
Points which are below and above the line should approximately be the
same distance from the line. Use a sharp pencil for drawing the best
curve. The curve must be a smooth one.

34
If a line that satisfies the above condition cannot be obtained, draw a
line that averages the plotted points. That is illustrated in the diagram
below

If the graph is a curve, the best curve must be smooth and needs not to
pass through all the plotted points.

6.6 SLOPE OR GRADIENT

In order to obtain a slope, a right-angled triangle is drawn touching the
best straight line and enclosing all plotted points. The triangle should
not touch any plotted points. The triangle should be drawn such that it
touches the best straight line at the points of intersection of the squares.
The coordinates of the slope must be accurately read from the triangle
of the slope.
The slope should be calculated from the coordinates read. A slope may
or may not have units depending on physical quantities that have been
plotted. To obtain number of decimal places of the slope, the number
of significant figures of the first values in the columns in the table of
results a being plotted are used. The rule for multiplying and dividing
numbers is then applied.
The unit of the slope must be derived from the labels on the axes of
the graph. If the value of the slope is not in SI units, convert to SI units
before using it in the next stage except for light experiments.

35
7. ERROR PROPAGATION

This is aimed at helping students know the possible sources of errors and
how they can be minimized for better accuracy. It’s not necessary for the
students to include the error bounds and the possible sources of error in
their practical answers.
There are three main types of errors that are actually incurred during
experimental investigations. Learners are advised to take the necessary
precautions to minimize these errors.

7.1 INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS

These are errors inherent in the apparatus itself and in the instruments
used for measuring a physical quantity. It should be realized that, in
a teaching laboratory, no apparatus can give high degree of accuracy.
The results of any measurement should be considered with the degree
of accuracy of the instrument in mind. However, measuring instruments
used must be reliable enough.
Note: Instrumental errors cannot be eliminated by repeated measurements
using the same apparatus. Generally, measuring instruments are accurate
to about the smallest division.

7.2 SETTING OR ADJUSTMENT ERRORS

These are personal errors that arise from a faulty alignment of apparatus
or wrong adjustment of apparatus.
Setting errors are perhaps the most common in teaching laboratory and
may give rise to unnecessarily large errors in the final results. This calls
for care and precision in setting up the apparatus for a given experiment.
Before arranging the apparatus, students are advised to ask for a clear
set up of the experiment to avoid making a wrong alignment of the
apparatus.

7.3 RANDOM ERRORS

These arise due to numerous fluctuating disturbances and uncertainties
during an experimental investigation.

36
Sources of random errors include;
i) Observational errors, which may arise due to parallax and scale
interpolation estimates.
ii) Pressure variation, where pressure is supposed to be constant.
iii) Temperature fluctuations, where temperature is supposed to
be constant.
iv) Voltage or current fluctuations, where voltage or current is
supposed to be constant.

The following example is used to guide on graph work.

Example 1: Determination of acceleration due to gravity by using Simple
Pendulum

Table of results
L/cm t/s T/s T2/s2
40.00 25.00 1.25 1.56
60.00 30.00 1.50 2.25
80.00 35.00 1.75 3.06
100.00 40.00 2.00 4.00
120.00 45.00 2.25 5.05
140.00 50.00 2.50 6.25

Where t is time for 20 oscillations

37
Interpretation of results
1.

2. Slope, m =
TB 2 − TA2
=
( 6.50 − 1.00 ) s 2
=
5.50s 2
= 0.04 s
2

lB − l A (150.00 − 26.00) cm 124cm cm

3. SI Unit of slope, m =, s 2 ? cm

4π 2
m=
g
4π 2 ( 3.14 ) × 4
2

g= = = 985.96cm / s 2
m 0.04 s
2

cm
Thus, g = 985.96 cm 2 = 9.86 m 2
s s

38
 4. Yes, he was correct, since T = 2π l , then T& l . (i.e. as l increases,
g
period T increases)
5. Air resistance affects the period T of the pendulum, by increasing.

Conclusion
As conclusion, the value of gravitational acceleration obtained in our
experiment is 9.86 m/s2, the actual value of g is 9.81 m/s2. However due
to errors which may be made in the experiment the value of g should
vary in the range of 9.71 and 9.91.

39
 LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
UNIT 1 AND MEASUREMENTS OF
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

Experiment 1.1: Measurement of length, width, and height

of a glass block (You might use any kind of
block such as wooden block, a brick or even
improvise your own block to use.)
Rationale

By using meter rule or meter stick, you can be able to measure the length
and the height of bodies or objects mostly in carpentry, construction
and in manufacturing industries, health care and other fields.

Objective

In this experiment, you will measure the length, width and the height of
a glass block/wooden block or a brick.
Materials:
• Transparent meter rule
• Glass block or wooden block or a brick.
• A pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet
Set up

Fig. 1.1Measurement of length.

40
Procedures
1. Place the meter rule in contact with the block as shown in Fig. 1.1.
The zero mark on the scale is placed at the edge of the block.
2. Position your eyes vertically above at the other end of the block as
shown in Fig. 1.1 position. Suggest the reason for this position of
the eyes. Read the measurement L1 and record it down on a piece
of paper.
3. Remove the ruler and replace it again and measure length L2
4. Repeat procedure 3 to obtain length L3
5. Calculate the average of L1, L2 and L3.
6. Re-read the measurement of the length (L2) and length (L3) and
calculate the average of L1, L2 and L3.
7. Repeat the steps 1 to 5, this time measuring the width (w) and
thickness (t) of the block.
8. Record your reading in tabular form as shown in table below.

No. Length Width Thickness

Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average reading

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the length, width and thickness of used glass block?
2) What was the smallest division or the least count of used meter
rule?
3) What is the importance of reading the measurements three
times?
4) Why did the groups get different results?

41
Experiment 1.2: Measurement of diameter of optical pin
by using Micrometer screw gauge

Rationale

By using micrometer screw gauge, you can be able to measure the

thickness of your notebook paper sheet, your pencil, your pen or even
your brother’s toothbrush diameter at home.

Objective

In this experiment, you will measure the diameter of the optical pin
provided by using Micrometer screw gauge.
Materials:
• Micrometer screw gauge
• Optical pin
Set up:

Fig. 1.2. Measuring using micrometer screw gauge.

42
Procedures
1. Clean the faces of the spindle and the anvil to remove any dirt.
2. Close the gap between the anvil and the spindle to check for
zero error. In case of any error, remove it by rotating the zero-
adjustment screw clockwise or anticlockwise as the case may
demand. Alternatively, you may note the error as a negative or a
positive value and add it to or subtract it from the final reading
accordingly.
3. Turn the spindle to open a suitable gap for holding the optical pin
between the anvil and the spindle.
4. Turn the ratchet until it makes first click (first sound) as in Fig. 1.2.
5. Take the readings on the main scale and the thimble scale and
record them down in your exercise book.
6. Repeat procedure 3 to 5 by taking two more measurements.
Deduce the average value.
7. Multiply the thimble scale reading by 0.01 mm.
8. Add the main scale reading (in mm) and the thimble scale reading
(in mm) to get the diameter of the optical pin.
9. Record your readings in tabular form as shown in table below.

Diameter Measured value

D1
D2
D3
Average diameter, D

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Specify the measured diameter of the optical pin.
2) What was the smallest division or the least count of used of
micrometer screw gauge?
3) What is the importance of reading the measurements three
times and why do we calculate the average?

43
Experiment 1.3: Measurement of internal diameter of
the test tube by using a vernier caliper.
Rationale

By using vernier caliper, you can measure the diameter, depth as well
as the thickness of the small objects mostly in carpentry, construction
companies and in manufacturing industries.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the internal diameter of the test
tube using vernier caliper.
Materials
• Test tube
• Vernier caliper
Set up

Fig. 1.3. Measurement of inner diameter of the test tube.

44
Procedures
1. Insert the inside jaws of a vernier calipers into the test tube.
2. Move the sliding jaws until the jaws just touch the inside walls of
the test tube as shown in Fig. 1.3.
3. Read and record the readings on the main scale and of the vernier
scale.
4. Use these readings to determine the internal diameter of the test
tube.
5. Read and record the results in the table below
Measurements of the Main scale Vernier scale Diameter/cm
internal diameter of readings/ cm readings/ cm
test tube.
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average diameter D

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) According to the results you have got, what is the internal
diameter of the test tube?
2) Explain the advantages of using a vernier caliper over a meter
rule in measuring the diameter of a test tube?

Experiment 1.4: Measurement of the external diameter of

the test
Rationale

By using vernier caliper, you can measure the diameter, depth as well
as the thickness of the small objects mostly in carpentry, construction
companies and in manufacturing industries.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the external diameter of test tube
using a vernier caliper.

45
Materials:
• Test tube
• Vernier caliper
Set up

Fig.1.4. Using Vernier Caliper to measure external diameter

Procedures
1. Place the test tube to be measured between the outside jaws as
shown in Fig. 1.4.
2. Record the readings on the main scale and the vernier scale. The
main scale reading is the mark on the main scale that is immediately
before the zero mark of the vernier scale.
3. Multiply the vernier scale reading by 0.01 cm
4. Add the main scale reading (in cm) and the vernier scale reading
(cm) to get the diameter of the test tube and record your reading
in table below.
Measurements of Main scale Vernier scale Diameter/cm
the external test readings/cm readings /cm
tube.
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average diameter D

46
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What is the value of external diameter of measured test tube?
2) What are the causes of deviation resulting in this experiment?

Experiment 1.5: Measurement of the depth of the

beaker using a vernier caliper.
Rationale

By using vernier caliper, you can measure the diameter, depth as well
as the thickness of the small objects mostly in carpentry, construction
companies, manufacturing industries and other fields.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the depth of beaker using a

vernier caliper.
Materials:
• Beaker
• vernier caliper
Set up

Fig. 1.5. Measuring the depth of the beaker.

47
Procedures
1. Turn thumb screw to extend depth rod.
2. Move the thumb screw gradually until the end of the beam scale
makes contact with the top of the hole.
3. Position rod in hole and turn lock screw
4. Read measured values and record your readings in table below.
Measurements Main scale readings/ Vernier scale Depth/cm
of depth of the cm readings/cm
beaker
Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3
Average readings

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What the depth of used beaker?
2) Explain the advantages of using a vernier caliper over a meter
rule in measuring the depth of a beaker?
3) Compare your results to the rest of the class members.
4) Why do you think some of your classmates got different
results?

Experiment 1.6: Measurement of the thickness of the test

tube
Rationale

By using vernier caliper, you can measure the thickness of the test tube
mostly in carpentry, construction companies and in manufacturing
industries.
Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the thickness of test tube using a
vernier caliper.

48
Materials:
• Test tube or Beaker,
• Vernier caliper
Set up

Fig 1.6. Thickness of test tube

Procedures
1. Measure and record the external diameter of test tube
2. Multiply the vernier scale reading by 0.01 cm.
3. Add the main scale reading (in cm) and the vernier scale reading
(in cm) to get the diameter internal and external of the test tube.
4. Repeat the procedures (1) to (3) for inner diameter of test tube.
5. Subtract internal from external diameter of the test tube in order
to get thickness of the test tube and record your reading in table
below:
Internal diameter of External diameter of thickness of the wall
test tube. test tube. of test tube.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the thickness of the wall of the test tube?
2) Explain the advantages of using a vernier calipers in
determination of thickness wall of the test tube?
3) What do you expect to be the sources of deviation from the
correct measurement?

49
Experiment 1.7. Measurement of the mass of an object
by using a spring balance
Rationale

By using Spring Balance, you can measure the mass of an object mostly
in shops, markets, industries, etc.

Objective

In this experiment, you will measure the mass of an object by using a

spring balance.
Materials:
• 1 Spring balance (or 1 Newton meter)
• Any mass you want to measure (you can use a small Stone, dry
cell, wooden block etc)
• Retort stand, clamp and bosses.
• Piece of thread 50 cm long.
Set up

Fig. 1.7 The use of Spring balance for mass measurements.

50
Procedures:
1. Clamp vertically the spring balance as shown in the fig.1.7
2. Be sure that the spring balance is at rest and the is at zero mark.
3. Hang the hanger on the spring balance
4. Read and record the mass of hunger and call m1
5. Repeat procedures (3) and (4) for a small stone and dry cell.
6. Repeat procedures (2) to (4) using triple beam balance for mass
hunger, a small stone and dry cell.
7. Repeat procedures (2) to (4) using electronic balance for mass
hunger, a small stone and dry cell.
8. Record your data in tabular form as in table

Object Mass
Spring balance Triple beam Electronic balance
balance
Mass hanger
Small stone
Dry cell

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the unit of measured mass?
2) Do the measured objects have the same mass using the same
type of balance?

Experiment 1.8. Measurement of the time by using

stopwatch
Rationale

By using stopwatch, you can measure the time of the activities you
would like to perform.
Objective

In this experiment, you will measure time using stopwatch.

51
Materials:
• Stopwatch
• Pencil and rubber
• Sheet of paper or a notebook
Set up:

Fig.1.8. Stopwatch

Procedures
1. Verify the caliber of the stopwatch
2. Reset the stopwatch
3. Practice starting, stopping and resetting the stopwatch
4. Put hand on your chest
5. Be ready to start the stopwatch as you start counting heart beats.
6. Star stopwatch and counting the heart beeps
7. Stop timing immediately as soon as you count for 72 beats
8. Read and record the time taken for 72 beats
9. Record your data in tabular form as in table below.
Number of heart beats Time taken

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Find the duration between two heart beats?
2) Find the average of time interval between two heart beats
among your group members.

52
 3) The normal range of the time interval between two heart beats
for age group of 6-16 years is 0.60 to 0.75. did your calculated
average range match with the normal range?

Experiment 1.9: Determination the volume of an

irregular shaped solid (stone) using
Eureka can
Rationale

By using Eureka can and cylinder, you can measure the volume of the
irregular objects mostly in manufacturing industries.

Objective

In this experiment you will measure the volume of the irregular object
provided.
Materials:
• Eureka can
• Irregular stone
• Water
• Measuring cylinder
• Thread
Set up:

Fig. 1.9. Measuring the volume of an irregular solid using Eureka can.

53
Procedures
1. Fill a Eureka can with water until some of it overflows through the
spout.
2. Once the overflow stops, put the measuring cylinder at the mouth
of the spout.
3. Tie the irregular solid with a string and lower the solid carefully
into the can. Make sure the solid is completely immersed.
4. Collect and measure the volume V1 of the water displaced (Fig.
1.9).
5. Repeat the procedures 1, 2,3 and 4 for the second and the third
time to find V2 and V3.
6. Record your reading in tabular form as shown in table below.
Number of Readings Volume/ml
V1
V2
V3
Average volume

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) By reading on the measuring cylinder, what was the position
of the eyes?
2) Calculate the average volume to get the exact volume of water
displaced.
3) If you found the volume of water displaced, then what could
be the volume of the irregular solid?

Experiment 1.10: Determination of the volume of a

regular shaped solid using a measuring
cylinder.
Rationale

By using Cylinder, you can measure the volume of the regular objects
mostly in beverages companies and industries.

54
 Objective

In this experiment you will measure the volume of a regular shaped

solid using a measuring cylinder.
Materials
• Meter rule
• Pendulum bob
• Measuring cylinderWater
• thread
Set up

Fig. 1.10. Measuring volume by displacement.

Procedures
1. Using vernier calipers, measure and record the diameter D1 of the
pendulum bob.
2. Carefully, repeat procedure (1) for other two more times.

3. Calculate its volume using the formula V0 = 43 π r 3 ,where r is

radius of the bob.
4. Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water and record the initial
volume of the water V1. Carefully lower the bob into the water in
the measuring cylinder (see Fig. 1.10). Record the new volume of
the water V2.
5. Find the volume of the water displaced, V = V 2 − V 1

55
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Compare the volume V with the volume, Vo, of the bob
calculated using the formula
2) Did you get the difference between the two, and why do you
think they might be equal or different?

Experiment 1.11. Measurement of density by using

spring balance and a measuring
cylinder
Rationale

Measuring the density of an object helps to determine whether or not an

object will float on water. If the object's density is less than the density of
water, it will float; if its density is less than that of water, it will sink. you
can determine the density of the objects mostly in beverages companies
and industries.
Objective

In this experiment you will measure the density of the regular objects
using spring balance and a measuring cylinder.
Materials
• Spring balance
• Measuring cylinder,
• Water,
• Solid body (denser than water)
• 20cm long thread
• Pencil and rubber
• Sheet of paper

56
Set up

Fig 1.11 Measuring the density of object

Procedures
1. Tie the solid with a thread and suspend the given solid body from
the hook of the spring balance as in the figure 1.11.
2. Read and record the true mass of the solid in grams
3. Take the measuring cylinder and half fill it with water.
4. Read and record the initial reading of the cylinder, V1 in cm3
5. Gently immerse the given solid body completely in water and note
the final reading of cylinder, V2 in cm3.
6. Estimate the volume of solid V= V2 - V1

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the density ρ s of a solid from the formula ρ s = m V

2) Estimate the density ρ s of the solid in kilogram per cubic meter,

kg/m3.

Experiment 1.12: Measurement of relative density of a solid

Rationale

Relative density can help to quantify the buoyancy of a substance in a

fluid or gas or determine the density of an unknown substance from the
known density of another. Relative density is often used by geologists
and mineralogists to help determine the mineral content of a rock or
other sample.

57
 Objective

In this experiment, you will measure the relative density of a solid.

Materials:
• Spring balance
• Measuring cylinder,
• Water,
• Solid body (denser than water)
• 20cm long thread
• Pencil and rubber
• Sheet of paper of notebook
Set up

Fig 1.12 Measurement of relative density of a solid

Procedures
1. Tie the solid with a thread and suspend the given solid body from
the hook of the spring balance as in the figure 1.12.
2. Read and record the true mass of the solid in grams
3. Take the measuring cylinder and half fill it with water.
4. Read and record the initial reading of the cylinder, V1 in cm3
5. Gently immerse the given solid body completely in water and note
the final reading of cylinder, V2 in cm3.
6. Estimate the volume of solid V= V2 - V1

58
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Calculate the density ρ s of a solid from the formula
ρs = m V
.

2) Estimate the density ρ s of the solid in kilogram per cubic

meter, kg/m3.

3) Calculate the relative density of solid from ρs ρw where

ρ s is density of a solid and ρ = 1000 kg m3 is density of
w
water.
4) What is the SI unit of relative density?

Experiment 1.13: Measurement of the density of liquid

(water or any other)
Rationale

The density of liquids is an important physical parameter that plays

an essential role not only in consumer protection, trade, safety and
healthcare, taxation, and environmental protection but also in research
and development. It is needed, for example, for the characterization of
oils and fuels as well as for determination of alcohol concentration in
alcoholic beverages for fiscal purposes or the determination of sugar
content in non-alcoholic beverages. Knowledge of the density is also
needed to quantify large amounts of liquid goods when converting a
mass flow into a volume flow or vice versa

Objective

In this experiment you will measure the density of water.

Materials:
• Electronic balance
• Graduated cylinder
• Water
• Pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet or notebook

59
Set up

Fig.1.13. Measurement of density of the liquid

Procedures:
1. Using the electronic balance, measure and record the mass mc of
your graduated cylinder.
2. Add 20 mL of water to the graduated cylinder. Precisely measure
this volume V of water.
3. Measure and record the new mass m, (cylinder plus water), in
grams.
4. Find the mass of water by subtracting the mass of the empty
cylinder from combined mass, mo = m − mc
5. Find the ratio ρ = m0 V
6. Repeat procedures (2) to (5) for other 3 readings of volume by
increasing the volume with about 20mL each time.
7. Record the results in a tabular form as shown in table here below.
V /cm3 mo / g mo
/ gcm −3
V
20
30
40
50

60
Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the observation in the ratio ρ = m0 V

2) From this experiment, estimate the density of water.

61
 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
UNIT 2
OF LINEAR MOTION

Experiment 2.1: Measurement of acceleration due to

gravity by using spring balance
Rationale

By performing this experiment, you can measure the acceleration due

to the gravity of falling objects to the ground at any location.

Objective

In this experiment you will use the spring balance to estimate the
acceleration due to gravity.
Materials:
• 1 Spring balance (or 1 Newton meter)
• 1 mass of 50g slotted on a hanger of 50 g (or either 100g
Stone, box of chalks, wooden block etc)
• Retort stand, clamp and bosses
Set up

Fig 2.1 Measurement of the acceleration due to the gravity

62
Procedures
1. Clamp vertically the spring balance as shown in the fig.2.1.
2. Hang mass m=100g (the hanger with mass) on the spring balance
3. Read and record the weight and call W1
4. Re-read the measurement of the weight W2 and W3
5. Calculate the average of W1, W2 and W3 and call it W.
6. Record your data in tabular form as in table below.
Reading Weight
W1
W2
W3
Average weight, W

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Express the mass m =100g in kilogram, (kg).
2) Calculate the constant g from the formula g = W m
3) What is the unit of g calculated in part (2) above?
4) What is the meaning of constant g?

Experiment 2.2: Measurement of velocity of a moving body

Rationale

The velocity of a moving body can be defined as the rate of change of the
body’s position with respect to a frame of reference and time. Velocity
determine how fast is a moving body and in which specific direction.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the velocity of moving body

correctly using displacement sensors and stopwatch.

63
Materials:
• A ruler
• Stopwatch
• Tennis ball or marble
• Table
Set up

Fig.2.2 Inclined table

Procedures
1. Arrange the table inclined so that the ball will move freely.
2. Mark different starting positions of the ball using a meter rule
and marker pen.
3. Mark the starting point by A at 0cm, B at 10cm mark from A, C at
20cm mark from point A, D at 30cm mark from point A and E at
100cm mark from A.
4. Place the marble at the point A mark, and let it move (roll) down
to point E.
5. Use the stopwatch to measure the time used by the body to move
from the point mark A to the point mark E.
6. Repeat the step (2) and step (3) with the body starting its motion
from B, C and D
7. Record your data in tabular form as in table below:

64
Stages Displacement(d)/m Time(t)/s Displacement
d 
over time  /
t
m.s-1
From A to E
From B to E
From C to E
From D to E

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Plot the graph of displacement against time.
2) Find the slope
d
3) How do you compare different values obtained for at A, B,
t
C and D?

4) How does the value of d t at point A, B, C and D compare

with the slope calculated from the graph?
5) What does the slope of the graph represent?

Experiment 2.3: Determination of the linear acceleration

of a moving object
Rationale

Acceleration of a moving body is a vector quantity defined as the rate of

changes of its velocity. A moving body is accelerating if it is changing its
velocity (in magnitude or direction) throughout time.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the acceleration of moving object.

Materials:
• Marble or tennis ball
• ruler,
• ramp,
• Stopwatch
• wooden block.

65
Set up

Fig.2.3: A ramp

Procedures
1. Set up a ramp balanced on a wooden block at one end.
2. Attach the meter rule on the ramp.
3. Mark out X1 = 30 cm from mark 0cm at bottom. Avoid making the
ramp too steep, as this will cause the trolley to roll too quickly,
which could make measuring difficult.
4. Place the marble or ball at 30cm mark on the runway and hold it
in place gently with the finger
5. By simultaneously releasing the marble or ball to descend and
starting the stopwatch.
6. Measure and record the time t1, taken by the marble or ball to
reach the lower end of the runway (It is advisable to measure the
time twice and record the average time)
7. Repeat procedures (3), (4) and (5) for X2 = 50cm, X3 = 70cm and X4
= 90cm mark
8. Record your data in tabular form as in table below:

66
 2x
X/cm t/s t2/s2 2
/ ms −2
t
30
50
70
90

Questions to guide interpretation of results

2x
1) What does stand for?
t2
2x
2) Find the average value of all values of
t2
3) What is the unit of result in (2)?

67
UNIT 3 FORCE (I)

Experiment 3.1: Demonstration of effect of friction force

on the motion
Rationale

Friction force is very important in life, it can slow things down and stop
stationary things from moving.

Objective

In this experiment you will use the light spring to demonstrate the
effects of friction force on the motion of a brick.
Materials
• A wooden block
• Pencil
• A spring balance.
• A bench or a fixed table

Setup

Fig. 3.1. Direction of friction force.

68
Procedures
1. Attach the wooden block to the spring balance placed on the
bench.
2. Read and record the measurement of spring balance.
3. Pull the block a brick using a spring balance slowly until it starts
moving slightly.
4. Read and record the maximum force Fo at which the brick starts
moving.
5. Repeat procedures (2) and (3) for two times and find the average
of the maximum force.
6. Then pull the block and let it move.
7. Then for the second time, pull it a bit faster across the bench. (Fig.
3.1). Observe what happens comparing to (2).
8. Discuss the observations made in (2).
9. Place a pencil on the horizontal bench and give it a slight push.
Observe and explain what happens.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe before the block started moving?
2) Discuss what happened after the block started moving?
3) What are types of force does table acting on the block?
4) From this experiment explain the effects of friction on the
motion of the body.

Experiment 3.2: Demonstration of upthrust force

Rationale

When the ship or the boat is sailing in the sea or ocean it is by the help
of the upthrust force which makes it to float on the water. And when a
person is swimming, the upthrust force helps him stay at the top of the
pool or lake.

69
 Objective

In this experiment you will use the spring balance to determine the
upthrust force.
Materials:
• Retort stand
• A spring balance (0 – 1N)
• Beaker with water
• A solid mass of 50g.
Set up

Fig. 3.2. Demonstration of upthrust force

Procedures
1. Suspend a solid in air on a retort stand, using a spring balance.
Note down its weight (Wo).
2. Place the beaker with water in it, under the suspended solid.
3. Lower the clamp of the retort stand slowly until it reaches in the
beaker and let it submerge in the water fully. What is the weight
(W) of the solid? Note it down.

70
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Compare the weight of the solid in the air and in the water.
2) What type of the force did the water apply on the solid?
3) Estimate the upthrust force applied by water on the mass.
4) How do you think of the influence of the water on the solid’s
weight?

Experiment 3.3: Determination of spring constant and

the verification of Hook’s law
Rationale

The spring-constant is important as it shows the basic material property.

This gives exactly how much force is required to deform any spring of
any material. The higher spring's constant shows the material is stiffer
and the lower spring's constant shows the material is less stiff.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the spring constant of a spring

provided and verify Hook’s law.
Materials:
• Retort stand
• Meter ruler
• Helical spring
• Slotted masses

71
Setup

Fig. 3.3. Demonstration of added masses to the spring to measure the

extension

Procedures
1. Suspend the spring balance from rigid support as shown in the
Fig.3.3.
2. Read and record the initial position of the pointer of the spring XO
when it does not have any mass on it.
3. Add a weight of 50g to the spring and, by the use of meter rule,
read and record the new position of the pointer of the spring X1.
4. Repeat procedure 3, for other three times adding a mass of 50g
each time. Note: hold together strongly adequate to grasp it in
position.
5. Record your reading in tabular form as shown in table below
Mass/g New Extension Constant, k/Nm-1
F = m× g
position (X1/ X = ( X − X )
1 O /cm
cm)
50
100
150
200

72
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Calculate the force F = m × g , take g = 10N/kg and do this for
every mass added.
2) Find constant k, using F = −kx for every extension x in cm.
3) Compare the values of constant, k for all masses and deduce
the constant, k of the spring balance used by calculating the
mean.

Experiment 3.4: Demonstration of the existence of an

electrostatic force
Rationale

Many practical applications of electrostatics exist, including photocopiers,

laser printers, ink jet printers, and electrostatic air filters. Rubbing the
plastic ruler on dry piece of cloth, you will be able to prove the existence
of electric charges.

Objective

In this experiment you will prove the existence of an electrostatic force

with the use of silk piece of cloth.
Materials:
• Plastic ruler/pen
• Dry piece of cloth
• Pieces of paper
Setup

Fig. 3.4. Ruler pulling up papers

73
Procedures
1. Rub a plastic ruler against a dry piece of cloth. Suggest a reason
why we do so.
2. Just immediately after rubbing the plastic ruler, bring the plastic
ruler close to small pieces of paper (Fig 3.4).
3. Repeat procedure 1 and 2, but this time on, use a pen. Did you
obtain the same result?

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What was the behavior observed between the ruler and the
pieces of paper? What is the cause of that behavior?
2) What do you conclude from your own observation?

Experiment 3.5: Demonstration of the existence of a

magnetic force
Rationale

Every young kid wishes to become an engineer or even to own an industry

which makes car and maybe electrical equipment like television, fridge,
microphones, etc. So in order to achieve this, you have to know some
working principles of those items, and among those principles includes
application of “Magnetic force”.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate how magnet force exists

between metal rod and magnet as well as between two magnets.
Materials:
• 2 bar magnets
• A thread
• Iron rod

74
Set up

Fig. 3.5. Two poles of bar magnets brought near one another

Procedures
1. Suspend a bar magnet from a support using a light thread. Allow
the bar magnet to swing freely until it comes to rest.
2. Bring the north pole of the second bar magnet near the north
pole of the first one (Fig 3.5). What do you observe?
3. Now bring the south pole of the second bar magnet near the
north pole of the first one (Fig 3.5). What do you observe?
4. Repeat step 1 and 2 using a bar magnet and iron rod. What do
you observe?

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Explain your observations in procedure 2.
2) Explain your observations in procedure 3.
3) Give a comment on procedure (4).

75
 NEWTON’S LAWS
UNIT 4
OF MOTION (I)

Experiment 4.1: Demonstration of inertia using a coin

Rationale

If you throw a rock straight up, it will not vary from its direction. Inertia
enables ice skaters to glide on the ice in a straight line. If the wind is
blowing, a tree's branches are moving. A piece of ripe fruit that falls
from the tree will fall in the direction the wind is moving because of
inertia.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate inertia using a coin.

Materials:
• A coin
• A beaker
• A smooth cardboard or a sheet of paper
Set up

Fig 4.1 Existence of inertia

76
Procedures
1. Place a coin on a smooth cardboard and place it over a beaker. Pull
the card away slowly.
2. Repeat the activity but this time pull the card away suddenly.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Observe what happens to the coin in procedure 1.
2) Observe what happens to the coin in procedure 2.
3) Suggest a reason why the coin behave differently in these
procedures.

77
UNIT 5 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Experiment 5.1: Location of the position of centre of

gravity of a regular object.
Rationale

The location of the centre of gravity is sometimes useful in designing

static structures (e.g., buildings and bridges) or in predicting the
behaviour of a moving body when it is acted on by gravity.

Objective

In this experiment you will locate the position of centre of gravity of a

rectangular card using a table.
Materials
• A table,
• Thin rectangular card

Setup

Fig 5.1 Determination of centre of gravity

78
Procedures
1. Place a thin rectangular cardboard near the edge of the bench
top.
2. Pull the card slowly away from the bench until it is just about to
topple over then released as shown in Fig.5.1. (a).
3. Using a ruler, mark and draw the line AB along which the card
balances.
4. Repeat the activity with the other side of the card, mark and draw
the line CD along which the card balances. The lines AB and CD
intersect at a point M in Fig 5.1. (b)
5. Now, try to balance the card with the point M placed at the tip of
your fore finger.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What do you notice in procedure 5?
2) Suggest reason for this observation.

Experiment 5.2: To locate the centre of gravity of a regular

lamina
Rationale

The location of the centre of gravity is sometimes useful in designing

static structures (e.g., buildings and bridges) or in predicting the
behaviour of a moving body when it is acted on by gravity.

Objective

In this experiment, you will locate the centre of gravity of a regular

lamina using drawing pin.
Materials
• A regular lamina.
• Plumb line.
• A drawing pin.

79
Setup

Fig 5.2. Determination of center of gravity

Procedures
1. Make three holes P, Q and R on a regularly shaped lamina as close
as possible to the edges and far away from each other. The holes
should be large enough to allow the lamina turn freely when
supported through a drawing pin.
2. Suspend the lamina on the clamp using the drawing pin through
each hole at a time.
3. Suspend a plumb line (a thin thread with a small weight at one
end) from the point of support, P as shown in Fig. (a), and draw
the line of the plumb line on the lamina by marking two points A
and B far apart and joining them.
4. Repeat the procedures (3) with the support Q and mark the point
M where the two lines intersect.
5. Check the accuracy of your method by suspending the lamina at
R. What do you observe?

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) From procedure (5), does the plumb line pass through M?
2) Explain the meaning of point M.

80
Experiment 5.3: Determination of centre of gravity (c.o.g)
of irregular lamina.
Rationale

It is important to know the centre of gravity because it predicts the

behaviour of a moving body when acted on by gravity. It is also useful
in designing static structures such as buildings and bridges

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the Centre of mass of an irregular

lamina using a plumb line.
Materials
• An irregular lamina,
• Plumb line,
• A drawing pin

Set up

Fig 5.3. Determination of center of gravity.

Procedures.
1. Make three holes P, Q and R on an irregularly shaped lamina as
close as possible to the edges and far away from each other. The
holes should be large enough to allow the lamina turn freely
when supported through a drawing pin.
2. Suspend the lamina on the clamp using the drawing pin through
each hole at a time.

81
3. Suspend a plumb line (a thin thread with a small weight at one
end) from the point of support, P as shown in Fig. 5.3.(a) and draw
the line of the plumb line on the lamina by marking two points A
and B far apart and joining them.
4. Repeat the steps with the support Q and mark the point M where
the two lines intersect.
5. Check the accuracy of your method by suspending the lamina at
R. What do you observe?

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) From procedure (5), does the plumb line pass through M?
2) Check the results again by balancing the lamina on the top of
your finger about point M. What do you observe?

82
 WORK, POWER, AND
UNIT 6
ENERGY (1)

Experiment 6.1: Determination of work done in pulling

an object along a horizontal surface.
Rationale

Work is done whenever a force moves something. Everyday examples

of work include walking upstairs, lifting heavy objects, pulling a sledge
and pushing a shopping trolley, etc. Whenever work is done, energy is
transferred from one place to another.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the work done in pulling an

object along a horizontal surface
Materials:
• a block of wood,
• a spring balance
• a tape measure/metre ruler.

Set up

Fig 6.1 Demonstration of work done in pulling an object

Procedures:
1. Place the block of wood on a smooth horizontal surface.
2. Attach the spring balance on the block and pull it slowly.
3. Record the force needed to pull the block of wood.

83
 4. Measure the distance d through which the block of wood has
moved from the beginning to the end sin meters using a tape
measure/metre ruler,
5. Read and record the force
Force F/N Distance d/m Work done W/J

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What do you observe when you attached a spring balance on
the block and pull it slowly?
2) Calculate the work done in pulling the block.

Experiment 6.2: Demonstration of the law of conservation

of Mechanical Energy using a swinging
pendulum
Rationale

The law of conservation of energy definition emphasizes that energy

is not something that can be destroyed or created. It's important
to understand what that really means. Energy is constantly being
transformed so that it can be used. For example, solar panels don't
create solar energy. They harness energy from the sun and transform it
into another type of energy (electricity).

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate the law of conservation of

Mechanical Energy using a swinging pendulum.
Materials:
• A retort stand
• A clamp
• A boss
• a bob
• string
• spring balance

84
Set up

Fig 6.2. Conservation of mechanical energy by using simple pendulum

Procedures:
1. Using the balance measure and record the mass m of a pendulum
bob in kilogram.
2. Tie a string to the bob and fix it to a retort stand and adjust the
length of pendulum to be 70 cm.
3. Measure and record the position ho (in meter) of the bob from
the bench.
4. Displace the bob from A to B through an angle of 45o.
5. Read and record the new position h1 (in meter) of the bob above
the bench.

6. Find the height h from the formula h = h1 − ho

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Estimate the potential energy when bob is at B
2) From your observation, discuss the change in speed of the bob
at positions A, and B
3) Compare the Kinetic energy KEA at position A and KEB at
position B.
4) Estimate mechanical energy (ME) and maximum speed of the
bob while it is passing through A.
5) Does the ME change during the experiment? Explain.

85
UNIT 7 Simple Machines (I)

Experiment 7.1: Determination of the mass of the meter

rule by using principle of levers
Rationale

Every day we need to measure the mass of different substances, this

experiment helps to measure the mass of an object by using principle
of levers.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the mass of the meter rule using
principle of levers.
Materials
• 1meter ruler,
• 1wooden block,
• 1 knife edge
• 2 masses of 10g each
• 1 Pencil and rubber
• 1 Paper sheet or notebook
Set up

Fig 7.1: Determination of mass of the solid

86
Procedures:
1. Balance the beam on the knife edge provided. Mark the balance
point G
2. Measure and record the distance XG from the end of the beam
marked X.
3. Place a 10 g mass at the end X of the wooden beam.
4. Adjust the position of the knife-edge until the beam balances
horizontally.
5. Denote this position of the knife edge by P1
6. Measure and record the distance GP1 and P1X
GP1
7. Calculate the ratio U1 =
P1 X

8. Repeat the procedures (3) and (4) above for a mass of 40g and
denote the position of the knife edge by P2
GP2
9. Calculate the ratio U 2 =
P2 X

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the mass m, of provided meter ruler, in g from
30
m=
(𝑈𝑈' − 𝑈𝑈) )
2) Express the mass m in kilogram.

Experiment 7.2: Determination of velocity ratio of a

system of pulleys
Rationale

Pulleys are used in window blinds, on ships to raise and lower sails,
elevators, exercise equipment, theater curtains, extension ladders,
garage doors and more. Rock climbers also use pulleys to help them
climb. As with all simple machines like the pulley, they are designed to
help make work easier to do.

87
 Objective

In this experiment you will determine the velocity ratio of a system of

pulleys.
Materials:
• A tackle pulley system,
• Mass (load)
• 120 cm piece of thread,
• 1 metre rule
• Retort stand set.
• Paper sheet or notebook
Set up

Fig 7.2 Determination of mass

Procedures.
1. Set up the experiment as shown in the above figure.
2. Pull the effort downwards through a distance e = 10cm
3. Read and record distance l moved by the load.
4. Repeat procedures (2) and (3) for e = 20 cm,30cm, and 40cm
5. Record the result in a suitable table and find the average value of
the effort.

88
Distance moved by Measured value of =
l (l1 − l0 ) / cm Velocity ratio
effort e / cm l1 / cm e/l
10
20
30
40

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is your observation in the ratio of e and l for each
distance moved by the effort?

2) What is the unit of ratio e / l ?

3) From this experiment deduce approximate value of velocity
ratio of the pulley system given in this experiment.

Experiment 7.3: Determination of the mechanical

advantage of a system of pulleys
Rationale

The mechanical advantage of a machine is important because it tells

people how much force a machine exerts when a certain amount of
force is applied to it.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the mechanical advantage of a

system of pulleys
Materials:
• 1 Newton meter (0 to 10N)
• A tackle pulley system,
• Mass (load)
• 120 cm piece of thread,
• 1 metre rule
• Retort stand set.
• Paper sheet or notebook

89
Set up

Fig 7.3 Determination of mechanical advantage of the system of pulleys

Procedures
1. Set up the experiment as shown in the above figure.
2. Connect a spring balance on the effort string.
3. Hang the mass m=0.100kg on the load string, and calculate load
L = m× g

4. Where g =10N/kg
5. Pull the string balance on the effort until the load just begins to
rise steadily.
6. Read and record the reading of the spring balance, which is the
effort E.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate mechanical advantage M . A = L E .
2) Give the unit of mechanical advantage

90
Experiment 7.4: Determination of the efficiency of a
system of pulleys using spring balance
Rationale

By using pulley and spring balance, you will be able to determine the
efficiency of system

Objective

In this experiment, a learner will determine the efficiency of a system of

pulleys.
Materials:
• 1 Newton meter (0 to 10N)
• A tackle pulley system,
• Mass (load)
• 120 cm piece of thread,
• 1 metre rule
• Retort stand set.
• Paper sheet or notebook

Set up

Fig 7.4 Determination of the efficiency by using pulleys and spring balance

91
Procedures
1. Set up the experiment as shown in the above figure.
2. Connect a spring balance on the effort string.
3. Hang the mass m=0.100kg on the load string, and calculate load
L = m × g where g = 10N/kg
4. Pull the effort downwards through distance e to raise load
through length, l = 20cm from its initial position.
5. Read and record the reading of the spring balance, which is the
effort E.
6. Measure and record the distance, e , moved by the effort.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate mechanical advantage M . A = L E
2) Find the velocity ratio V .R = e l
3) Find the efficiency η = M . A V .R
4) Express the efficiency in percentage
5) What is the SI unit of efficiency?

92
 KINETIC THEORY
UNIT 8
AND STATES OF MATTER

Experiment 8.1: Comparison of viscosity of two liquids

(Water and cooking Oil)
Rationale

The oil used as a lubricant for heavy machinery parts should have a
high viscous coefficient. The highly viscous liquid is used to damp the
motion of some instruments and is used as brake oil in hydraulic brakes.
Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends upon the viscosity
of fluids.

Objective

In this experiment, you will compare the viscosity of water and cooking
oil.
Materials:
• 2 measuring cylinders,
• 2 marbles or ball bearings,
• stopwatch,
• water and cooking oil.
Set up

Fig 8.1 Comparison method of viscosity of liquids

93
Procedures:
1. Label one measuring cylinder as A and another as B.
2. Poor water in the cylinder A, and cooking oil in the cylinder B, and
make sure they are of equal amount.
3. Drop marble gently into the measuring cylinder A.
4. Use a stopwatch to read and record the time for the marble to
reach the bottom of the measuring cylinder A
5. Repeated procedures (3) and (4) for the measuring cylinder B.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) In which cylinder, the marble took shorter time to reach the
bottom?
2) Explain why the marble did not use the same time to reach the
bottom of cylinder A and B?

Experiment 8.2: Determination of melting point of water

Rationale

The melting point is an important physical property of a compound. The

melting point can be used to identify a substance and as an indication
of its purity.

Objective

In this this experiment you will determine the melting point of water
(Ice)
Materials
• Laboratory thermometer
• Beaker
• Small ice cubes or crushed ice
• Stopwatch
• Pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet or notebook

94
Set up:

Fig 8.2 Determination of melting point of water

Procedures:
1. A beaker is taken and filled up to half with crushed ice
2. Bulb of the thermometer is inserted into the ice and let it stand in
a vertical position
3. Stopwatch is switched on and the reading of thermometer is
noted and the state of ice in the beaker is observed after every
one minute till the whole of ice melts.
4. Recording of temperature is continued till the temperature of the
water so formed rises up to 2-3oC
5. Record your data in a suitable table as here below.

Time, t/s Temperature, T/oC

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What value of temperature that last a long time period without
changing?
2) From this experiment, what is the melting point of the Ice?

95
Experiment 8.3: Determination of boiling point of water
Rationale

Boiling point elevation depends on the identity of the solvent and the
concentration of solute particles, but not the identity of the solute.
Consequently, just like freezing point depression, boiling point elevation
can be used to determine the molar mass of a solute.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the boiling point of water.

Materials
• Laboratory thermometer
• Beaker
• Bunsen burner
• 200 ml of water
• Glass stirrer
• Stopwatch
• Iron stand
• Paper sheet or notebook
• Pencil and rubber
Set up

Fig 8.2 Determination of boiling point of water

96
Procedures:
1. Take around 100 ml of water in a glass beaker and arrange bit
on a tripod stand with the burner below it as shown in the above
diagram.
2. Clamp the thermometer in such a way that the bulb is in contact
with the water as shown in the diagram.
3. Switch on the flame of the burner and keep checking the readings
on the thermometer.
4. Read and record the initial temperature T1 when the water is just
beginning to heat up.
5. Keep monitoring the temperature change in the thermometer
while the water is heating up further.
6. After a while, notice the vapors coming out of the boiling water.
7. Read and record the temperature T2 when half of the water has
evaporated.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the value of temperature T1?
2) What is the value of temperature T2?
3) From this experiment, what is the boiling point of the water?
4) What happened on the reading of thermometer when
temperature T=1000C?

97
UNIT 9 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Experiment 9.1: Investigation of the difference between

heat and temperature
Rationale

Heat is used to make things warm, to boil water and fry eggs and to
melt metal to build cars. Heat is used to generate electricity at a thermal
power plant for our daily lives. Temperature is the measure of how hot
or cold matter is.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the difference between heat

and temperature
Materials:
• 1 measuring cylinder
• 1 cooking oil,
• 2 identical test tubes,
• 2 identical thermometers,
• 1 beaker
• 400cm3 of water
• 1 stirrer
• Stopwatch
• 2 sets of retort stand
• Pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet or notebook

98
Set up:

Fig 9.1. Difference between heat and temperature

Procedures:
1. Set up the experiment by arranging the materials as in the above
set up.
2. Take equivalent volume V= 15cm3 of water and cooking oil in two
identical test tubes fitted with two identical thermometers.
3. Place these test tubes in a large beaker containing 200cm3 water.
4. Note the initial temperature of both water (T1 w) and oil (T1 oil) in
the tubes.
5. Heat the water in the beaker and make sure that the heat is
distributed uniformly by stirring the water.
6. After 6 minutes, read and record the temperature water (T2 w) and
oil (T2 oil) in the tubes.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the value of temperature T2w?
2) What is the value of temperature T2oil?
3) Are the two temperatures, (T2 w) and oil (T2 oil), the same?
Explain.

99
UNIT 10 MAGNETISM (I)

Experiment 10.1: Determination of the poles of bar

magnet using the earth’s magnetic
field.
Rationale

A needle in the compass is a magnet itself that is why, when we are using
a compass to know the right direction, we are applying the knowledge
of knowing different poles of a magnet.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the poles of a bar magnet using
the earth’s magnetic field.
Materials:
• A bar magnet
• 1-meter-long thread
• Retort stand to hang the thread
Set up

Fig. 10.1. A freely suspended magnet on diagram a and b.

100
Procedures
1. Suspend a bar magnet freely at its center by a length of a cotton
thread from a retort stand (Fig. 10.1 (a)). Make sure there are no
steel or iron objects near the magnet.
2. Displace the magnet slightly so that it swings in a horizontal plane.
3. Note the direction in which the magnet finally comes to rest.
Suggest a reason why it rests in that direction.
4. Repeat the activity at different places and note the resting
direction of the magnet. What do you observe? Explain

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What was the direction of the bar magnet when it comes at
rest?
2) What do you say of the magnet’s axis when it was at rest?
3) Relate this to earth’s magnetic field.

Experiment 10.2: Demonstration of difference in magnetic,

ferromagnetic and non-magnetic
materials.
Rationale

Magnetic metals & non-magnetic metals both play an important role in

engineering. Magnetism is the basis for many applications. At the same
time, this property may also be unwanted in certain circumstances.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate differences in magnetic,

ferromagnetic and non-magnetic materials.
Materials:
• Iron and steel nails
• bar magnet
• copper metal
• cobalt
• wood
• zinc

101
 • glass rods
Set up

Fig. 10.2. Action of magnets on different materials

Procedures
1. Place some iron nails on the table. Bring a bar magnet close to the
iron nails and observe what happens. Explain your observations.
2. Repeat the activity with other material such as copper, cobalt,
steel, Sulphur, brass, wood, cork, nickel, plastic, pens, wax, zinc,
glass rods, carbon, aluminum, paper, chalk etc.
3. Record your observations in tabular form.
4. Discuss your observations in step 3 and suggest the name given to
substances that are attracted by a magnet and those that are not.

Substances attracted by a bar Substances not attracted by a bar

magnet magnet

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

102
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Why did some materials behave in a way they behaved?
2) How do you classify those materials? Why did you classify them
that way?
3) Now, say the behaviors of the materials on the magnet?

Experiment 10.3: Demonstration of poles of a bar magnet.

Rationale

Like radios or, refrigerators and other appliances that use magnets
to operate, the industry operators have to identify the poles of a bar
magnet.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate the poles of a bar magnet.

Materials:
• A bar magnet,
• 1 meter long thread
• Compass
Set up

Fig. 10.3. Poles of bar magnet

103
Procedures
1. Suspend a bar magnet freely at its center by a length of a cotton
thread from a support as shown in Fig. 10.3. Make sure there are
no steel or iron objects near the magnet.
2. Displace the magnet slightly so that it swings in a horizontal plane.
3. Note the direction in which the magnet finally comes to rest.
4. Place a compass at a place far away from the suspended bar
magnet.
5. Note the pole of the suspended bar magnet that is pointing in
the same direction as North Pole or South Pole of the magnetic
compass.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Compare the direction of the compass needle to the poles of
the magnet.
2) Deduce the poles of the magnet.

Experiment 10.4: Demonstration of magnetic field by

using a compass needle.
Rationale

Compasses are mainly used in navigation to find direction on the earth.

This works because the Earth itself has a magnetic field which is similar
to that of a bar magnet. Some animals can detect magnetic fields, which
helps them orientate themselves and navigate. Animals which can do
this include pigeons, bees, Monarch butterflies, sea turtles and certain
fish.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate the magnetic field with the use
of a compass needle.
Materials:
• Bar magnet
• Magnetic compass

104
Set up

Fig. 10.4. Magnetic field relative to compass needle.

Procedures
1. Place a bar magnet on a table.
2. Pass the magnetic compass over the bar magnet and observe what
happens.
3. Now, move the magnetic compass along the sides of the bar
magnet.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Explain your observation in procedure 2.
2) What did you observe? In procedure 3.
3) State two behaviors of the magnetic force.
4) What does this tell you about the users of the compass when
they are on their journey, for instance, soldiers and ship sailors?

105
Experiment 10.5: Demonstration of the action of one pole
of a magnet to another.
Rationale

Magnet’s power has application in speakers in stereos, earphones, and

televisions. Also, Magnets are used to store data in computers, and
are important in scanning machines called MRIs (magnetic resonance
imagers), which doctors use to look inside people's bodies. So, knowing
the basic law of magnetism is essential.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the action of one pole of a magnet
to another.
Materials:
• Two bar magnets
• cotton thread.
• Retort stand to hang the thread.
Set up

Fig. 10.5. Action of magnets on each other.

106
Procedures
1. Suspend a bar magnet using a light cotton thread with its north
and South Pole clearly marked.
2. Bring a S-pole of a second bar magnet slowly towards the S-pole
of the suspended magnet. Observe what happens (Fig. 10.5.(a)).
3. Repeat the activity using the S-pole of the suspended magnet and
the N-pole of the second magnet (Fig. 10.5.(b)).
4. Repeat using the other poles and record your observation in a
tabular form as shown in table 10.1.

Poles of suspended Pole of second Observation

magnet magnet

South South

South North

North South

North North

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) How did the North Pole behave to the South?
2) How did the South pole behave to the South?
3) What do we call those behaviors in Question 1 and 2 in physics?

107
UNIT 11 ELECTROSTATIC (I)

Experiment 11.1: Find out materials that produce static

electric charges when they are rubbed
together.
Rationale

Static electricity has several uses, also called applications, in the real
world. One main use is in printers and photocopiers where static electric
charges attract the ink, or toner, to the paper. Other uses include paint
sprayers, air filters, and dust removal. Static electricity can also cause
damage.

Objective

In this you will find out materials that produce static electric charges
when they are rubbed together.
Materials:
• glass rod
• silk cloth
• metal rod
• electroscope

108
Set up

Fig 11.1 Rubbing Methods

Procedures
1. Take a glass rod rubbed with silk cloth and bring it near (not
touch) the electroscope cap. What happens on the leaf of the
electroscope?
2. Also bring the used silk cloth near (not touch) the electroscope
cap. What happens on the leaf of the electroscope?
3. ake a metal rod rubbed it with silk cloth and bring it near (not
touch) the electroscope cap. What happens on the leaf of the
electroscope?
4. Now bring the silk cloth used to rub near (not touch) the electroscope
cap. What happens on the leaf of the electroscope?
5. So, if you have two different rods a glass and a metal rod rubbed
them with silk cloth see and note the difference or changes
between two rods on static electric charges.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe when you rubbed silk cloth and a glass
rod? Do they have the same charge?
2) What did you observe when you rubbed silk cloth and a metal
rod?

109
 3) Explain your observations according to those two rods (glass
and metal).

Experiment 11.2: Demonstration of charging a body by

rubbing.
Rationale

In different experiments, you may need some bodies to be charged.

There are many ways of making surfaces to be charged. One of the
methods is charging a body by rubbing.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate how to charge a body by

rubbing.
Materials:
• Glass rod
• Silk cloth
• Pieces of paper
• Pen
• Retort stand
• Thread

Set up

Fig. 11.2. A neutral glass rod being charged by rubbing.

110
Procedures
1. Take a glass rod and rub it with a silk cloth.
2. Then after rubbing bring that glass rod close to the pieces of
paper. Observe what happens.
3. Repeat procedure 1 and 2 but this time use a pen instead of a
glass rod and in the place of a silk cloth, use your dry hair. Observe
what happens.
4. Take a pen and rub it again in your dry hair, then hang that pen
on the retort (This should be done in a short period of time) stand
using a thread.
5. Let the charged pen come at rest, then bring the charge glass rod
closer to it. Observe what happens.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened to the pieces of papers in procedure 1 and 3?
2) What happened to the pen in procedure 5?
3) Explain the reason of what you answered in Q1 and 2 above.

Experiment 11.3: Demonstration of charging a body by

conduction.
Rationale

In different experiments, you may need some bodies to be charged.

There are many ways of making surfaces to be charged. One of the
methods is charging a body by conduction.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate a body being charged by

conduction.
Materials:
• A balloon
• Gold leaf electroscope
• A woolen cloth

111
Set up

Fig. 11. 3. Charging an electroscope by conduction

Procedures
1. Touch the plate of the gold leaf electroscope with your hand.
2. Bring a negatively charged rod near the electroscope. Note the
changes.
3. Rub a balloon with a woolen cloth and bring it near the plate of
an electroscope without touching in to check the charge of the
electroscope.
4. To charge the electroscope again, bring a positively charged
balloon and attach it to the electroscope.
5. Repeat procedure 3, deduce the charge of the electroscope on
this stage.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What was the initial charge of the electroscope before and
after touching it with your hand?
2) What was the charge of the electroscope when attached it
with the balloon?
3) What is the name of the method used to charge the
electroscope?

112
Experiment 11.4: Charging a body by induction.
Rationale

In different experiments, you may need some bodies to be charged.

There are many ways of making surfaces to be charged. One of the
methods is charging a body by induction.

Objective

In this experiment you will charge an electroscope by induction.

Materials:
• Gold leaf electroscope
• Glass rod
• A silk cloth
• Balloon
• Woolen cloth (Sweater)
Set up

Fig. 11.4. Charging an electroscope using induction method.

113
Procedures
1. Rub a glass rod with a piece of cloth.
2. Bring a positively glass rod near but not touching- the plate of the
gold leaf electroscope. Observe the changes of the leaves of the
electroscope.
3. Repeat procedure 1 and 2 to see what happens on the leaves of
the electroscope. Did you get any change? Deduce the type of
charge of your electroscope on this stage.
4. Take a balloon and rub it with a woolen cloth (your sweater).
Bring a balloon close to the electroscope. Observe the changes.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What was the initial charge of an electroscope before bringing
the glass rod near it?
2) What type of charge did it acquire after induction?
3) What will happen to the electroscope after some 5min of it
being charged?

Experiment 11.5: Determination of type of charge of

charged body using electroscope.
Rationale

Knowing whether a body is charged or not is very important. Scientists

are always interested to know this. One can therefore determine whether
a body is charged or not by using gold leaf electroscope.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the type of a charge on body

using electroscope.

Materials:
• Electroscope
• A silk cloth
• Any metal
• Glass rod
• Pen

114
Set up:

Fig. 11.5. Testing the charge of the glass rod.

Procedures:
1. Touch the electroscope to make it negatively charged.
2. Rub the glass rod with a silk piece of cloth.
3. Bring the glass rod close to the electroscope and check what
happens to the leaves of the electroscope.
4. Repeat procedure 1 and 2 and attach the silk cloth to the
electroscope. Observe what happens.
5. Rub a metal using a silk cloth.
6. Bring the charged metal close to the electroscope. Note the
changes in the electroscope.
7. Charge different material you might find around by rubbing.
Observe the changes and note them down.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1. What was the charges of the glass rod in 3, charge of silk in 4
and the charge of the metal 6?
2. Mention any two materials you used in procedure 7, and state
their charges.

115
UNIT 12 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (I)

Experiment: 12.1: Measurement of electric current,

potential difference, and resistance
in simple circuit.
Rationale

Knowing the amount of electric current, potential difference and

resistance in a circuit is very important. For example, when you get to
know the amount of current generated or flowing in each circuit, it
helps you to know which appliance can be used.

Objective

In this experiment you will measure electric current, potential difference,

and resistance in a simple circuit.
Materials:
• 2 Dry cells
• 1 Ammeter
• 1 Voltmeter
• 1 Switch
• 6 piece connecting wires
• 1 Cell holder
• 1 Bulb

116
Set up:

Fig.12.1. Simple circuit

Procedures:
1. Connect in series a dry cell, an ammeter A, a rheostat R and a
switch S.
2. Connect a voltmeter V across the bulb.
3. Close the switch of the circuit.
4. Read and record the current I from ammeter, and voltage V from
voltmeter.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened after closing the switch S of the circuit?
2) What is the value of the voltage (or potential difference) across
the bulb?
3) What it is the average current of the circuit?
4) Find electric resistance of the bulb from R=V/I.

117
Experiment 12.2: Verification of Ohm’s law.

Rationale

Ohm’s law is useful in carrying out calculations such as in determining

the value of resistors or the current in a circuit or in measuring the
voltage. Additionally, Ohm's law helps us describe how current flows
through materials such as electrical wires, etc.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify Ohm’s law

Materials:
• 2 Dry cells
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Rheostat
• Switch
• Connecting wires
• Crocodile clips
Set up

Fig.12. 2. Circuit to verify Ohm’s law

118
Procedures
1. Connect the circuit as shown above
2. Close the switch, S and adjust the rheostat so that the reading I on
the ammeter is 0.20A
3. Read and record the voltmeter reading, U.
4. Open the switch, S.
5. Repeat procedures (3) to (4) with I = 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2A .
6. Tabulate your measurements in the form shown in the table
below.

Current, I/A Voltage, U/v

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Plot a graph of U (on vertical axis) against I (on horizontal axis)
2) Find the slope of the graph
3) What is the unit of the slope?
4) From the slope, deduce the Ohm’s law?

119
Experiment 12.3: Investigation of the chemical effect of
electric current.
Rationale

Electric current has a lot of effects. Some of them are negative and
others are positive. Therefore, it is always important to know the effect
of current before using it.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the chemical effect of electric

current
Materials:
• 3 dry cells
• 1 bulb
• 1 switch
• 1 beaker
• 2 nails
• 6 pieces of copper wire
• 30 g of table salt

Set up

Fig.12.3. Chemical effect of the current

120
Procedures:
1. Take two iron nails and clean them with sandpaper.
2. Wrap copper wire around both the nails and connect the other
ends to the battery.
3. Take 350 ml of water in a beaker and add a little amount of salt or
acid to it.
4. Immerse the nails in the solution.
5. Close the switch S.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) After closing the switch, does the bulb light up?
2) Observe the nails carefully. What do you see? Explain your
answers.

Experiment 12.4: Investigation of the heating effect of

electric current
Rationale

The heating effect of current is used in various electrical heating

appliances such as electric bulb, electric iron, room heaters, geysers,
electric fuse, etc.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the heating effect of electric

current
Materials:
• 1 bulb
• 1 Stopwatch
• 2 dry cells
• Dry cell holder
• 1 Bulb holder
• 1 switch
• 5 pieces of connecting wire

121
Set up

Fig. 12.4. Electric circuit.

Procedures:
1. Connect the circuit as in the above diagram
2. Close the switch of the circuit
3. Touch on the bulb and note if the bulb is hot or cold.
4. Now waiting for 4 minutes, and retouch the bulb.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Did the bulb get hot or cold after 4 minutes?
2) What do you think caused the bulb to be cold or hot?

122
Experiment 12.5: Investigation of the magnetic effect of
electric current
Rationale

An electric current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet. Magnetic effect

of electric current has been used in making powerful electromagnets is
used in loudspeakers, radio receivers, transformers and other electronic
devices that we use in our daily life.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the magnetic effect of electric

current
Materials:
• 1 needle compass
• 1 bulb of resistance R
• 1 switch
• 2 dry cells
• Cell holder
• 5 pieces of wire
• Pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet or notebook.
Set up

Fig.12.5 Magnetic effect of electric current

123
Procedures:
1. First take a straight thick copper wire or strip and place it between
the points X and Y in an electric circuit, as shown in above diagram.
2. Now we place a small needle compass near to this copper wire.
3. After placing the needle compass note the position of its needle.
4. Now close the circuit and pass the current through the circuit.
5. Observe and note the change in the position of the compass
needle.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened on the needle compass placed near the copper
wire when the circuit was open?
2) Comment what happened on the needle compass after closing
the circuit.

124
 RECTILINEAR
UNIT 13
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Experiment 13.1: Image formed by pin hole camera

Rationale

Pin hole cameras put in application of cameras. They form images on

the translucent screen. Pin hole cameras can be used to analyse the
characteristics of the images that are formed.

Objective

In this experiment you will characterize the image formed by pin hole
camera.
Materials:
• 1 Optical pin
• 1 scissors
• 1 meter rule
• 1 candle (Source of light)
• Paper sheet or notebook
• Pencil and rubber

Set up:

Fig 13.1. Pin hole camera

125
Procedures:
1. If black paint is available, paint the inside of the box black or stick
black paper inside. You can also use a dark box.
2. Pierce a small hole with the tip pin on one side.
3. Cut a small opening on the opposite side and paste a grease
proof paper or a tracing paper (any translucent material will be
sufficient).
4. Read and record the distance v between pin hole and translucent
material
5. Place the box so that the pin hole faces a bright candle in a semi
dark room and read and record distance u.
6. View the translucent screen.
7. Measure and record the size I of the image formed.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What are the values of distance u and v?
2) What is the size of image I?
3) Find the linear magnification from m = v/u
4) Find the size of the flame of the candle from O = I /m
5) Characterize the image formed by a pin hole camera.

Experiment 13.2: Verification of the laws of reflection

using optical pins.
Rationale

It is very important to know laws of reflection. For example, using a

plane mirror one can see that when a ray falls on it, it is then reflected.
Different surfaces can demonstrate reflection of light like silvered
surfaces and others.

Objective

In this experiment, you will be able to verify laws of reflection.

126 126
Materials:
• A soft board
• White sheet of paper
• A plane mirrors
• 4 Drawing pin
• Plasticine
• 4 optical pins
• Protractor
• 1 soft board

Set up

Fig.13.2 Laws of reflection

Procedures:
1. First of all fix the white drawing paper on the soft board using
drawing pins.
2. Place the plane mirror along with its stand and fix its position AB.
3. Draw a line AB respect the edge of the mirror.

127
4. Now draw a line PQ which passes through the mid-point ‘P’ of AB
and perpendicular to AB.
5. Draw a ray RP which makes an angle i= 100 with the normal (PQ).
6. On the ray RP fix two pins P1 and P2 vertically with 2-3 cm separation
between them.
7. Now from the other side of PQ, see the images of pins P1 and P2
fix other two pins P3 and P4 vertically so that pins P3, P4 and images
P1 and P2 appears collinear at their lower ends.
8. Now remove the pins and the mirror.
9. Join the marks of P3 and P4 and obtain the reflected ray PS.
10. Measure and record the angle between r.
11. Repeat procedures (5) to (10) for different angles of i=200, 300,
400, 500, 600, and 700.
12. Tabulate the results in a suitable table as shown here below

i/0 r/0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Rename the angles i and r
2) What is the relationship between angle i and r?
3) From this experiment, state the laws of reflection.

128
Experiment 13.3: Location of image on plane mirror
Rationale

A plane mirror has several different uses and applications, including

periscopes and kaleidoscopes, automobiles, shaving mirrors, dentists'
mirror, torch lights, solar cookers, and security-related purposes.

Objective

In this experiment, you will locate the image of an object by using plane
mirror
Materials:
• 1 Soft board
• 1 Holder for mirror
• 1 Plane mirror
• 1 meter ruler
• 2 Candles
• White sheet of paper
• 4 drawing pins
Set up

129
Procedures
1. First, fix the white drawing paper on the soft board using drawing
pins.
2. Use candle 1 as the object, and candle 2 as a decoy to catch the
image.
3. Stand one candle in front of the mirror as the object, and measure
and record distance x between candle 1 and mirror.
4. Place the candle 2 behind the mirror as the image catcher.
5. Move the candle 2 about until it exactly replaces the virtual image
as the eye is moved upwards.
6. View the arrangement from other directions to check the position
of the image.
7. Measure and record distance y between mirror and candle 2.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the value of distance x?
2) What is the value of distance y?
3) Compare the distances x and y. Provide the comment.
4) Characterize the image formed by the plane mirror
Experiment 13.4: Verification of rectilinear propagation
of light
Rationale

The concept of rectilinear propagation of light is applied in a pin hole

camera, formation of shadows and eclipses, etc.
Objective
In this experiment you will verify rectilinear propagation of light using
three cardboards.
Materials:
• 3 cardboards
• 3 holders of cardboard
• 1m of piece of thread
• Source of light such as candle

130
Set up

Fig.13. Rectilinear propagation of light

Procedures:
1. Take three cardboards P, Q and R of equal sizes mounted on
wooden stands.
2. Make small holes on the cardboards at the same height and also
at equal distances from the edges on each cardboard.
3. Place the cardboards on a flat surface (bench) and pass a thread
through the holes to ensure they lie on a straight line.
4. Remove the string without disturbing the setup of the three
cardboards.
5. Place a lit candle in front of the hole in cardboard P and view from
the hole in R as shown in above diagram. Record your observation.
6. Disorganize the arrangement by moving cardboard Q slightly to
one side. Try viewing the candle from the hole in cardboard R.
Record your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe when three cardboards are all on
straight line?
2) What did you observe when you disorganized the arrangement
by moving cardboard Q slightly to one side?

131
Experiment 13.5: Construction of a simple periscope
Rationale

A periscope is an optical tool used in land and sea combat, submarine

navigation, and other applications to allow an observer to see his
surroundings while remaining concealed, behind armor, or underwater.

Objective

In this experiment you will construct a simple periscope

Materials
• Cardboard
• Paper tape
• 2 mirrors (6x6)
• Superglue or scotch tape
• Pencil, plastic ruler, and protector
• Scissor

Set up

Figure.1.11. A simple periscope

132
Procedures
1. Cut a box into 4 pieces of rectangular cardboards of 120cm length
and 13cm width each.
2. Attach each rectangular cardboard to one another to make a long
cuboid box as illustrated in the setup above.
3. Close both outlets of the cuboid with another piece of cardboard.
4. Trace a diagonal line of 45˚ from about 15cm to the outlet of one
of the 4 sides of a cuboid. But do not let that line reach to the end
of cuboid outlet.
5. Repeat procedure 3 on the opposite side of the cuboid of the
same outlet of the cuboid
6. Link those two lines you traced on the opposite sides with a
horizontal line and draw a small rectangle with that horizontal
line as the width.
7. Cut the cuboid along those marks you made in procedure 3 to 5
using a razor blade.
8. Repeat procedure 3 to 7 at the other outlet of the cuboid.
9. Take the mirror and insert it within the two diagonal lines you
have drawn, and do this to both outlets of the cuboid.
10. Now the periscope is ready, use the periscope to try to see the
objects behind the walls of laboratory through the window.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Where you able to see anything?
2) What are the characteristics of the images you observed?
3) What is the principle used by periscope you have made to
observer the image?

133
Experiment.13.6: Determination of the number of the
images formed by two plane mirrors
inclined at an angle of θ
Rationale

A plane mirror has several different uses and applications, including

periscopes and kaleidoscopes, automobiles, shaving mirrors, dentists'
mirror, torch lights, solar cookers, and security-related purposes.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the number of images formed by

two inclined plane mirrors
Materials
• 2 plane mirrors
• Protractor
• An object (e.g candle)
Set up

Fig.13.5. Diagram for image formation

134
Procedures
1. Draw two lines which are at angle of θ = 180o to each other i.e
simply a straight line.
2. Place two mirrors along the two lines to touch one another at
point of intersection of the line
3. Place an object between the two mirrors and count the numbers
of images formed. Note the number do you can see.
4. Repeat procedures 1 to 3 for θ = 90o ,60o , 40o ,30o

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) For each value of angle used, provide the number of images
you have observed.
2) The empirical formula used to find the number of images
360o
formed is n = − 1 ,use this formula to estimate the number
θ
of images for each angle θ = 180o , 90o , 60o , 40o , 30o
3) Compare, the answers of 1 and 2 above. What can be your
conclusion?

135
 SENIOR TWO EXPERIMENTS

136
 SOURCES OF ERRORS IN
UNIT 1 MEASUREMENT OF
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Experiment 1.1: Determination of absolute error in single

measured physical quantities
Rationale

Measurement of uncertainty is critical to risk assessment and decision

making based on reports containing quantitative measurement of data.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the absolute error in measured

length.

Materials
• Ruler,
• 2 pieces of paper,
• Pencil,
• Calculator.

Set up

Fig. 1.2: Measuring the width and the length of a piece of paper.

137
Procedures:
1. Measure and record the length, l1 of the piece of paper (two
decimal places)
2. Measure and record the width, W1 of the piece of paper (two
decimal places)
3. Record your results in a suitable table below

Length /cm Width/cm

Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Suggest some factors that cause those differences?
2) What can you do to minimize the differences resulted in
readings/measurements taken by a ruler?

Experiment 1.2: Investigation of compound errors in

measurements of length
Rationale

Measurement of uncertainty is critical to risk assessment and decision

making based on reports containing quantitative measurement of data.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate propagation of errors by sum.

Materials:
• Ruler,
• 2 pieces of paper,
• Pencil
• Calculator
• Optical pin.

138
Set up

Fig. 1.2: Measuring the width and the length of a piece of paper.

Procedures
1. Measure and record the length, L1 with two decimal places of the
piece of paper
2. Measure and record the width, W1 with two decimal places of the
piece of paper

3. Calculate the absolute error ΔLr where ΔLr is the half of the
smallest division of the meter rule used
4. Record your results in a suitable table below

Length /Cm Width /Cm

L= L ± ∆L W= W ± ∆W

Reading 1
Reading 2
Reading 3

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the circumference of the paper (ABCD) as
illustrated in the figure (Please consider the error
propagation/ propagation of uncertainty)
2) Calculate the surface of the paper (ABCD) as illustrated
in the figure (Please consider the error propagation/
propagation of uncertainty)
3) Why uncertainty in the final result is larger than the
uncertainty in the individual measurements?

139
Experiment 1.3: Investigating of propagation of errors in
measurement of volume.
Rationale

Measurement of uncertainty is critical to risk assessment and decision

making based on reports containing quantitative measurement of data.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate sources and types of errors.

Materials:
• Beaker
• Ruler
• Mass bob (stone)
• Water
• Pencil
• Calculator
Set up

Fig 1.3: Investigating the errors of smallest division.

140
Procedures
1. Calculate the absolute error ΔLr where ΔLr is the half of the
smallest division of the meter rule used

2. Measure and record the diameter of the beaker D1 = D ± ΔLr (two

decimal place)

3. Tie a small solid object with a thread and put it into beaker.

4. Poor water into the beaker; then measure and record the height
H3 of the water in beaker, H 3 = H ± ΔLr (two decimal places)

5. Remove the solid object from beaker. Measure and record the
height H2 of the water in beaker two, H 2 = H ± ΔLr (two decimal
place).

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the volume corresponding to H3, H2 and H1

(Please consider the error propagation/ propagation of
uncertainty).
2) What is the relationship between volume of water
corresponding to H1 and that of solid object?
3) Estimate the relative (or percentage) error in the volume
corresponding to H1.

Experiment 1.4: Rounding of numbers

Rationale

Measurement of uncertainty is critical to risk assessment and decision

making based on reports containing quantitative measurement of data

Objective

In this experiment, you will round numbers

141
Materials:
• Ruler
• Books
• Notebook
• Desk
• Tables
• Chairs

Set up
Learners will use any technics and position to measure the length and
width of the provided piece of paper

Procedures
1. Measure and record the length, L1, in meters, of the object (s) at
two decimal places. Measure it three times
2. Measure and record the width, W1, in meters, of the object (s) at
two decimal places. Measure it three times
3. Calculate the average of your measurement
4. Round your results to 2 decimal places

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What are the advantages of using rounding of numbers?

2) How can you relate the gained knowledge with the other
subjects?

Experiment 1.4: Investigation of the good position on

an eye to give a correct reading

Rationale

This experiment gives student an opportunity to identify and minimize

some sources of errors while taking measurement and how they can
minimize those errors.

142
 Specific Objective

In this experiment you will identify and minimize human errors.

Materials
• Ruler/meter ruler
• Glass block/book/table.

Set up

Fig.1.5 Position of the eye while reading

Procedures
1. Place the glass block/book on the desk.
2. Position the ruler to try to measure the length of the glass block/
book and hold it in position.
3. Call upon a group of three students to read and record the length
of the glass block/book.

143
 4. Position the students as shown in the figure 1.5 (first student at a,
second student at b and third student at c).
5. Repeat the step (3) and (4) for 5 more groups of students.
6. Record the reading of the three students in the table below.

Position of Reading of the Reading of the Reading of the

observer student at (a) Student at (b) Student at (c)

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Compare the reading of the three students in the three
different positions around the point to be read.
2) What is the good position of eye to give correct reading?

144
 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
UNIT 2
OF LINEAR MOTION

Experiment 2.1: Determination of acceleration due to

gravity.
Rationale

Satellites orbiting around the planets and other celestial bodies like
the moon and earth are subjected to the gravitational force and the
fruit falling from the tree after it’s ripped. Since the mass of the object
increases, it falls down.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the acceleration due to gravity.

Materials:
• 1 Spring Balance
• 1 Complete retort stand set
• 1 mass hanger of 20g and 9 masses of 20g each.
• A pencil and rubber
• A sheet of paper

Set up:

Fig 2.1: Measurement of acceleration due to gravity

145
Procedures
1. Clamp the spring balance as shown in the fig.2.1 above.
2. Read and record the initial position of the pointer on left side, the
initial weight (Wo).
3. Place the mass hanger of 20 g on the spring balance, read and
record the weight (W1)
4. Without removing the mass hanger, add the other mass of 20 g on
the spring balance; read and record the new weight (W2).
5. Repeat step 3 and step 4 for values m = 60g, 80g, 100g, 120g,
140g, 160g, 180g, 200g; read and record the weights W3, W4, W5,
W6, W7, W8, W9, W10 respectively.
6. Record your results in a suitable table including mass and
corresponding weights.

Mass/g Weight/N
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Plot a graph of weight on Y-axis and mass on X-axis.
2) Find the slope, S, of the graph.
3) What is the SI Unit of the slope?
4) Compare the expressions of slope in this experiment and
the known average value of g = 9.81m/s2, how are they
related?
5) Why the spring balance is being stretched as long as the
mass is hanged from it?

146
Experiment 2.2: Determination of acceleration due to
gravity by using simple pendulum
Rationale

Pendulums are used in many engineered objects, such as clocks,

metronomes, amusement park rides and earthquake seismometers.
In addition, engineers know that understanding the physics of how
pendulums behave is an important step towards understanding motion,
gravity, inertia and centripetal force.
Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the acceleration due to gravity by

using simple pendulum.
Materials:
• Long Thread
• Stopwatch
• Retort stand with clamp and boss
• A pencil and rubber
• A sheet of paper
• A pendulum bob

Set up:

Fig 2.2: Using simple pendulum to determine the acceleration due to gravity

147
Procedures
1. Assemble the apparatus as shown in fig 2.2 (a)
2. Displace the pendulum bob attached on a thread of length l = 40
cm through a small angle and release it. Fig. 2.2 (b).
3. Use a stopwatch to record time t for 20 oscillations.
4. Repeat the activity three times and calculate the average time for
20 oscillations.
5. Repeat procedures (2), (3), and (4) by using l = 60 cm, 80 cm, 100
cm, 120 cm, 140 cm.
6. Record your results in a suitable table (Table 2.2).

l / cm t/s T ( 20t ) / s T 2 / s2

40
60
80
100
120
140

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Draw a graph of T2 against l.
2) Draw the line of the best fit through the points. Determine
the gradient, m, of the line.
3) What is the SI Unit of the slope found in this experiment?
4) Calculate the acceleration due to the gravity by using this
expression, m = 4π g
2

5) Would you conclude that Galileo was correct in his

observation that the period of a simple pendulum depends
only on the length of the pendulum?
6) What effect, if any, does air resistance have on your results?

148
Experiment 2.3: Determination of acceleration of a body
using inclined plane and marble

Rationale

Acceleration information was subsequently used to determine

information about the velocity or displacement of an object after a given
period of time. In this manner, Newton’s laws serve as a useful model for
analyzing motion and making predictions about the final state of an
object’s motion

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the acceleration of a body using

inclined plane and marble

Materials:
• A marble or a small ball
• Stopwatch
• Inclined rail of wooden planch with marked strips 1m each.
• A pencil and rubber
• A sheet of paper

Set up:

Fig 2.3: Acceleration of a moving marble or a ball.

149
Procedures
1. Arrange the inclined plane as shown in Figure 2.3.
2. Allow a marble to roll from rest at point A to point B, to point C
down the rail to point D.
3. Time the marble as it moves the first 1 m.
4. Time the marble as it moves through the first 2 m.
5. Time the marble as it moves the 3 m.
6. Record your reading in the table below.

Initial velocity, Final velocity,

Distance, d /m Time, t/s
Vi/m.s-1 Vf/m.s-1
1
2
3

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the average velocity as the marble moves the first
1m (from A to B)?
2) What is the average velocity of the marble as it moves the
second 1 m (from B to C)?
3) What is the average velocity of the marble as it moves the
third 1 m (from C to D)?
4) Where is the marble moving fastest?
5) Calculate the acceleration of the marble as it is rolling from
A to C

150
UNIT 3 FRICTION FORCE

Experiment 3.1: Determination of the coefficient of

friction
Rationale

This experiment shows clearly that the coefficient of friction determines

the “stickiness” between two objects and many areas of everyday life
are affected by friction issues. Eg: If the friction is zero, the vehicle would
fail to move forward.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the coefficient of friction between

two surfaces by using an inclined plane.

Materials:

• Beam balance • scale pan

• different masses • block of wood with a hook
• inclined plane • pulley and protractor
• thread

Set up

Fig 3.1: Friction between two surfaces by using an inclined plane

151
Procedures
1. Measure the mass (m) of the wooden block by using a beam
balance and record it.
2. Set the inclined plane angle, θ, at 20o to the horizontal.
3. Place the block of wood on the inclined plane and connect it with
a thread (see figure 3.1).
4. Pass the thread over the fixed pulley and attach the scale pan to
the loose end.
5. Place masses one after the other onto the pan until the block of
wood barely starts to move up the plane. Record the total mass
collected on the scale pan as M.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the coefficient of friction of the wooden block
Mg − mg sin θ
using the µ = where, µ is a coefficient of friction
mg cosθ
2) If the inclined plane were rougher, would you obtain the
same value of µ?
3) If the angle of inclination remains constant, but the weight
of the block on the inclined plane increases, what would
have to happen to the weight on the scale pan to obtain a
proper value for the coefficient of friction?
4) What is the purpose of increasing the angle of inclination in
this experiment?

Experiment 3.2: Investigation of tension force

Rationale

Tension force has many applications. For example: Pulling on a rope in

a tug of war game or a car towing another car with the help of a chain.
Pulling a rope on a well which is connected to a pulley.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the effects of tension force.

152
Materials:
• Rope
• Stones of different masses
• Spring balance (Newton meter).

Set up

Fig 3.2: Measurement of Tension force

Procedures
1. Tie the rope on the stone and hang it on the spring balance fixed
on a retort stand
2. Read and record the mass and the weight of the stone.
3. Change the stone and repeat the first two steps and note the
observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the type of force applied to the stone?
2) Suggest the effect of this force on the stone.

153
 DENSITY AND PRESSURE IN
UNIT 4
SOLIDS AND FLUID

Experiment 4.1: Investigation of pressure of a solid

Rationale

When vegetables are cut with a knife, pressure is applied by the knife
on the vegetables. A porter feels pressure of load carried on his head.
Pressure applied on a wooden planck when we push a nail into it.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the pressure of solid.

• Sand
Materials: • Beam of wood
• A concrete brick • Ruler
• Balance • Pencil
• Calculator

Set up

Fig 4.1. Investigating pressure of solid.

154
Procedures
1. Measure the mass m of the brick and calculate its weight W, (g
=10m/s2)
2. Pour two bucketsful of sand outside your laboratory such that it
forms a Pire as shown in figure 4.1.i.
3. Use the long wooden beam to spread the sand such that you have
a fairly large plain surface on top of the sand pile as shown in 4.1.
ii.
4. Take measurement of dimensions of one of the large surface side
of brick and calculate its area A1
5. Take measurement of the dimensions of the small side of the brick
and calculate its area A2
6. Gently place the brick in the sand on its big side(A1) and let it rest
on the sand for 15 seconds.
7. Careful remove the brick from the sand. Carefully measure and
record the depth of depression formed on the sand.
8. Repeat the procedure (6) and (7) for small side (A2) of the brick.
9. Gently place the brick on the sand on its smaller side but at a point
away from the first experiment.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate pressure exerted by large side of the brick using
W
P1 =
A1
W
2) Calculate the pressure exerted by the brick P2 =
A2
3) Compare P1 and P2 and explain the reason behind the

difference in pressures
4) Explain the reason behind the difference in depth

155
Experiment 4.2: Investigation of pressure in liquids
Rationale

When we spray de-odorants or paint through a bottle, we use in syringes,

when we open a bottle of coke, when we open the tap we find the
water gushing out through great pressure, this is the real application of
pressure in liquid.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the pressure in liquids.

Materials:
• Manometer • Beaker
• Water • Ruler

Set up

Fig 4.2: Changes the levels of water in a manometer.

Procedures
1. Pour water into the beaker
2. Note the level of the manometer liquid
3. Lower the manometer nozzle in water
4. Note the change in the level of the manometer liquid
5. Lower it deeper than before and note the new change

156
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What change did you observe in procedure 2 and 4.
2) Discuss the meaning and the cause of that change

Experiment 4.3: Determination of the densities of two

liquids by means of Hare’s apparatus

Rationale

An example of real life application of density is «ice floating on water”,

you know that ice is water in solid state, but its density when it is floating
on water is different to that of water.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the densities of two liquids by

means of Hare’s apparatus

Materials:
• Hare’ apparatus • Beakers (2)
• Water • Copper (II) sulphite solution
• Table • Rule

Set up

Fig 4.3: Hare’s apparatus measuring the densities.

157
Procedures
1. Set the Hare’ apparatus as shown in figure 4.3.
2. Attach the rule on the Hare’s apparatus
3. Pour water in beaker A and copper (II) sulphite solution in beaker
B. Make sure that water and copper (II) sulphite solution are at
the same level.
4. Open the clip on Hare’ apparatus. Measure and record h1 and h2

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you notice in procedure 4?
2) Which cause the difference in h1 and h2?
3) Using the information in (4), calculate the relative density of
copper (II) sulphite solution. (Note that the relative density
of water is equal to 1000Kg/m3)

Experiment 4.4: Measurement of atmospheric pressure

using barometer

Rationale

Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather. Meteorologists use

barometers to predict short-term changes in the weather. Low-pressure
systems are associated with cloudy, rainy, or windy weather. A rapid
increase in atmospheric pressure pushes that cloudy and rainy weather
out, clearing the skies and bringing in cool, dry air.

Objective

In this experiment, you will measure the atmospheric pressure using an-
eroid barometer

Materials:
• Plastic bag
• An aneroid barometer
• Table
• Thread

158
Set up

Fig 4.4: An aneroid barometer changing with pressure.

Procedures
1. Insert the barometer in the plastic bag
2. Add air in the plastic bag
3. Close the plastic bag using the thread and place it on the table
4. Squeeze the plastic bag and look on the barometer inside the
plastic bag

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What change are you observing from procedures 1 to 4.
2) Discuss the meaning and the cause of that change

Experiment 4.5: Demonstration of the use of a Siphon

Rationale

The Siphon or Syphon principle is a widely used mechanism in fluid

mechanics to transfer fluid from a higher elevation container to a lower
elevation container. Therefore, Flush toilets often have some siphon
effect as the bowl empties. Some toilets also use the siphon principle to
obtain the actual flush from the cistern.

159
 Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the use of the siphon principles
in fluid.

Materials:
• A jerry can • A long flexible plastic pipe
• Water • table
• Bucket

Set up

Fig 4.5. Water flowing in a container using a Siphon.

Procedures
1. Fill a jerry can of water on the table
2. Place the bucket down on the lower level of the table
3. Lower one end of the plastic pipe in the jerry can
4. Let the other end of the plastic pipe be at a lower level than of the
water in the jerry can
5. Suck water from the jerry can, and release after the water has
come to your mouth (Please consider measures related to hygiene)
6. Let the water flow from the jerry can to the bucket freely.

160
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What causes the water to flow from the jerry can to the
bucket?
2) Why does the water continue to flow without sucking
again?

Experiment 4.6: Making a simple air pressure drinks

dispenser.

Rationale

The atmospheric pressure involves in different daily activities:

• The movement of air occurs due to change in atmospheric
pressure.
• we can fill ink inside pen, medicine inside syringe, etc with the
help of atmospheric pressure.
• Air pump water pump work on the presence of atmospheric
pressure.

Objective

In this experiment you will make an air drinks dispenser

Materials

• Balloon • Plastic bottle (500ml bottle

• Peg – optional, but helpful of drinking)

• Plastic Straw • Plasticine or putty

• Beaker or any Small container. • Water

161
Set up

Fig.4.6: Simple air drinks dispenser.

Procedures
1. Carefully make a small hole about halfway up the bottle
2. Push the straw through the bottle leaving its significant part on
the outside.
3. Fill the bottle about three quarters full of water.
4. Blow up the balloon, twist and seal the neck with a peg.
5. Carefully place the end of the balloon on the bottle neck and
place a glass under the straw.
6. When you’re ready remove the peg and note your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What do you observe when the balloon is pegged?
2) What happens when the peg is removed?Explain

162
Experiment 4.7: A can/ plastic bottle crushing
(deformation) experiment
Rationale

Even though most of the time you can’t see or feel it, the air around us
is pushing against every surface and by making a change in air pressure.
Objective

In this experiment, you will learn how you can crush a plastic bottle
without ever touching it.

Materials:
• Empty plastic bottle with lid • Pan (10cmx12cm)
• Ice • Pitchmen of ice water
• Half little hot water

Set up

Fig 4.7: A bottle being crushed by ice.

Procedures
1. Filling the pan with ice
2. Pour hot water into the plastic bottle, wait for two minutes
3. After two minutes have passed, screw the lid back on the bottle.
Make sure that it is on tight
4. Lay the bottle on its side in the pan full of ice (you may need to
hold it in place)

163
 5. Slowly pour the pitcher of ice water onto the bottle. Take a
moment to make more observation
6. Stand the bottle up to get a closer look

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happens to the bottle?
2) Why do you think the plastic bottle crushed in?

Experiment 4.8: Investigation of atmospheric pressure

by using candle

Rationale

When air is sucked out of a drinking straw, the air pressure inside it
decreases, and the atmospheric pressure outside forces the liquid to go
inside the straw.

Objective

In this experiment, you will Investigate atmospheric pressure using

candle.

Materials:
• Water
• Matches box
• Glass or canonical flask
• Dish or plate
• Candle
• Colored solution

164
Set up

Fig 4.8: Demonstration of atmospheric pressure using a candle.

Procedures
1. Put a little water on the plate and mixt it with colored solution
2. Place a candle in the middle of the plate and light it
3. Slowly bring the glass until it stands on the water and plate

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) From your observations, what happened to the candle and
water section in the glass?
2) What might be the cause of the effect observed?

165
 MEASURING LIQUID PRESSURE
UNIT 5
WITH MANOMETER

Experiment 5.1: Investigating pressure in liquids using

communicating vessel
Rationale

In cities, water towers are frequently used so that city plumbing will
function as communicating vessels, distributing water to higher floors
of buildings with sufficient pressure. Hydraulic presses, using systems
of communicating vessels, are widely used in various applications of
industrial processes.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate pressure in liquids using

communicating vessel.

Materials:
• Communicating vessel
• Colored water (colored liquid)

Set up

Fig 5.1: Pressure in liquid by a communicating vessel.

166 166
Procedures
1. Pour coloured water (coloured liquid) of the communicating vessel
as shown in figure (a)
2. Open the tap and observe what happens
3. Is it the same as shown in figure (b)

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What do you think of the water distributed and the shape
of the container as well as the volume of the container?
2) Why are the levels of water in all branches like that (see
figure b) after opening the tap?

Experiment 5.2. Investigation of the pressure in liquids

Rationale

The use of Hydraulic force, used in lifting the vehicles in the repairing
shops and the force which pushes the lid of the coke when applied some
force on it. Even from the water tank at your home you will observe the
difference in the force of water when it is full and when the water is at
the bottom.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the pressure using liquids

Materials:
• Plastic bottle
• Water
• Hammer
• Nail
• Ruler

167
Set up

Fig 5.2 Distribution of water by pressure.

Procedures
1. Make 3 holes in the sides of the container, one below the other at
2cm intervals and name them by h1, h2 and h3 from the top of the
water level (depth)
2. Close the three holes with the sellotape.
3. Fill the container with water.
4. Remove the sellotape on the holes.
5. Measure the distance x1, x2 and x3 from the bottom of the container
to the point that the water squirts on the ground from each hole.
6. Plot a graph of depth (distance of the hole from the top of the
water level) versus the distance water squirts on the ground from
each hole.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is pushing water to squirt out from the containers?
2) Why is water falling at different distances?
3) Discuss and explain the situation

168
Experiment 5.3. Determination of relative density using
a manometer
Rationale

Relative density is often used by geologists and mineralogists to help

determine the mineral content of a rock or other sample. Gemologists use
it as an aid in the identification of gemstones. Water is preferred as the
reference because measurements are then easy to carry out in the field.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the relative density using liquids.

Materials:
• U- tube manometer • Retort stand
• Water • Meter rule
• Cooking oil

Set up

Fig 5.3. U-tube Manometer having water and cooking oil.

169
Procedures
1. Hang the U-tube manometer on the retort stand in equilibrium
position.
2. Pour the water into the U-tube manometer and wait until the
water in U-tube manometer comes at rest, measure and record
the position M1, and N1
3. Pour the oil on one end of U-tube manometer and wait until the
system comes at rest as shown in figure above, measure and record
the position N2, and M2
4. Measure and record the distance h and h’ as shown in figure

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What causes the difference in h and h’?
2) Discuss and explain these observations
3) Using the information in the above procedures, calculate
the relative density of cooking oil. (Note that the relative
density of water is equal to 1000 kg/m3)

170
 APPLICATION OF
UNIT 6
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

Experiment 6.1. Investigation of the variation of

Pressure with Depth
Rationale

The braking systems of cars, buses, work on Pascal’s principle. The

hydraulic brakes allow equal pressure to be transmitted throughout the
liquid. When the brake pedal is pushed, it exerts a force on the master
cylinder, which increases the liquid pressure in it.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the variation of Pressure with

Depth.

Materials:
• Clean water bottle • Syringe
• Water • Syringe needle
• 1 Pin

Set up:

Fig. 6.1: Transmission of pressure inside a bottle containing water.

171
Procedures:
1. Pour water in a bottle fully.
2. Connect a needle to the syringe.
3. Through the closed mouth of bottle, pierce a bottle with a syringe.
4. By using a pin, pierce the sides of bottle at different heights from
bottom to the top of bottle.
5. Apply a force on the piston of the syringe to pump air into a bottle.
6. Observe each hole, how far the water travels before hitting the
ground.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Is there a relationship between the depth (distance from
the surface of the water to the tube) of the tube and the
distance traveled by the water from the bottle?
2) How is the distance the liquid travels related to the speed
the water leaves the bottle?
3) How might the speed which the water shoots out of the
holes be related to the pressure in the liquid at that point?
4) How is the pressure related to the depth in the liquid?

Experiment.6.2: Verification of Pascal’s principle

Rationale

Pascal’s principle states that pressure exerted on an enclosed fluid is

equally transmitted in all directions. This principle is important in real
life, such as hydraulic lift pump.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify Pascal’s principle.

172
Materials
• 2 Syringes of different sizes (5mL and 20mL)
• Water
• Delivery tube

Set up

Fig. 6.2. Pascal principle

Procedures
1. Fill water in the large syringe and attach one end of the rubber
tube to its end.
2. Attach the other tube to the small syringe.
3. Push the plunger of the larger syringe.
4. Observe what happens to the small syringe.
5. Push the plunger of a small syringe.
6. Observe what happens.

173
Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What do you observe when you push a larger plunger or
small plunger?
2) Compare your observations.
3) Which principle does this represent?

174
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND
UNIT 7
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Experiment 7.1. Demonstration of the existence of

atmospheric pressure
Rationale

Atmospheric pressure helps in transferring liquids solution from one

container to another using dropper. This experiment proves that there
is a huge atmospheric pressure exerted on everything on the earth. This
pressure pushes down on anything below it.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the existence of atmospheric

pressure

Materials:
• Drinking Glass
• Water
• Thick Sheet of Paper that is long and wide enough to cover the
entire mouth of the glass. (We used a piece of poster board)
• Large Container or Sink

Set up

Fig 7.1: Demonstration of Atmospheric pressure acting on a paper.

175
Procedures
1. Begin by filling the empty glass with water. Helpful Tip: Ensure
that the water is completely to the top of the glass. If there is any
space between the water and the paper, the experiment won’t
work.
2. Gently place the paper on the top of the glass.
3. Move the glass over the container or sink.
4. Gently place your hand on the paper, and then flip the glass over.
5. Remove your hand from the bottom and watch in amazement as
the paper stays covering the glass and the water doesn’t spill out.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What do you think make the cardboard not fall?
2) Why did water stay in inverted glass?

Experiment 7.2. Investigation of atmospheric pressure

using capillary tube.

Rationale

Weather forecasts around the world are affected by atmospheric

pressure, but many don’t actually know what actually it is. Meteorologists
use barometers to predict short-term changes in the weather. Again
Scientists suggest that a fall in air pressure allows the tissues (including
muscles and tendons) to swell or expand.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the presence of atmospheric

pressure using a capillary tube.

176
Materials:

• Potassium permanganate • Water

• Beaker • Ruler
• Capillary tube

Set up

Fig 7.2. Effect of air pressure

Procedures
1. Pour water into a beaker and put KMnO4 to color it.
2. Stir the mixture of water and potassium permanganate until it
colored
3. Check whether there are no liquid bubbles in the capillary tube.
4. Place the capillary tube vertically in the container. Wait for 1
minute until stops raising in the capillary tube. (Make sure that
the capillary tube does not touch the bottom surface of the
container).
5. Put your finger on the top of capillary tube and remove it from
the container.
6. Using a ruler measure the extent to which water rose.

177
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What happened after inserting the capillary tube in water?
2) What do you think is the cause for your observation in 1
above?

Experiment 7.3. Investigation of the upthrust

(buoyancy) of water
Rationale

Ships or boats float on water as they transport goods and passengers.

That means that the boat resists from sinking into water.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the upthrust or buoyant force of

water.

Materials

• A solid of less than 100 g. • Sewing thread

• Water • Dynamometer (0 to 1.0N)
• Eureka can • Measuring cylinder

Set up

Fig 7.3: The upthrust (buoyancy) of water

178
Procedures
1. Pour water in the Eureka can and make it full.
2. Tie the thread on the mass and to the dynamometer.
3. Measure its weight in air using the dynamometer and record it to
be w1.
4. Submerge the stone in mass in water while it is still tied on the
dynamometer and record the new weight w2.
5. Measure the weight of water overflown in the measuring cylinder
and record it as w3.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Find the difference w’ = w1 – w2
2) Why some objects float or sink when immersed in a liquid?
3) What is the volume of the solid?
4) Discuss and explain your findings in question 1.

Experiment 7.4. Verification of Archimedes’ principle

Rationale

Ships or boats float on water as they transport goods and passengers.

That means that the boat resists from sinking into water.

Objective

In this experiment, you will verify Archimedes principle.

Materials:

• Solid mass • Thread

• Spring balance. • Measuring cylinder
• Water

179
Set Up

Fig. 7.4. Verification of Archimedes principles

Procedures
1. Take a solid (eg: stone) of known volume with density greater
than water
2. Tie a solid at the end of a spring balance.
3. Hang the solid with a spring weighing balance and observe the
reading of the spring balance due to the weight of the solid;
4. Record the mass m1 (=W1) and volume V.
5. Now, immerse the solid mass gently in water in a container and
weighing balance into water slowly such that the mass is completely
immersed in water (weighing machine is not immersed).
6. Note the new reading of the weighing machine m2 (=W2) and
volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What makes the changes on the reading of spring balance?
2) What do you think is the reason for the decrease in the
reading of the spring balance?
3) Make the comparison between the upward forces exerted
by the water and the weight of water displaced.
4) Calculate Upthrust = Difference in weights, ΔW= (m1−m2) g
5) Calculate weight of water displaced, Ww​= ρw​Vg

180
Experiment 7.6. Determination of the density and
relative density of a solid using
Archimedes principle.
Rationale

Density can be used to identify and determine how pure a substance is.
Another way density is useful to man is that it helps to know whether
a substance will float or sink when immersed in a liquid. That is why a
boat or ship will float on water because it is less dense than water.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the relative density of a substance

using Archimedes principle.

Materials
• Small beaker • Overflow vessel
• A solid object • Spring balance

Set up

Figure 7.6. Water dripping from beaker

181
Procedures
1. Measure and record the weight of the solid object.
2. Place a beaker under overflow vessel.
3. Put the object into the vessel filled of water with the help of string
until it is totally submerged.
4. Read and record the volume V of collected water into the beaker.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1. What is the volume of the solid object?
2. Find the density of the solid object according to the following
formula: Density of substance = Mass / Volume
3. Deduce the unit of density

182
 WORK, POWER,
UNIT 8
AND ENERGY (II)

Experiment 8.1. Determination of the personal power

Rationale

Owning your power leads to increased confidence and an understanding

of how you can help others make decisions and achieve their objectives.
Owning your power allows you to create and maintain strong
relationships both in and out of the workplace.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the personal power.

Materials
• 1 flight of stairs, • Stopwatch,
• 50 cm rule, • Bathroom scales marked in kg.

Set Up

Fig 8.1. Moving up the stairs

183
Procedures:
1. Measure the persons mass in kg using bathroom scales.
2. Convert it to weight using W = mg. This equals the upward force
that will move up the stairs.
3. Use a stopwatch to measure the time you take to run up a flight
of stairs.
4. Count the number of steps, measure the height of each, and
calculate the total height climbed in meter.
5. Repeat for two more steps and calculate the average height in
meter and time taken.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the vertical height = number of steps x average
height of 1 step.
2) Calculate the work done in climbing the stairs (work = force
x vertical height).
3) Calculate the persons average power using: Power = Work
done / Time taken

184
 CONSERVATION OF
UNIT 9 MECHANICAL ENERGY
IN ISOLATED SYSTEM

Experiment 9.1. Demonstration of energy conversion

Rationale

The rapid development of civilization on earth has been made possible

by the development of different kinds of device to carry out mechanical
work through the energy conversion processes. Mechanical energy can
either be stored as potential or Kinetic energy.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate energy conversion.

Materials
• Complete retort stands with Clamp
• Long thread
• Small metal ball or pendulum bob

Set up

Fig. 9.1. Energy exchange in Simple pendulum.

185
Procedures
1. Take a retort stand and place it on the table.
2. Take a long thread say 40 cm long.
3. Tie a small heavy object like a metal ball or Bob to the side.
4. Suspend it freely from the retort stand and wait the bob comes to
rest (at the mean position).
5. Displace the metal ball or bob to the side of extreme position left
through a small angle and release it.
6. Observe the motion of the bob.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the cause of the fourth and backward movement
of the bob?
2) What do you understand from mean position?
3) At mean position, what do you think of kinetic energy and
potential energy?

Experiment.9.2: Investigating elastic potential energy

Rationale

It provides the skills of weighting the body and how the energy is
restored. The catapult uses elastic potential energy for its actions.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate elastic potential energy

Materials
• Springs
• dynamometer
• Retort stand set
• Slotted mass (50g or 100g)

186
Set up

Fig. 9.2 Elastic energy

Procedure/steps
1. Fix the retort stand
2. Hang the spring or dynamometer on the retort stand
3. Hang the mass M1 on the spring and measure X1
4. Tie different slotted masses of 100g, 150g or 200g and note the
corresponding extension x for each mass
5. Record the results in the table below

Mass/ Extension(x)/m Force/N k = F/x Elastic potential

kg energy
1 2
E= kx
2
0.100
0.150
0.200

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Which energy is involved in that system?
2) What is the physical meaning of the constant k?
3) Discuss what happened to the elastic potential energy as
the extension increases?

187
Experiment 9.3. Investigation of the open and closed
system
Rationale

In real life, there are open and closed system. After this experiment you
should identify open and closed systems.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the open and closed system.

Materials:
• retort stand with clamp • Tripod stand
• calorimeter • Bunsen Burner or any source of heat
• Beaker of 250 ml • 2 Thermometers
• 150 ml of water • Stopwatch
• Gauze • Wooden handle

Set up

Fig. 9.3. Closed and Open systems.

188
Procedures
1. Fill an empty beaker with exactly 150ml of water (check side-scale
of the beaker)
2. Set up apparatus as shown in fig 9.3 above.
3. Put thermometer into the beaker and ensure that it is about 2cm
above the bottom of the beaker.
4. Place the beaker on gauze and tripod stand.
5. Light the bunsen burner and put on a blue flame. Heat up the
water until thermometer reads 90 oC. As you light up the burner,
immediately start the stopwatch
6. Record the time taken to achieve the temperature of 90oC
7. After the water has boiled, pour part of it into the calorimeter
and close it, then leave another part in the cooking vessel.
8. Remove the cooking vessel and the boiling water from the Bunsen
burner.
9. Leave the water in the calorimeter and that in the cooking vessel
for a period of 5 min.
10. Measure the temperature of the water in the vacuum flask T1 after
those 5 min
11. Measure the temperature of water in the cooking vessel T2 after
those 5 min.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Compare the two temperatures T1 and T2
2) Discuss the results obtained.
3) What is the difference between the calorimeter system and
the cooking vessel system?

189
UNIT 10 GAS LAWS’ EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 10.1. Verification of Boyle’s law

Rationale

Boyle’s law has many applications in real life such as breathing, inflating
tyres, soda bottle, working of a syringe, spray paint, etc.

Objective

In this experiment, you will verify Boyle’s law

Materials
• At least two small balloons such as water balloons
• Large plastic syringe (approximately 60 milliliters works well),
ensure that it is airtight and does not have a needle.

Set up

Fig. 10.1. Demonstration of Boyle’s law.

190
Procedures
1. Place the air-filled balloon and close it tightly
2. Place the balloon inside the large opening at the back of the
syringe.
3. Insert the plunger into the syringe,
4. By using your finger close the small opening of syringe
5. Try to push the plunger in the syringe.
6. While the small opening of the syringe is closed, pull the plunger
back again and note down your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened when you push the plunger?
2) What was your observation when you pull back the plunger?
3) What was held constant in this experiment?

Experiment 10.2. Verification of Charles’s law

Rationale

Charles Law application in real life can be seen in our kitchen too.
In order to make bread and cakes soft and spongy, yeast is used for
fermentation. Yeast produces carbon dioxide gas. When bread and
cakes are baked at high temperatures; with an increase in temperature,
carbon dioxide gas expands

Objective

In this experiment, you will verify Charles’ law.

Materials
• Two balloons • Laboratory Bunsen Burner
• Water • Tripod stand with gauze
• Conical flask

191
Set up

Fig. 10.2. Demonstration of Charles’s law.

Procedures
1. Add a half cup of cold water in the conical flask
2. Attach balloon over the mouth of the conical flask
3. Place the conical flask on the bunsen burner and start heating it
4. Now observe the balloon. You will notice that the balloon will
inflate in some time.
5. Remove the flask from the heat and allow it to cool down.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the reason behind the inflation of the balloon?
2) Why does gas expand on heating?

Experiment 10.3. Verification of Pressure law

Rationale

Some real-life examples of pressure law are the rupture of a pressure

cooker, an aerosol can, firing a bullet, and a tyre. All these substances
explode when expose to higher temperatures. The scientific reason
behind the explosion is explained by Gay-Lussac’s Law.

192
 Objective

In this experiment, you will verify Pressure laws.

Materials

• Round bottomed flask • Stirrer

• Water • Beaker
• Ice • Thermometer
• Tripod Stand with gauze • Pressure gauge (Bourdon gauge)
• Laboratory bunsen burner

Set up

Fig. 10.3. Demonstration of Pressure law.

Procedures
1. Make a set up as shown in fig.10.3
2. Pour water in a beaker with some ice to cool water near 0 0C.
3. Use thermometer to record temperature of the water mixed with
ice and use bourdon or pressure gauge to record pressure in the
flask.
4. Light the Bunsen burner and heat the water slowly.
5. Stir continuously so that the temperature is uniform in the flask.
6. At 30 0C, record the pressure of the air in the flask from the
pressure gauge.
7. Record the results in table 10.3 below

193
 Temperature/ 0C 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Pressure/ kPa

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Write down the temperature of the water and the pressure
of the air at 40 0C, 50 0C, 60 0C, 70 0C, 80 0C, 90 0C.
2) Plot the graph of pressure (P) on Y-axis and temperature (T)
on X-axis.

Experiment 10.4. Verification of Dalton’s law of Partial

Pressures

Rationale

People who ascend to high altitudes experience Dalton’s law when they
try to breathe. As they climb higher, oxygen’s partial pressure decreases
as total atmospheric pressure decreases in accordance with Dalton’s law.
Oxygen has a difficult time making it into the bloodstream when the
gas’s partial pressure decreases.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures.

Materials
• 3 Bourdon gauges,
• 3 graduated containers of the same volume
• 2 different gases (Oxygen and Nitrogen)

194
Set up:

Fig. 10.4. Demonstration of Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

Procedures
1. Put the three containers in the same room at the same temperature.
2. Fill first container with Oxygen gas and second container with
Nitrogen gas through their respective inlet valves.
3. Note that other types of gases should be used.
4. Record pressure P1 inside the first container of Oxygen gas from
its pressure gauge.
5. Record pressure P2 inside the second container of Nitrogen gas
from its pressure gauge.
6. Fill the third container with the oxygen gas and Nitrogen gas from
2 containers.
7. Record pressure P of the mixture of oxygen and nitrogen.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) From your records of step 3 and step 4, calculate the sum
of P1 and P2.
2) Compare the value found in step 6 and the value of the
sum calculated.
3) Discuss your findings

195
 MAGNETIZATION AND
UNIT 11 DEMAGNETIZATION

Experiment 11.1. Magnetization by electric current

Rationale

Electromagnetism is the interaction of two important forces. Electricity

and magnetism are integral to the workings of nearly every gadget,
appliance, vehicle, and machine we use.

Objective

In this experiment, you will explain the magnetization process by electric

current

Materials
• Copper wire • 9.0 V Battery
• Any ferromagnetic rod like steel rod. • Switch
• Nail

Set up

Fig.11.1. Magnetization by electric current

196
Procedures
1. Take the steel bar and place it closer the iron nails. Note down
your observation.
2. Wound an insulated copper wire on a steel rod
3. Connect the free ends of the copper wire on the battery. Care
must be taken that ends of the copper wire must be not insulated.
4. Close the switch (arrow the current to follow) for 10 minutes.
5. Bring the nail closer to the ferromagnetic rod and remove it slowly.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What was the effect of the steel rod on the nail before
winding copper wire on it?
2) On bring the iron nail towards the steel rod after 10
minutes, explain what happened to the nail as you tried to
take it away from the steel?
3) Discuss and explain the cause of your observation.

Experiment 11.2. Magnetization a steel bar by single-

touch method
Rationale

Bar magnets are used as stirrers in laboratory for magnetic experiments.

They also find applications in medical procedures. Electronic devices
such as telephones, radios, and television sets use magnets.

Objective

In this experiment, you will explain the magnetization process by single

touch method

Materials:
• Table • Steel rod
• Magnet bar • Iron Nails

197
Set up

Fig.11.2. Magnetization process by single touch method

Procedures
1. Take the steel bar and place it closer the iron nails
2. What happens to the steel rod?
3. Place the steel bar on the table
4. Take a bar magnet and place one of its poles to one of end of steel
rod
5. Stroke the steel bar with bar magnet from end(A) to (B). Stroke
should be done for 30 times while keeping the magnet bar inclined.
6. When the magnet bar reaches at the position B, lift it and place it
again on position A
7. Turn the steel rod upside down and stroke again for 30 times.
8. Take the steel rod and place it closer the iron nails.
Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What was the effect of the steel rod on the nails before
stroking?
2) What was the effect of the steel rod on the nails after
stroking?
3) Discuss and explain the cause of your observation in (1) and
(2) above.

198
Experiment 11.3. Magnetization by induction
Rationale

When a permanent magnet is moved relative to a conductor, or vice versa,

an electromotive force is created. If the wire is connected through an
electrical load, current will flow, and thus electrical energy is generated,
converting the mechanical energy of motion to electrical energy.

Objective

In this experiment, you will magnetize a steel bar by induction.

Materials:
• Steel bar
• Strong magnetic bar
• Iron nails

Set up

Fig 11.3. Magnetization process by induction

Procedures
1. Take the steel bar and place it closer the iron nails
2. What happens to the steel rod?
3. Place the steel bar on the table
4. Take a strong magnet bar and place one of its poles on one of end
of steel bar but not touching and wait for a time
5. Take the steel bar and place it closer the iron nails
6. What happens to the steel rod?

199
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What did you notice when you brought the steel rod
towards the iron nail before putting steel rod near a strong
magnet?
2) Explain what happened to the nail as you move it towards
the steel rod after it had spent like 10 minutes near a strong
magnet?
3) Discuss and explain the cause of your observation in (2) and
(3)

Experiment 11.5. Demagnetization by electric heating

Rationale

Since the magnetization of a sample at a given location depends on the

total magnetic field at that point, the demagnetization factor must be
used in order to accurately determine how a magnetic material responds
to a magnetic field.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demagnetize a magnet by heating

Materials:
• Bunsen burner • Magnet bar
• Tripod stand • Iron nails
• Wire gauge • Wooden handle
• Match box

200
Set up

Fig 11.5. Demagnetization by heating

Procedures
1. Check the strength of magnet you have by using an iron nail. See
how the magnet attracts the iron nail.
2. Set the system as illustrated in the figure above
3. Put the magnet bar on the wire gauge
4. Light the Bunsen burner (Note: Do not play with fire, fire hurts)
5. Heat the magnet bar until it changes the color.
6. Switch off the Bunsen burner.
7. Slowly withdraw the magnet using a wooden handle and let it
cool down
8. Place the magnet bar near the iron nails
Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Was the heated magnet able to attract the nail?
2) Explain your observations in (1) above.

Experiment 11.6. Demagnetization by Hammering

Rationale

Since the magnetization of a sample at a given location depends on the

total magnetic field at that point, the demagnetization factor must be
used in order to accurately determine how a magnetic material responds
to a magnetic field.

201
 Objective

In this experiment, you will demagnetize a magnet by hammering.

Materials:
• Hammer
• Magnet bar
• Iron nails

Set up

Fig 11.6. Demagnetization process by hammering

Procedures
1. Place the magnet bar on a plane surface
2. Hammer the magnet bar in East-West direction several times.
Make sure it does not break
3. Place the magnet bar near the iron nails

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe as you brought the hammered
magnet towards the nail?
2) Discuss your observations in (1) above.

202
 APPLICATIONS OF
UNIT 12
ELECTROSTATICS

Experiment 12.1 Investigation of the electric charges on

a rubbed balloon
Rationale

Static electricity has several uses, also called applications, in the real
world. One main use is in printers and photocopiers where static
electric charges attract the ink, or toner, to the paper. Other uses include
paint sprayers, air filters, and dust removal.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the electric charges on a rubbed

balloon.

Materials:
• 2 inflated balloons with string attached
• Your hair
• Aluminum can
• Woolen fabric

Set up

Fig.12.1 Electric charges on a balloon and aluminum can

203
Procedure:
1. Rub the 2 balloons one by one against the woolen fabric, and
then try moving the balloons together. Do the balloons want to
or are they unattracted to each other?
2. Rub 1 of the balloons back and forth on your hair then slowly pull
it away. Ask someone nearby what they can see or if there’s nobody
else around try looking in a mirror and discuss your observations.
3. Put the aluminum can on its side on a table, after rubbing the
balloon on your hair again hold the balloon close to the can and
watch as it rolls towards it, slowly move the balloon away from
the can and it will follow.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Discuss and explain the observations made in all cases.
2) What causes the balloons to behave as in (1)?
3) What causes the aluminum can to behave as in (3)?

Experiment 12.2: Investigation of electric field

Rationale

Electric fields (e-fields) are an important tool in understanding how

electricity begins and continues to flow. Electric fields describe the pull-
ing or pushing force in a space between charges.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the electric field.

Materials:
• One battery cell (1.5V)
• A conducting wire
• 5 magnetic needles
• A slotted cardboard

204
Set up

Fig.12.2 Demonstration of electric field

Procedure
1. Arrange the materials as shown in Fig. 12.2.
2. Remove the battery and note the changes on needles.
3. Reconnect the battery and note the changes on needles.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the main cause of the directions change when the
battery is connected?

205
 ARRANGEMENT OF
UNIT 13 RESISTORS IN
AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Experiment 13.1. Investigation of the magnetic effect of

the electric current

Rationale

Appliances like the electric bulb, fan, television, refrigerator, washing

machine, motor, radio, everything works due to electricity. When
electric current passes through current carrying conductor or coil then a
magnetic field is produced around it.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the magnetic effect of the electric
current.

Materials

• Thick Copper wire (Metallic conductor) • Switch

• Connecting wires • 2 Batteries of 1.5 V each
• Needle Compass

Set up

Fig. 13.1. (a) and (b). Magnetic effect.

206 206
Procedures:
1. Connect electric wires across the terminals of batteries, switch,
resistor, and ammeter to read the current flowing through the
circuit all connected in series.
2. Connect voltmeter in parallel across the batteries to read the
voltage.
3. Take a straight thick copper wire and place it between the points
X and Y in an electric circuit as shown in fig 13. 1 (b).
4. Place a small compass near to this copper wire and see the position
of its needle as the switch remains open.
5. Pass the current through the circuit by closing the switch.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happens to the compass needle when the switch is
open?
2) What happens to the compass needle when the switch is
closed?
3) Discuss the cause of the position of the compass needle in
the procedure 4

Experiment 13.2. Investigation of the heat effect of the

electric current

Rationale

The heating effect of current is utilized in the working of electrical

heating appliances such as electric iron, electric kettle, electric toaster,
electric oven, room heaters, water heaters (geysers), etc.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the heat effect of the electric
current

207
Materials
• Bulb • Switch
• 2 batteries of 1.5 V • Electrical wires

Set up

Fig.13.2. Heat Effect of the current.

Procedures:
1. Connect the 2 batteries in series
2. Also connect bulb and switch by using electrical wires
3. Put your hand near the bulb before the circuit is closed and note
your observation.
4. Note: for your safety, do not touch the bulb but put your hand
near the bulb.
5. Close the circuit and wait for about 1 minute, put again your hand
near the bulb. Note your observation.

Interpretation of results:
1) Before closing the circuit, what did you feel? Is the bulb hot or
cold?
2) What was your observation after 1 minute of closing the circuit?

208
Experiment 13.3. Investigation the chemical effect of the
electric current.
Rationale

Electrolysis of water is used to produce hydrogen which is used as a

fuel for powering internal combustion engines or electrical motors
and electrolysis is used for extraction and purification of metals like
aluminum and copper from their ores.

Objective

In this experiment you will Investigate the chemical effect of the electric
current

Materials:
• water • 3 batteries (dry cells) of 1.5v each
• conducting wires • beaker
• bulb • salt
• switch • 2 metal electrodes

Set up:

Fig. 13.3. Electrolysis.

209
Procedures:
1. Pour water in a beaker,
2. Mix water with table salt,
3. Arrange the circuit as shown in fig. 13.3
4. Close the circuit and make sure that the bulb is lighting (to prove
that the current is passing through the solution)
5. Wait for 1 minute and observe the change on the liquid.
6. Observe carefully, the lighting bulb for 3 minutes, and note down
what is happening on the bulb.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened on one of the electrode?
2) Explain the observed changes on the lighting bulb for 3
minutes.

Experiment .13.4: Designing a simple electric circuit

Rationale

An electric circuit includes a device that gives energy to the charged

particles constituting the current, such as a battery or a generator;
devices that use current, such as lamps, electric motors, or computers;
and the connecting wires or transmission lines.

Objective

In this experiment you will make a simple electric circuit.

Materials
• Battery • Conducting wires
• Incandescent lamp • Switch.

210
Set up:

Fig. 13.4. Simple Electric Circuit

Procedures:
1. Connect the wires across the terminals of the battery
2. Connect the switch in series with battery
3. Connect the lamp to the battery as shown in the Set up above
fig.13.4.
4. Switch on the circuit.
5. Observe what happens on the bulb.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happens on the bulb when you switching on the
circuit in the procedure 4?
2) What causes the bulb to behave like the observation made
in 1 above?

Experiment. 13.5: Measurement of electric current using

Ammeter
Rationale

The ammeter can be used to measure both the DC and AC current. This
comes in all sizes and can be used anywhere to measure the current like
in electric heaters, cars, heavy and sensitive machinery, fridges etc.

211
 Objective

In this experiment you will measure electric current using Ammeter

Materials:
• 3.0V Battery (2dry cells)
• 2 Ammeters
• 2 Incandescent lamps
• Conducting wires
• Switch.

Set up:

Fig. 13.5. Ammeters connected in series.

Procedures:
1. Set up the circuits with 2 bulbs in series with a 3.0V supply.
2. Connect 3 ammeters in series with the components as shown in
Fig 13.5
3. Close the circuit
4. Read and record the readings on the ammeters.

212
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What conclusions can you draw from your measurements
of current?
2) What is the link between the brightness of the bulb and
the current in it?
3) What is the unit of the measured current?

Experiment 13.6: Measure potential difference using

voltmeter
Rationale

A voltmeter could be used to measure the voltage at the outlet, and if it

is not around 120 volts, then the wall outlet could be broken.

Objective

In this experiment you will measure potential difference using voltmeter.

Materials:
• 3.0V Battery (2 dry cells) • Conducting wires
• 3 Voltmeters • Switch.
• 2 Incandescent lamps

Set Up:

Fig. 13.6. Voltmeters connected in parallel.

213
Procedures:
1. Set up the circuit with 2 bulbs in series with a 3.0 V battery.
2. Connect 3 voltmeters in parallel with the components as shown
in fig 13.6
3. Switch on the circuits
4. Read and record the potential difference on the voltmeters.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What conclusions can you draw from your measurements
of voltage?
2) What is the link between the brightness of the bulb and
the voltage in it?
3) What is the unit of the p.d recorded?
4) Deduce the value of the smallest division of your voltmeter.

Experiment 13.7. Investigation of series and parallel

connections
Rationale

Series circuit connection gives us the opportunity to connect more than

two loads to a common switch. Streetlights are a very good example of
this. Parallel circuit connection makes it possible for us to connect loads
to their individual switch.

Objective

In this experiment, you will be investigating series and parallel

connections.

Materials
• Battery • Conducting wires
• 3 torch light bulbs • Switch.

214
Set up:

Fig. 13.7 Series and Parallel Circuit

Procedures:

(a) A series Circuit

1. Arrange the circuit correctly as in fig.13.7 (a)
2. Connect an ammeter in series and voltmeters in parallel on the
terminals each bulb.
3. Now close the circuit.
4. Observe what happens on the bulb.
5. Read and record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeters.
6. Remove one bulb and note your observation.

(b) A parallel Circuit

1. Arrange the circuit as in fig. 13.7 (b).
2. Connect an ammeter in series and voltmeters in parallel on the
terminals each bulb.
3. Close the circuit

215
 4. Observe what happens on the bulb.
5. Read and record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeters.
6. Remove one bulb and note your observation.
7. Remove the second bulb, again note your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

(a) A Series circuit.
1) What happened to the bulbs in the circuit of fig.13.7. (a)
when you close the switch? one bulb is removed?
2) What is the potential difference across each bulb?
3) Estimate the maximum current of the circuit.

(b) A parallel circuit

1) What happened to the bulbs in the circuit of fig.13.7. (a)
when you close the switch? one bulb is removed?
2) What happened in the circuit 13.7.(b) when the second
bulb is removed?
3) What is the current through each bulb?
4) Estimate the potential difference across each bulb.

Experiment 13.8: Investigation of Ohm’s law.

Rationale

By shifting the regulator to and from, we can regulate the speed of the
fans in our houses. By controlling the resistance via the regulator, the
current flowing through the fan is managed here.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the Ohm’s law.

216
Materials:
• 5 Batteries (Dry cells) • Conducting wires
• Voltmeter • Resistor (Bulb)
• Ammeter • Switch.

Set up:

Fig. 13.8 Circuit to verify Ohm’s law

Procedures:
1. Arrange the simple electric circuit, comprising the above materials
as shown in fig.13.8
2. The Voltmeter should be parallel to the resistor or bulb.
3. The Ammeter should be in series with resistor.
4. Use one cell, note and read the value given by the ammeter and
voltmeter.
5. Use two cells in series, note and read the value given by the
voltmeter and the ammeter.
6. Then three cells in series then four and then five but each time
read and record the different values of current and voltage.
7. Record your readings in a table below:

217
 Number of Voltage / V Current (I)/A Resistance (V/I)/ Ω
Batteries

1
2
3
4
5

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Plot a graph of V against I
2) Carefully determine the gradient of the slope of your graph.
3) Compare the value of the gradient of your graph with the
values of V/I in your table.
4) What do you notice?

218
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT
UNIT 14
IN CURVED MIRRORS

Experiment 14.1: Verification of laws of reflection for

plane mirror

Rationale

Reflection is said to occur when light rays bounce off the surface of an
object. Eg: Drivers use side mirrors to observe cars behind them, in saloons
there are shaving mirrors, and mirrors have many other applications in
industry and science.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify the law of reflection through a plane
mirror
Materials:

• a plane mirror • 4 optical pins

• a white sheet of paper • 4 drawing pins
• a pencil • soft board
• a protractor.
Set up

Fig.14.1: The law of reflection through a plane mirror.

219
Procedures
1. fix a white sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins.
2. In the middle of paper draw a straight line KK’ and mark a point
B on it.
3. Draw a perpendicular line BN. Place a mirror XX’ online KK’ such
that the polished side of the mirror is along the line.
4. Draw the line AB at an incident angle of 30o from the line BN.
5. Fix two steel pins P and Q on the straight line AB at least 10 cm
apart.
6. Observe the image of the pins P and Q and fix two pins P’ and Q’
such that the image of P and Q are all in the same straight line.
7. Remove the pins and draw small circles around the pin picks and
remove the mirror.
8. Join P’Q’ and produce the straight line CB.
9. Measure and record the angle ∠CBN = r.
10. Repeat procedure 4 to 9 for incident angles i = 350, 400, 450, 500
and 550.
11. Record the results in a table below

Incident angle (i)/0 Reflected angle(r)/ 0

30
35
40
45
50
55

220
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What happened to the reflected angle when changing the
angle of incident?
2) What will happen if the mirror is not silvered on one side?
3) What are the sources of error in this experiment?
4) Why where two optical pins used to construct each line
instead of only one?
5) Plot a graph of Incident angle (i) against reflected angle (r).
6) From the graph determine the slope.

Experiment 14.2: Determination of the focal length of

concave mirror
Rationale

Concave mirrors are used in a variety of applications,

including searchlights, shaving mirrors, dental mirrors, satellite dishes,
and more. Concave mirrors are used as a light beam Reflector in the
torches and headlights.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the focal length of concave mirror

Materials:
• A lighting candle. • A mirror holder

• Screen • Concave mirror

• A meter rule.

221
Set up

Fig.14.2: Ray diagram for determination of focal length of a concave mirror

Procedures
1. Arrange the set up as shown in the figure above.
2. Place the lighting candle at a distance d =10cm
3. Adjust the concave mirror until a sharp real image is formed on
the screen.
4. Measure the object distance u and image distance v

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Using the obtained results of u and v, calculate the focal
length of the mirror using

f = uv
u +v
2) Explain why it is good to repeat the experiment for different
values of object distance.

222
Experiment 14.3: Determination of the focal length of a
convex mirror
Rationale

These convex mirrors are used for cars because they give an upright
image and provide a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.
Convex mirrors are also often found in the hallway of various buildings
including hospitals, hotels, schools, stores and apartment building.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the focal length of a convex mirror,
using a convex lens.

Materials
• Illuminated candle • Meter scale
• Stand • Convex lens
• Screen • Given convex mirror

Set up

Fig .14.3: The focal length of a convex mirror

223
Procedures:
1. Place a convex lens on a lens holder facing the illuminated candle
at a fixed distance, say 30 cm, away from the candle. It is taken as
u.
2. Place a screen, at the other side of the lens so that the candle,
lens, and screen are in a straight line.
3. Adjust the position of screen to get a clear image of the candle.
4. Fix the given convex mirror to another holder and place it in
between the convex lens and screen with its reflecting face facing
the candle.
5. Now place another screen side by side with the candle.
6. Adjust the position of the convex mirror is so that a clear image
of the candle is formed on the screen placed side by side with the
candle.
7. Measure the distance between the mirror and first screen and
take as the radius of curvature of the mirror R.
8. Repeat the experiment by moving the convex lens towards the
object by 2 cm each time and record the values in a table below.

Distance from lens to

No. Radius of curvature, R/cm
Object u/cm Image V/cm
1
2
3
4

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Basing on the values of R you got for each trial, how are
they related?
2) From this experiment, estimate the focal length of used
mirror.

224
 BASIC ELECTRONIC
UNIT 15
COMPONENTS

Experiment 15.1. Analyzing Diodes and transistors in an

electronic device.
Rationale

All electronic devices we use at home or at school are made of different

components depending on their functions. For example, there are diodes
and transistors in these electronic devices.

Objective

In this experiment, you will analyze diodes and transistors in any

electronic device you will use.

Materials
• Any electronic device
• Screwdriver

Set up

Fig.15.1: Electronic device

225
Procedures
1. Get any electronic device of your choice. Make sure it is not
connected to the source of electricity.
2. Using the screwdriver (or anything you can use to open the device),
open it and observe the different components in the device you
opened.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Were you able to see the diodes and transistors after
opening the device?
2) Basing on what you observed, describe the appearance of
the diodes and transistors you saw.

Experiment 15.2. Verification of working principle of

Light Emitting Diode (LED).
Rationale

LEDs are currently used for a wide variety of different applications such
as: residential lighting, aerospace industry, architectural, automotive,
broadcasting, electronic instrumentation, entertainment and gaming,
the military, traffic and transportation; They become very important
tools of modern technologies.

Objective

In this experiment you verify the working principle of Light Emitting

Diode (LED)

Materials:
• LED
• 2 dry cells
• Switch
• Ammeter
• Connecting wires

226
Set up

Fig.15.2: Connecting LED to the source of electricity

Procedures:
1. Arrange the circuit as in figure 15.2. Remember to connect the
long lead/leg of LED directly to the positive terminal of the dry
cells.
2. Close the switch; Note what is happening on LED and record the
readings of ammeter.
3. Open the circuit.
4. Now reverse the terminals of LED by connecting short lead directly
to the positive terminal of dry cells.
5. Again, close the switch. Note down what is happening on the LED
and record the reading of ammeter.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Explain what happened on LED when its long lead was
connected on positive terminal and switch is closed. What
is the reading on ammeter?
2) What did you observe after reversing the terminals of LED?
What was the reading on ammeter?
3) From what you observed in this experiment, comment the
working principle of LED.

227
 SENIOR THREE EXPERIMENTS

228
 LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
UNIT 11
UNIT AND MEASUREMENTS
GRAPHS OF
OF LINEAR MOTION
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

Experiment: To verify if the distance moved by a uniformly

accelerating body is directly proportional to
the square time

Rationale

The motion of any moving body can be described by analyzing its change
in portion in a defined time. To make the situation easier, a distance-
time graph to shows how far an object has travelled can be used.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify if the distance moved by a uniformly

accelerating body is directly proportional to the square time.
Materials
• Stopwatch
• Ramp
• Meter stick
• Marble ball

Set up

Fig.1.1 inclined plane

229
Procedures
1. Set up the ramp with h = 0.10 m above the table, (as shown in
Figure 1.)
2. Using a meter stick, measure and mark on the range the distance
d =1m, d = 0.8m, d = 0.60m and d =0.40m starting from A
3. Starting from A, release the marble ball from rest, to roll down
the ramp and use the stopwatch to measure the time used to roll
a distance d = 1.0 meter. (use the marking made in step 2)
4. Take 4 times measurements, record in data table provided below.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for distances of 0.80 m, 0.60, 0.40 m
6. Tabulate your results in the table below

Distance/m T1/s T2/s T3/s T4/s T(average)/s T2/s2

1.00

0.88

0.60

0.40

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Using the data tabulated in the table of result, plot a graph of
d (vertical axis) vs t2 (horizontal axis).
2) Draw a "best fit" straight line through the points.
3) Is the graph linear?
4) What does it mean if the graph is linear?
5) What does a linear graph indicate about the acceleration of
rolling objects?

230
 FRICTION FORCE AND
UNIT 2 NEWTON’S LAWS OF
MOTION.
Experiment 2.1: Verification of friction force

Rationale

The friction between the sole of the shoes and the ground helps us to
move forward when we walk. Our legs provide a backward force and in
response, the force of friction propels us in the forward direction. The
more friction, the better the walking experience.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify friction force

Materials.
• A block
• A table
• A spring balance

Set up

Fig. 2.1: Verification of Newton’s laws

231
Procedures
1. Measure the weight of the block using spring balance.
2. Tie a thread to spring balance
3. Read and record the force that pull the block when it starts to
move.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is friction force?
2) Explain how do forces affect motion?

Experiment 2.2: Illustration of linear momentum.

Rationale

Linear momentum is particularly important because it is a conserved

quantity, meaning that in a closed system (without any extern forces)
its total linear momentum cannot change. It is applied in launching of
rockets.
Objective

In this experiment, you will illustrate the linear momentum.

Materials
• Two hammers (light and heavy)
• Four identical nails
• Wooden block

Set up

Fig. 2.2.: Illustration of linear momentum

232
Procedures
1. Take two nails and drive them into two pieces of wood using a
light hammer.
2. Hit the first one gently and the second nail very hard. What
happens in each case?
3. Repeat the activity using a heavy hammer in the figure above.
What do you notice?

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Highlight two factors on which the penetration distance of
the nail depends on.
2) Discuss with your classmate what the term 'linear momentum'
means.

Experiment 2.3: Demonstration of Newton’s second law of

motion

Rationale

Newton’s second laws explain how things move and how forces work
on their movement, which make it an extremely important discovery if
we were to place an object into space, we could observe how it behaves
without any influences.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate Newton’s second law of motion

Materials
• Two wooden blocks (heavier and light one)
• A string or cotton thread
• Pulley

233
Set up

Fig.2.3: Demonstration of Newton’s second law

Procedures
1. Place the one lighter block of unknown mass on a smooth flat
surface (floor or a table surface).
2. Connect the heavier block of known mass to the lighter block
using a string or cotton thread provided.
3. Pull the lighter block using the heavier one. See and note the
observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Based on your observations in this activity, suggest relationship
between the applied force, mass of an object and the
acceleration produced by the force on the body.
2) Explain your observation using Newton’s Second law of motion
in term of momentum.
3) Compare your finding with those of other classmates.

234
Experiment 2.4: Demonstration of action and reaction force

Rationale

It is easier to study effects of forces on an object by considering one

force at a time. However, in reality, a single force cannot exist by itself.
Two forces always occur when two objects push or pull each other. These
forces are called action and reaction force

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate Newton’s third law (action and
reaction force)
Materials
• Two identical spring balance
• One retort stand

Set up.

Fig. 2.4: Demonstration of Newton’s third law

Procedures
1. Fix one spring balance to the stand
2. Take the second spring balance and attach it to the end of the first
spring balance
3. Pull the second spring balance away from the stand

235
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Note your observation on the forces at each balance.
2) Are the force the same or different? Explain.
3) Give three real life situations where Newton's third law of
motion is experienced

Experiment 2.7: Determination of the coefficient of friction

Rationale

In some application, a low coefficient of friction is desirable, for example,

in bearings, pistons moving within cylinders, on ski runs, and so on.
However, for such applications as force being transmitted by belt drives
and braking systems, a high value of the coefficient is necessary.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the coefficient of friction

Materials
• A 50 g wooden block with rough surface.
• Four 50 g mass
• A rough bench
• A spring balance

Fig. 2.7: Determination of the coefficient of friction

236
Procedures
1. Pull the string until the block is just about to move. Record the
reading on the spring balance. Note that the spring balance
reads the value of frictional force which is acting in the opposite
direction in these experiments. (F is the frictional force between
the surfaces. Frictional force = Applied force F).
2. Place one 50 g mass on the block and pull the string again. Record
the reading on the spring balance.
3. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for two, three and four 50 g masses on the
block masses and the record the reading of force, F on the spring
balance in Table below.
Mass /g Reaction R /N Spring reading F /N

50
100
150
200
250

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the relationship between weight of the block and the
normal reaction?
2) Draw a graph of F(N) against R(N).
3) Find the slope of the graph and explain what it represents.

237
 APPLICATIONS OF
UNIT 3
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Experiment 3.1: Measurement of atmospheric pressure

using mercury barometer
Rationale

Barometers measure the pressure. Atmospheric pressure is an indicator

of weather. Changes in the atmosphere, including changes in air
pressure and affect the weather. Meteorologists use barometers to
predict short-term changes in the weather.

Objective

In this experiment, you will measure the atmospheric pressure by using

barometer.
Materials
• Mercury barometer (Glass tube)
• Mercury container
• Stand
• Meter scale
Set up

Fig. 3.1. Mercury barometer

238
Procedures
1. Take the mercury barometer provided and observe its calibrations.
2. Record the height of the column of mercury in it.
3. Why mercury is used as a barometric liquid and not water.
4. Predict what will happen to the level of the mercury as you climb
up a high. Explain.
5. Fill again the tube with mercury and inverted into a trough
containing mercury.
6. Read the height of mercury in glass tube and record it.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Why is mercury used as a barometric liquid and not water?
2) What instrument to be used to measure atmospheric pressure?
3) Give a summarized report on your findings from a class
discussion on how to measure atmospheric pressure?

Experiment 3.2: Demonstration of some applications of

atmospheric pressure

Rationale

To know the common use of air pressure in daily life is inflating tires,
playing musical wind instruments, drinking through straw, flushing
toilet, drawing water from well, operating barometer, blowing up
balloon, breathing, maintaining body shape especially abdomen

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate some applications of

atmospheric pressure.

239
Materials
• Drinking straw
• Syringe
• Glass
• Empty beakers
• Drinking water

Set up

Fig. 3.2 (a) The use of drinking straw, (b) The use of Syringe, (c) The use of
Vacuum cleaner

Procedures
1. Take a drinking straw provided to you and dip it in the glass with
clean drinking water.
2. Sip the water using the straw with your mouth and note your
observation.
3. Take two empty beakers and fill one with water.
4. Dip the nozzle syringe in the water. What do you observe? Explain
your observation.
5. Pull up the piston. What do you observe? Explain your observation.
6. Switch on the vacuum cleaner
7. Suck out the air inside the cleaner.

240
Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Discuss how a drinking straw, syringe and vacuum cleaner
work.
2) Note down the main points from your discussion.

241
 RENEWABLE AND NON-
UNIT 4 RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES

Experiment 4.1: Making a simple wind turbine.

Rationale

Wind turbines do not release emissions that can pollute the air or water
(with rare exceptions), and they do not require water for cooling. Wind
turbines may also reduce the amount of electricity generation from
fossil fuels, which results in lower total air pollution and carbon dioxide
emissions.

Objective

In this experiment you will make a simple wind turbine.

Materials:
• Manila paper
• A pair of scissors
• Pencil
• A nail
• Stapler or cellatope.

Set up

Fig 4.1. A simple wind turbine

Procedures

242
 1. Cut a square piece from the Manila paper.
2. Use a ruler to draw diagonal lines from corner to corner. Make a
small mark along each diagonal line about 2 cm from the center
of the square piece.
3. Cut along the diagonal lines toward the centre until you reach the
2 cm mark.
4. Fold alternating corners onto the center and staple the layers
together, but make sure to leave space between staples in the
very centre.
5. When all four 'blades' are folded in, push a straight nail through
all the layers at the centre. Remove the nail and push the pencil
through the hole to act as the ‘shaft’. The turbine is now complete
(Fig 4.1). Make sure the turbine is free to rotate on the pencil
6. Hold the turbine in the direction of the wind. The wind currents
blow the curved part of the blades, causing them to spin.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) On step 5, will the turbine you made blow in whichever
direction?
2) Where does it apply in daily life?
3) Was the knowledge gained today helpful?
4) Do you understand the wind turbine’s working principle? If
yes, explain how.

Experiment 4.2: Demonstration of effects of solar energy

using a convex lens.
Rationale

The convex lens focuses more amount of radiations on the solar cells,
which results in the increased power production.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the effects of solar energy

using a convex lens.

243
Materials:
• Convex lens
• Thin piece of paper

Set up

Fig. 4.2. Solar energy’s effect on a piece of paper.

Procedures
1. Choose a clear bright day with a lot of sunshine.
2. Place a convex lens in the path of sunlight.
3. Place a thin piece of paper under the lens. Ensure that light is
focused on the paper.
4. Wait for some minutes. What happens to the paper? Explain.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happens to the thin piece of paper?
2) Will the same results be obtained if you were to use a concave
lens?
3) Where will it be applied or where have you seen this
experiments’ application in real life?

244
Experiment 4.3: Demonstration of the transformation of
potential energy into kinetic energy.

Rationale

The electricity that fuels people's homes is supplied by potential energy

turned kinetic, either in the form of an electric power plant fueled by
coal, a hydroelectric dam, or other source such as solar cells.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate the transformations from

Potential energy to Kinetic energy and vice-versa.
Materials:
• Clamp and stand
• 1 m of thread
• Pendulum bob
• Weighing scale
• Calculator

Set up

Fig. 4. 3. A swinging pendulum

245
Procedures
1. Measure and record the mass, m, of the pendulum bob.
2. Tie the bob with a string and suspend it on a clamp with the thread
such that the bob is just about to touch the ground when hanging
freely (Fig. 4.3).
3. Pick an arbitrary vertical height at which you will release their
pendulum.
4. Measure and record this height, h. preferably it should be 40 cm
from the floor.
5. Release the pendulum bob from this height.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Calculate the potential energy of the bob at the height in
procedure 4.
2) Observe and explain what happened on step 5.
3) Calculate the theoretical velocity, v, at the lowest point of the
swing.
4) Calculate the kinetic energy at the lowest point of the swing.
5) Where will the pendulum have the greatest potential energy?
6. Where will it have the greatest kinetic energy?

Experiment 4.4: Making a simple motor.

Rationale

Electric motors are extremely important in modern-day life. They are

used in vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, computer printers, fax machines,
video cassette recorders, machine tools, printing presses, automobiles,
subway systems, sewage treatment plants, and water pumping stations,
to mention only a few applications.

Objective

In this experiment you will make a simple motor.

246
Materials
• Safety pins, nails (screws)
• Battery holder
• Wood block
• Disk magnet/Any available magnet
• Wire
• Scotch tape
• Sharp knife/razor blade

Set up

Fig. 4.4. A simple motor

Procedures
1. Wind a wire to form a coil (solenoid) on a pen, making 6 or 9 turns
and leave some centimeters of wire free at each end.
2. Carefully, pull the coil off the pin (former) and make its shape
permanently by wrapping it around the loop.
3. Hold the coil at the edge of a table so that the coil is straight up
and down (not flat on the table) and one of the free wire ends
lying on the table.
4. With a sharp knife, remove the top half of the insulation from the
free wire end. Be careful to leave the bottom half of the wire with
the enamel insulation intact. Do the same thing to the other free
wire end.

247
 5. Bend two safety pins from the middle.
6. Use nails (screws) to mount the bent safety pins on the wood block
so that the loops face each other and are about 2 centimeters
apart.
7. Attach the wires from the battery holder to the supports (bent
safety pins).
8. Swing the safety pins apart a little and insert the coil into both
rings.
9. Insert the battery into the holder. Place the magnet on top of the
wood just underneath the coil. Make sure the coil can spin freely
and it just misses the magnet.

10. Spin the coil (armature) gently.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What do you observe? On step 10.
2) Discuss the energy transformation in the simple motor within
your group and write it down.
3) How do we call that device which transforms mechanical
energy into electrical energy?
4) State the concept applied in this experiment and in two
sentences, explain its working principle.

Experiment 4.5: Demonstration of transformation of

mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Rationale

A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. A

hydroelectric powerplant converts the mechanical energy of water in
a storage dam into electrical energy. An internal combustion engine is
a heat engine that obtains mechanical energy from chemical energy by
burning fuel

248
 Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate energy transformation from

mechanical to electrical energy.
Materials:
• Galvanometer
• Connecting wires
• Coil (solenoid)
• Bar magnet
• Insulated copper wire
Set up

Fig. 4.5 Mechanical energy being transformed into electrical energy.

Procedures
1. Make a coil (solenoid) using an insulated copper wire.
2. Connect the ends of the solenoid using connecting wires to a
sensitive galvanometer.
3. Quickly introduce (push) the bar magnet into the solenoid and
stop (Fig. 4.5(a)).
4. Withdraw the magnet quickly from the coil and stop (Fig. 4.5(b)).
5. Move both the bar magnet and the coil at the same speed and in
the same direction.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Observe and explain what happens to the galvanometer while
the magnet is moving through the coil.
2) Which types of energy where present? How are they related?

249
 HEAT TRANSFER AND
UNIT 5
QUANTITY OF HEAT

Experiment 5.1: Verification of thermal expansion of solid

Rationale

Railway lines require expansion gaps (similar to bridges) to avoid

buckling in hot weather
Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate thermal expansion of given solid

Materials:
• Metallic ball connected to the metallic chain
• Metallic ring
• Retort stand set
• Source of heat
• Stop watch.
• Paper sheet or notebook
• Pencil and rubber
set up

Fig. 5.1: Verification of thermal expansion of solid

250
Procedures:
1. Set up the experiment as in the above diagram (a)
2. Take a metallic ball and try to pass it through the ring. Record
your observation.
3. Heat up the ball for 5 minutes and try to pass it through the ring
as in figure (b). Record your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe when the ball is not heated and you try
to pass it through the ring?
2) What did you observe after heating up the ball and you try to
pass it through the ring?
3) Explain the cause of the observation noticed after heating up
the ball and you try to pass it through the ring.

Experiment 5.2: Verification of thermal expansion of liquid.

Rationale

The behavior of gasoline pumped on a hot day provides an example

of liquid thermal expansion in response to an increase in temperature.
When it comes from its underground tank at the gas station, the gasoline
is relatively cool, but it will warm when sitting in the tank of an already
warm car.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate thermal expansion of given liquid

Materials:
• A glass flask
• Colored water
• Tripod stand
• A rubber stoppers
• Bunsen burner
• Stop watch
• Wire gauze
• Long glass tubing

251
Set up:

Fig 5.2: Verification of thermal expansion of liquid

Procedures:
1. Pour Colored water into conical flask
2. Place rubber stopper with glass tube.
3. Make sure that the column in the glass tube is small, as indicated.
4. Measure and record the level of water into glass tube.
5. Apply heat to the conical flask as in figure (b)
6. Measure and record the level of water after 10 minutes

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1. How much does water level changes in glass tube?
2. How do you explain your observation?

252
Experiment 5.3: Investigation of thermal expansion of
given gas.
Rationale

Hot-air balloons are an obvious example of the practical use of the

thermal expansion difference between a gas and a solid. Because the
hot air inside the balloon bag increases in size faster than the container
it stretches the bag so that it expands and displaces the colder (heavier)
air outside the bag

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate thermal expansion of given gas.

Materials
• Glass tube or capillary tube
• Rubber stopper with a hole
• Test tube
• Stop watch
• Test tube holder
• Source of heat such as candle.
• Colored water.

Set up:

Fig. 5.3: Thermal expansion of given gas

253
Procedures:
1. Take an empty test tube and close its mouth with a single-holed
rubber stopper.
2. Take a capillary tube in which a small amount of coloured water is
trapped.
3. Insert it into the test tube through the single-holed rubber stopper.
4. Hold the test tube with a test tube holder, and heat it over a
burner for 1 minute.
5. Observe the level of coloured water in the capillary tube. Record
your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened when heating the test tube?
2) What is the cause of your observation?

Experiment 5.4: Demonstration of the causes of expansion

and contraction.

Rationale

Railway tracks buckled on a hot summer day due to expansion if gaps

are not left between sections. Bridges made of steel girders also expand
during the day and contract during the night.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate causes of expansion and

contraction.
Materials:
• 2 Beaker
• 1 Test tube
• 1 Balloon
• 1 stop watch
• 200cm3 of hot Water
• 200cm3 of cold Water

254
Set up:

Fig. 5.4: Expansion and contraction

Procedures:
1. Take an empty test tube and attach a rubber balloon to its top as
shown in above Fig.5.4.
2. Place the test tube on a source of heat.
3. After some 2 minutes, record your observation.
4. Take the test tube out of the hot source and put it in cold water.
5. Wait for 3 minutes, record your observation.

255
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What was initial state of the balloon before heating it?
2) What happened on the balloon after 2 minutes of heating?
Explain why.
3) What was your observation after 3 minutes while test tube
was in cold water? Explain the phenomenon behind your
observation.

Experiment 5.5: Demonstration of heat transfer in solids

Rationale

If you leave a metal spoon propped up in a pot, it will become hot from
the boiling water inside the pot. Chocolate candy in your hand will
eventually melt as heat is conducted from your hand to the chocolate.
When ironing a piece of clothing, the iron is hot and the heat is
transferred to the clothing.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate heat transfer in solids .

Materials
• 1 wooden stirring spoon,
• 1 plastic cooking spoon,
• 1 regular metal spoon
• 1 source of heat
• 1 beaker (or pot)
• 3 laboratory thermometers
• 1 stop watch
• Stick plaster

256
Set up

Fig. 5.5: Heat transfer in solids

Procedures:
1. Pour 200 cm3 of water into beaker and Boil water by using a source
of heat.
2. Wait for water to boil and switch off the source of heat.
3. Tape the thermometers to the handles of each spoon.
4. Place the spoons in the water
5. Record the temperature of each spoon and start counting the
time.
6. Read and record temperature of each spoon after 10 minutes.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What are initial and final temperature of Wooden, spoon and
plastic spoons respectively?
2) Find the temperature raise in each spoon?
3) Explain the phenomenon behind the raise in temperature, if
any, for each spoon.
4) Explain why the temperature change is not the same in all
three spoons?

257
Experiment 5.6: Investigation of heat transfer by
conduction

Rationale

As the pad heats up, it transfers heat to the part of your body that it is
in contact with. The heat from a hot liquid makes the cup itself hot. If
you grab a cup that has hot coffee, tea or broth in it, the cup itself will
be hot and your hands will feel it.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the heat transfer by conduction

Materials:
• 2 laboratory thermometers
• 1 retort stand set
• 1 beaker
• 1 test tube
• 1 test tube holder

Set up

Fig. 5.6: Heat transfer by conduction

258
Procedures
1. Pour 200 cm3 of cold tap water into a beaker.
2.
Clamp the beaker and thermometer so that the bulb of
thermometer is fully put in water.
3. Apply heat on 200 cm3 of water on the source of heat.
4. When the reading of thermometer T1 is 600C, switch off the source
of heat.
5. Put a test tube containing water with thermometer 2 into the
beaker

6. Record the temperature θ1 andθ 2 of both beaker and test tube

respectively at time t = 0.
7. Start recording the temperature of beaker and test tube every 1
minute until they reach the same temperature θ .

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What are values of temperature θ1 andθ 2
2) What is the value of temperature θ ?
3) Explain the phenomenon behind the raise in temperature of
test tube water. How to call this phenomenon?

Experiment 5.7: Investigation of heat transfer by

convection

Rationale

The radiator is an everyday examples of convection. A radiator puts warm

air out at the top and draws in cooler air at the bottom. Steaming cup
of hot tea. The steam you see when drinking a cup of hot tea indicates
that heat is being transferred into the air. Ice melts because heat moves
to the ice from the air.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the heat transfer by convection

259
Materials:
• Pyrex beaker, 600 ml containing water.
• Bunsen burner.
• Tripod
• Glass tube or a long straw
• Potassium manganate crystals

Set up

Fig. 5.7: Heat transfer by convection

Procedures
1. Fill the beaker with water.
2. Put a glass tube (such as drinking straw) into the beaker so that it
rests on the base of the beaker.
3. Put individual crystals of potassium manganate VII on the bottom
of the beaker through the tube.
4. Heat the water gently over the Bunsen burner and observe the
motion of the coloured water.
5. Note the path that the coloured water takes from the heater to
the top of the water and back down again.
6. When repeating the experiment, you should always start with a
new batch of cold water.

260
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What did you see as the water started to warm up in the beaker
that was heated? Draw a picture to show what you saw.
2) Rename and describe the phenomenon that occurred in this
experiment?

Experiment 5.8: Investigation of heat transfer by radiation

Rationale

The heating of the Earth by the Sun is an example of transfer of energy

by radiation. The heating of a room by an open-hearth fireplace is
another example. The flames, coals, and hot bricks radiate heat directly
to the objects in the room with little of this heat being absorbed by the
intervening air.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate heat transfer by radiation

Materials:
• 2 metal cups
• 2 thermometers
• 1 source of heat
• 500ml of water
• 2 tripod stands or any stands.
• Black paint
• Pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet or notebook

261
Set up:

Fig. 5.8: Heat transfer by radiation

Procedures
1. Paint one cup with blank paint.
2. Pour 200 ml of water in each cup
3. Set up the experiment as in the above diagram.
4. Turn on Bunsen burner and record the temperatures θ1 andθ 2 on
thermometer T1 and T2 respectively.

5. Wait for 5 minutes, read and record the temperatures θ1' and θ 2 ' on
thermometer T1 and T2 respectively.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What are the values of temperatures θ1 andθ 2 ?

2) What are the values of the temperatures θ1' and θ 2 ' ?

3) Estimate the temperature raise for each cup. Are they the
same?
4) What is the cause of change in temperature for each cup?
5) Describe the process of heat transfer by radiation.

262
Experiment 5.9: Determination of the specific heat capacity
of a solid by the electrical method.
Rationale

Substances having a small specific heat capacity, are very useful as

material in cooking instruments such as frying pans, pots, kettles and so
on, because, when small amount of heat is applied it will heat quickly.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the specific heat capacity of a

solid by the electrical method
Materials:
• Electric circuit
• Heating element
• Metal cylinder
• Thermometer
• Variable resistor
• Cotton wool
• Aluminum foil
• Wooden container
• Solid metal blocks in the form of a cylinder, with 2 holes.

Set up:

Fig. 5.9 Determination of the specific heat capacity

263
Procedures:
1. Measure and record the mass, m, of the metal cylinder.
2. Insert an electrical heater in position in the metal block through
the larger hole and a thermometer through the other hole.
3. Note the initial temperature of the metal block θ1
4. Cover the solid with cotton wool or felt material and wrap an
aluminum foil around cotton wool.
5. Place the set up a wooden container. Complete the electrical
circuit as shown in above diagram.
6. Close the switch S and start a stop watch at the same time.
7. Use the variable resistor to maintain a steady current passing
through the heater.
8. Note the current I through the heater with the ammeter and the
potential difference, V across the heater with the voltmeter.
9.
Pass this steady current for some time so that the rise in
temperature in the solid is about 8 ºC.
10. Note the time t, when the final temperature of the solid is θ2 .
11. Calculate the change in temperature 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃$ – 𝜃𝜃& .

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Explain the relationship between electrical energy used and
the heat energy gained by the metal
2) How much electrical energy has been spent in this time? What
has happened to this energy?
3) Calculate the specific heat capacity c of the metal cylinder
from Q = mcθ ,where m is mass of metal cylinder and θ is
temperature rise.
4) What is the unit of specific heat capacity c?
5) What is the purpose of cotton wool or felt material, aluminum
foil and the wooden container?

264
Experiment 5.10: Determination the specific heat capacity
of water by the method of mixtures
Rationale

Substances having a small specific heat capacity, are very useful as

material in cooking instruments such as frying pans, pots, kettles and so
on, because, when small amount of heat is applied it will heat quickly.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the specific heat capacity of water
by the method of mixtures
Materials:
• A solid of known specific heat capacity (cs )
• Weighing balance
• Water bath
• Thermometer
• Beaker
• Stirrer
• Heating source
• Tripod stand

Set up:

Fig. 5.10: Specific heat capacity of water by the method of mixtures

265
Procedures
1. Take a solid of known specific heat capacity (cs) and measure its
mass (ms).
2. Heat it in a water bath till the water starts boiling, as shown in
Figure (a).
3. In the meantime, take an empty, clean and dry container of known
specific heat capacity (cc ) and measure its mass (mc).
4. Put water into the container, say to half of the container, and
measure the total mass.
5. Calculate the mass of water (mw) whose specific heat capacity (cw)
is to be determined.
6. Find the initial temperature ( θ1 ) of water and the container
(Figure (b)).
7. When water in the water bath has started boiling, note the
temperature of the solid ( θ ) in the water bath.
s
8. Quickly transfer the hot solid into cold water in the container and
observe the temperature of the mixture.
9. Stir the contents gently to distribute the heat uniformly throughout
the mixture and note the final maximum steady temperature of
the mixture θ 2 .

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happens to the cold water and the container when the
hot solid is transferred into the container?
2) Find the heat Qs lost by the hot solid using the equation,

Qs = ms cs (θ s − θ 2 )
3) Calculate the specific heat capacity of water using the equation
Qs = mwcw (θ 2 − θ1 )

4) What precautions have to be taken to ensure accuracy in the

experimental procedure?

266
Experiment 5.11: Determination of the specific heat
capacity of a liquid by electrical method.
Rationale

Substances having a small specific heat capacity, are very useful as

material in cooking instruments such as frying pans, pots, kettles and so
on, because, when small amount of heat is applied it will heat quickly.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the specific heat capacity of a

water by electrical method.

Materials
• Calorimeter
• Stirrer
• Thermometer
• Heater
• A liquid
• Electrical circuit
• Variable resistor
Set up:

Fig. 5.11 Specific heat capacity of a liquid by electrical method

267
Procedures
1. Measure and record the mass, mc , of an empty, clean and dry
copper container with the stirrer of the same specific heat capacity,
cc .
2. Gently pour the liquid of known mass, ml , into the container. Let
the specific heat capacity of the liquid be cl
3. Note the initial temperature of the liquid and the container, θ1 .
4. Complete the electrical circuit as shown in Fig 5.12 with the heater
fully immersed in the liquid without touching the base or the sides
of the container.
5. Close the switch S and start a stop watch at the same time.
6. Use the rheostat to maintain a steady current passing through the
heater.
7. Note the current I through the heater with the ammeter and a
potential difference V across it with the voltmeter.
8. Pass this steady current for some time so that the rise in temperature
of the liquid and the container is about 2ºC.
9. Keep stirring the liquid gently throughout the experiment.
10. Note the time, t, taken when the final temperature of the liquid
and the container is θ2 .
Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) (
Calculate the change in temperature Δθ = θ 2 – θ1 ) .
2) How much electrical energy has been spent in this time, t?
3) Using all the data you have collected, calculate the specific
heat capacity of the liquid. (Hint: Electrical energy supplied =
heat energy gained by liquid)

268
Experiment 5.12: Determination of the specific latent heat
of fusion of ice

Rationale
The latent heat of fusion is the heat required for an object to go from
the solid state to the liquid state, or vice versa. Since its value is generally
much higher than specific heat, it allows you to keep a beverage cold
for much longer by adding ice than simply having a cold liquid to begin
with

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice by method of mixture.
Materials
• Container with known specific heat capacity (copper calorimeter
or aluminum Calorimeter).
• Warm water
• Ice
• Thermometer
• Balance
• Stirrer
• Beaker
• String
Set up:

Fig. 5.12. Determination of Specific latent heat of water by method of

mixtures.

269
Procedures:
1. Take an empty, clean and dry container of known specific heat
capacity (cc) and measure its mass (mc).
2. Add some warm water at a temperature a few degrees above
room temperature to the container and note its temperature
(θ1 ).
3. Measure the mass of the container with warm water and calculate
the mass of water (mw).
4. Dry small pieces of ice with a blotting paper and gently immerse
them into the warm water, without splashing out any water.
5. Keep adding the small pieces of dried ice till the temperature of
the mixture is a few degrees below room temperature.

6. Note the temperature of the mixture ( θ 2 ).

7. Find the mass of the mixture.
8. Calculate the mass of ice (mice) which has been added.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1. What happened when you drop ice into warm water?
2. Using the data you have collected, determine the latent heat
of fusion of ice.
(Hint: Heat gained by ice to melt = heat lost by warm liquid water)

Experiment 5.13: Determination of the specific latent heat

of Vaporization of water by electric method.
Rationale

The energy required to completely separate the molecules, moving

from liquid to gas, is much greater that if you were just to reduce their
separation, solid to liquid. Hence the reason why the latent heat of
vaporization is greater that the latent heat of fusion.

270
 Objective

In this experiment you will, determine latent heat of vaporization by

electrical method.
Materials
• Beaker
• Heater electrical circuit
• Cold water
• Insulated container
• Tube T
• Thermometer
• Stopwatch
• Stopper

Set up:

Fig. 5.13 Determination of Specific latent heat Capacity of Vaporization of

water by electrical method.

Procedures:
1. Half fill the beaker with cold water
2. Place the beaker on the triple-beam balance
3. Clamp the immersion heater so that it is fully immersed inside the
water
4. Connect the immersion heater to the Kilowatt-hour meter

271
 5. Connect the meter to the mains electricity
6. Adjust the balance so that the beaker side is slightly heavier
7. Now, power on the heater.
8. Now stop the heater for a whole.
9. Put the 0.2kg rider mass onto the wall of the beaker. This will
cause the beaker side heavier.
10. Now, power on the heater again and start counting the number
of turns made by the disc inside the meter.
11. Start counting the number of turns made by the disc inside the
meter.
12. Turn off the heater and record the number of the turns N made by
the disc.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) The water would be heated up gradually. When boiling point
starts, water will vaporize and the total mass of the beaker
will fall. After some water boils away, the balance will restore
equilibrium.
2) The mass of water boiled away is m = 0.2 kg. The energy used
to vaporize this mass of water is Q = N x 24000. The latent
heat of vaporization of water is then calculated according to:
Q
LV =
m

Experiment 5.14: Demonstration of working principle of

bimetallic strip.

Rationale

Thermostats is one of the best examples of bimetallic strip in real life.

The bimetallic strips are used as switches in thermostats.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate the working principle of

bimetallic strips

272
Materials
• Bunsen burner
• Bimetallic strips
• Stop watch
Set up

Fig 5.14: Bimetallic strip

Procedures
1. Observe a bimetallic strip at a room temperature
2. Take the bimetallic strip with the brass strip at the top and heat it
with a bunsen burner flame for some time. Note your observation.
3. Remove the flame and allow the bar to cool to a room temperature.
Note down your observation

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened when heating the bimetallic strip?
2) Explain what happened when cooling the bimetallic strip

273
 LAWS OF
UNIT 6 THERMODYNAMICS

Experiment 6.1: Demonstration of the first law of

thermodynamic

Rationale

Thermodynamics is used in everyday life all around us. One small example
of thermodynamics in daily life is cooling down hot tea with ice cubes.
At first, hot tea has a lot of entropy. This is due to the temperature and
the molecules rapidly and disorderly bouncing off one another.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the first law of thermodynamics

Materials:
• Two balloons
• Water
• Conical flask
• Laboratory Bunsen Burner
• Tripod stand with gauze

Set up

Fig. 6.1. Investigation of first law of thermodynamics.

274
Procedures
1. Add a half cup of cold water in the conical flask
2. Attach balloon over the mouth of the conical flask
3. Place the conical flask on the lab burner and start heating it
4. Now observe the balloon. You will notice that the balloon will
inflate in some time.
5. Remove the flask from the heat and allow it to cool down.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Describe energy transformation taking place in the set up
during heating.
2) State the law that govern the heat energy exchange in this
experiment.

Experiment 6.2: Demonstration of the Second law of

thermodynamics
Rationale

Sweating in a crowded room: In a crowded room, everybody (every

person) starts sweating. The body starts cooling down by transferring
the body heat to the sweat. Sweat evaporates adding heat to the room.
Again, this happens due to the first and second law of thermodynamics
in action.

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate the Second law of

thermodynamics.
Materials
• Beaker
• Bunsen burner
• Ice
• Thermometer

275
 • Table
Set up

Fig. 6.2: Demonstration of Second law of thermodynamics

Procedures
1. Warm a half beaker of water up to 750C
2. Remove the beaker from the heat and place it on the table. (Note:
use a support to move the beaker, hot beaker can hurt you)
3. Place the thermometer in warm water and wait until the
thermometer reading shows 700C
4. Place the peace of Ice into the warm water in the beaker

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) From your observation, explain what happened to the
temperature of water as the ice eventually melts.
2) Discuss with your comrades whether the two process that
took place in step (4) would be reversed in the same time if
after taking place, the beaker is heated again.

276
Experiment 6.3: Demonstration of heat exchange using
cold and hot water

Rationale

Waste heat in the exhaust of an electricity-generating gas turbine can be

transferred via a heat exchanger to boil water to drive a steam turbine
to generate more electricity (This is the basis for combined cycle gas
turbine technology)

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate heat exchange phenomena

using cold and hot water.

Materials
• Water • Bunsen burner
• Tripod stand • Thermometers
• Stirrer • Wire gauze
• Beakers

Set up

Fig 6.3: Demonstration heat exchange using cold and hot water

277
Procedures
1. Pour equal amounts of water into beaker X and Y
2. Measure and record the temperature of water in beaker Y
3. Set the tripod stand, wire gauze and Bunsen burner as shown in
figure above
4. Place the beaker X on the burner and light the Bunsen burner for
three minutes
5. Read and recorder the temperature in beaker X
6. Mix the water in X and Y and stir well
7. Measure and record the final temperature of the mixture

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Compare the final temperature of the mixture and the
initial temperature of water in beaker Y.
2) How was the initial temperature of water in beaker Y
changed?
3) During the mixing up of water in X and Y, in what direction
did the heat move?
4) Summarize the direction of heat transfer between cold and
hot regions

Experiment 6.4: Determination of the quantity of heat

using the method of mixture
Rationale

Water is used as coolant car radiators for its high specific heat capacity,
due to which it can absorb a large amount of heat energy from the
engine of the car, without its temperature rising too high.

Objective

In this experiment you will determine the quantity of heat using the
method of mixture

278
Materials
• Calorimeter • Steam heater
• Thermometer • Wooden box
• Stiller • Balance
• Water • Small piece of copper

Set up

Fig. 6.4. Determine the quantity of heat using the method of mixture

Procedures
1. Measure and record the mass of calorimeter M1
2. Pour some water into calorimeter (above the half of calorimeter)
3. Measure and record the new mass of calorimeter M2
4. Put the calorimeter into the wooden box
5. Measure and record the temperature of calorimeter T1
6. Measure and record the mass of copper M3
7. Heat the copper piece in steam heater
8. Measure and record the heated copper T2
9. Quickly transfer the heated copper into calorimeter and still the
system
10. Measure and record the final temperature T

279
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) What did you notice?
2) Use the relation here to calculate the specific heat capacity
of copper
M 3S (T2 − T ) = M1SC (T − T1 ) + ( M 2 − M1 ) SW (T − T1 )

SW = Specific heat capacity of water

S = Specific heat capacity of copper
Sc = Specific heat capacity of calorimeter

Experiment 6.5: Verification of the heating curve of ice

Rationale

A cooling curve is a type of graph used in chemistry, physics, engineering,

and other disciplines to chart the progress of a cooling substance

Objective

In this experiment you will verify the heating curve of ice

Materials
• Ice (in pieces)
• Bunsen burner
• Tripod stand
• Thermometer
• Stirrer
• Wire gauze
• Beakers

280
Set up

Fig. 6.5. The heating curve of ice

Procedures
1. Take pure crushed ice at about -10 °C and put it in a beaker placed
on wire gauze on a tripod stand as shown in Figure above
2. Note the initial temperature of the ice.
3. Light a Bunsen burner and adjust the blue flame to a small low
temperature.
4. Note the temperature of ice at 20 seconds interval until the
temperature of the container is about 10 °C.
5. Record your results as shown in Table
Time/seconds 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature/ C 0

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What happened to the amount of ice as heating continues?
2) Plot a graph of temperature against time
3) Explain the shape of the graph.

281
 INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 7 ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Experiment 7.2: Induction of an electromotive force in a

straight conductor (wire).

Rationale

Two important devices depend on electromagnetic induction: electric

generator and electric transformer both depends on electromagnetic
induction.

Objective

In this experiment, you will induce an electromotive force in a straight

conductor

Materials
• U-Shaped magnet
• Copper wire (straight conductor)
• Galvanometer

Set up

Fig. 7.2 A conductor in between the poles of a U-shaped magnet.

282
Procedures
1. Connect a copper wire XY to a galvanometer as shown in Fig. 7.2
above.
2. Place a conductor in between the poles of a magnet as shown in
Fig. 7.2 and observe the galvanometer reading when the wire is
stationary.
3. Move quickly the conductor vertically (1 and 2), horizontally (3
and 4) and move it in its horizontal position (5 and 6). Observe
and explain what happens to the galvanometer pointer.
4. Re-introduce the wire in between the poles of the magnet and
stop. Explain what happens to the galvanometer pointer.
5. Repeat the experiment, keeping the wire stationary and moving
the magnet. Explain what happens to the galvanometer pointer.
6. Repeat the experiment by first moving the wire vertically up
and down and then repeat by moving the magnet. Explain what
happens to the galvanometer pointer.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Does the galvanometer detect electric current? Explain.
2) When is the current produced in the copper rod?
3) What happens to the galvanometer when the copper rod
stops to move?

Experiment 7.3: Demonstration of the induced current

produced when there is a relative motion
between the magnet and the Solenoid

Rationale

The microphone is a device that converts sound waves into electrical

signals. Microphones use the generator effect to induce a changing
current from the pressure variations of sound waves.

283
 Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate how induced current would

be produced when there is a relative motion between the magnet and
the solenoid.

Materials
• Permanent bar magnet
• Solenoid of 600 turns
• Galvanometer
• Connecting wires

Set up:

Fig. 7.3 Induced current by the moving permanent magnet through solenoid.

Procedures
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig 7.3.
2. While solenoid is kept stationary push the bar magnet into the
solenoid and observe the reading of the galvanometer.
3. While solenoid is kept stationary held the bar magnet in the
solenoid and observe the reading of the galvanometer.
4. Pull the bar magnet out of the solenoid and observe the reading
of the galvanometer.
5. Now, while the bar magnet is held stationary push the solenoid
towards the bar magnet and observe the reading of the
galvanometer.

284
 6. Then pull the solenoid away from the bar magnet and observe the
reading of the galvanometer
7. Complete the below table
Bar Magnet Solenoid Galvanometer reading
Pushed into the solenoid Stationary
Stationary Stationary
Pulled out of the solenoid Stationary
Stationary Pushed towards bar
magnet
Stationary Pushed away from bar
magnet

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) When does the galvanometer shows a positive reading?
Explain the direction of induced current.
2) When does the galvanometer shows a positive reading?
Explain the direction of induced current.
3) When is a current induced in a solenoid?

Experiment 7.4: Verification of factors affecting the

magnitude of the induced emf

Rationale

Hard drives utilize magnetic induction to read/write information. Other

applications of magnetic induction can be found in graphics tablets,
electric and hybrid vehicles.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the factors that affect the
magnitude of the induced emf

285
Materials
• Permanent bar magnet
• Solenoid of 600 turns
• Galvanometer
• Connecting wires

Set up

Fig. 7.4 Induced EMF through solenoid.

Procedures
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig 7.4.
2. Push a bar magnet slowly into the solenoid of 600 turns. Record
the maximum reading of the galvanometer.
3. Push a bar magnet quickly into the solenoid of 600 turns. Record
the maximum reading of the galvanometer.
4. Push a bar magnet slowly into the solenoid of 1200 turns. Record
the maximum reading of the galvanometer.
5. Tie two bar magnets together using rubber bands with like poles
side by side.

286
 6. Push slowly the two magnets into the solenoid of 600 turns. Record
the maximum reading of the galvanometer.

Number of Speed of Number Maximum reading of

bar magnets magnet of turns of galvanometer
solenoid
1 Slow 600
1 Fast 600
1 Slow 1200
2 Slow 600

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What does the reading of the galvanometer represent?
2) By comparing the observations in steps 2 and 3, what
happens to the magnitude of the induced current when
the speed of the magnet is increased?
3) By comparing the observations in steps 2 and 4, what
happens to the magnitude of the induced current when
the number of turns of the solenoid is increased?
4) Two bar magnets with like poles side by side produce a
stronger magnetic field. By comparing the observations
of steps 2 and 6, what happens to the magnitude of the
induced current when the strength of the magnetic field is
increased?

287
 ELECTRICAL POWER
UNIT 8
TRANSMISSION

Experiment 8.1: Verification of working principle of

transformers

Rationale

In electricity distribution networks, there is always a need to increase

or decrease voltage. This means that there must be appliances to either
increase or decrease voltages. A device that can do this is called a
transformer.

Objective

In this experiment, you will verify the working principle of transformers.

Materials

• Transformer core • 2 voltmeters

• 2 copper wires • 1 bulb and bulb holder
• 4 dry cells and cell holders • Pencil and rubber
• 1 switch
Set up:

Fig 8.1 Working of transformer

Procedures:
1. Set up the circuit as shown above.
2. Keep the voltage across the primary coil constant at V1 = 24V
and keep the number of coils in the primary coil constant at
N1=1000.

288
3. Set the number of coils on the secondary coil to be N2=100.
4. Measure and record the output voltage of the secondary coil
V 2.
N2
5. Find the ratio N1
6. Repeat the procedures 3 to 5 for N2 = 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700,
800, 900, and 1000.
7. Record your data in a suitable table shown here below.

Number of coils in N2 Output voltage, V2/v

secondary coil, N2 Ratio, N1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Questions to guide interpretation of results

N2
1) Plot the graph of output voltage, V2 against ratio N1

2) Find the slope S of the graph.

3) From the slope of the graph, find the input (Primary
voltage), V1

289
Experiment 8.2: Investigation of the relationship between
number of coils and the induced e.m.f
Rationale

In a production or induction of voltage in a transformer, the induced

voltage depends on the number of coils in the primary and secondary.
Therefore, in designing a transformer, one must remember that the
induced voltage, depends on the number of coils either in primary or
secondary.

Objective

In this experiment, you will investigate the relationship between

number of coils and the induced e.m.f

Materials
• 1 Galvanometer
• Insulated copper wire
• 1 bar magnet
• Pencil and rubber
• Paper sheet or notebook

Set up:

Fig. 8.2: Magnet moved through coil to induce e.m.f

290
Procedures
1. By using insulated copper wire, make a coil with number of turns
N= 50 and a diameter of 3 cm.
2. Using connecting wires, connect a galvanometer to the coil with
number of turns N =50 as in figure 8.2.
3. Move the magnet towards the coil and keep it at rest while it
reaches inside the coil. Note your observation.
4. Move the magnet from the coil as quick as possible, and record
your observation from galvanometer.
5. Again move the bar magnet forth and back through the coil and
record your observation.
6. Repeat the procedures (1) to (5) for N= 100, and 200 turns

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What is the effect on galvanometer when the magnet is at
rest inside the coil?
2) Explain what happened when the magnet moving
through the coil.
3) From your observation, explain what happens when you
increase the number of turns.
4) From this experiment, explain the relationship between
number of coils and the induced e.m.f.

291
UNIT 9 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Experiment 9.1: Demonstration of the electrostatic

law between two negatively charged
polythene rods.
Rationale

When identical charges like negative and negative are put close to one
another, they are seen repelling one another. This is the same case for
2 positive charges put near to one another. This signifies that there is
always repulsive force between two identical charges.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the electrostatic law between

two negatively charged polythene rods.

Materials
• Two identical polythene rods A and B
• Silk cloth
• Clamp and a stand
• Thread

Set up

Fig. 9.1 Repulsion between two rods

292
Procedures
1. Charge two polythene rods negatively by rubbing them with a silk
cloth.
2. Suspend rod A on a stand.
3. Bring charged rod B (touching it using a stirrup cloth) near the
suspended polythene rod A.
4. While varying the distance of the rod A from B, note the magnitude
of the force of repulsion.
5. Charge the two rods with the silk cloth more vigorously while
maintaining the distances and repeat procedures 3 and 4. Note
your observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) From your observation, comment on the relationship
between the distance and the force.
2) What do you observe when the two rods rubbed vigorously?
3) State the effect of the amount of charge on the force of
repulsion.

Experiment 9.2: Demonstration of the electric fields

produced by charged bodies.
Rationale

There is always a force between two charges. This force is due to the
lines of force that are produced by a charge. These lines are called
electric field lines.

Objective

In this experiment, you will demonstrate the electric fields produced by

charged bodies.

Materials:
• Glass dish • Electrodes
• Castor oil • Connecting wires

293
Set up

Fig. 9.2 Electric fields produced by charged bodies

Procedures
1. Assemble a pair of straight metal wires, called the electrodes, in a
shallow glass dish so that their ends are just covered by a layer of
an insulating liquid like castor oil or carbon tetrachloride.
2. Apply a very high potential difference, from a suitable power
supply, to the two electrodes so that they have opposite charges.
3. Then sprinkle grass seeds or semolina powder on the surface of
the liquid.
4. Observe what happens to the grass seeds or powder and draw
the resulting pattern.
5. Repeat the activity with different charges on electrodes and
observe the pattern formed.
6. Draw the various patterns and draw the various alignment of the
grass seeds.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Region around a charge q in which it exerts force on a test
charge is called
2) Field lines always emerge from……………………….
3) Direction of free test charge will be……………………….

294
Experiment 9.3: Verification of the strength of an electric
field varies with magnitude of charge and
distance from the charge.
Rationale

The strength of field lines created by a charge depends on the magnitude

of the of the charge and the distance of separation.

Specific Objective

In this experiment, you will show the strength of an electric field varies
with quantity of charge and distance from the charge.
Materials
• a clamp and a stand
• plastic drinking straw 25 cm long
• small piece of plastic drinking straw 1 cm long
• a string

Set up

Fig 9.3. Verifying strength of electric field.

Procedures
1. Suspend a piece of plastic drinking straw with a string on a clamp
in the figure above. Charge it by rubbing it with a dry cloth.
2. Charge a plastic drinking straw by rubbing it with a cloth.
3. Hold small piece of plastic drinking straw firmly with an insulating

295
 material and bring the charged plastic drinking straw closer to the
suspended piece of plastic drinking straw.
4. Measure the distance and observe what happens when you release
the small piece of plastic drinking straw. Note your observation.
5. Repeat procedures 3 and 4 but this time bring the plastic drinking
straw more closely to the small piece of plastic drinking straw.
6. Charge the plastic drinking straw more strongly and repeat
procedures 3 and 4, trying as much as possible to maintain the
same distance.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Explain what happened a small piece of plastic straw
released to move freely.
2) What happened when the distance of separation, that is
between straw and a piece straw, is diminished?
3) What did you observe when the plastic straw is rubbed
vigorously?
4) Based on your observations in this experiment, make a
conclusion on how the strength of the electric field varies
with the
i) Quantity of charge.
ii) Distance from the charge

296
 HOUSE ELECTRIC
UNIT 10
INSTALLATION

Experiment 10.1: Demonstration of simple house circuit

installation
Rationale

Our houses, classes, or any other building use electricity as a source

of energy and light. To allow the flow of electricity in in a domestic
installation is a must. Therefore, it is good to know how electricity can
be installed in buildings as a scientist.

Objective

In this experiment, you will perform installation of a 5 rooms building

Materials
• Connecting wires (Two colors)
• 5 bulbs
• Cardboards
• Switch
• 3 dry cells

Set up

Fig 10.1 Installation of a house

297
Procedures
1. Assemble cardboards to construct walls so that it looks like a 5
rooms house.
2. Secure a place for bulb holder and switch in each room.
3. Connect your connecting wires to light bulb in each room (hint :
use parallel connection)
4. Connect for circuit to 3 dry cells (dry cells are in series).

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe when you switched on the switch?
2) What happened when you remove one bulb?
3) Repeat the installation for series connection.
4) What happened when you remove one bulb in series
connection?

298
 BASIC ALTERNATING
UNIT 11
CURRENT CIRCUITS

Experiment 11.1: Determination of Inductance of a coil

(inductor)
Rationale

Inductors are typically used as energy storage devices in switched mode

power devices to produce DC current. The inductor, which stores energy,
supplies energy to the circuit to maintain the current flow during Off
switch periods.

Objective

In this experiment you determine the inductance of the coil (inductor)

Materials
• Switch
• Power supply
• Bulb (or resistor)
• insulated copper wire
• 3 multimeters (or ammeter and 2 voltmeters)
• 9 pieces of connecting wire.
Set up

Fig 11.1 Inductance of a coil.

299
Procedures
1. Using an insulated copper wire, make a coil of 20 turns and
diameter of 2.5cm.
2. Arrange the circuit as in the fig.11.1. by connecting coil (inductor),
bulb (resistor), switch and ammeter in series to a 4.0V source of
electricity.
3. Close the switch. Read and record the maximum current I of the
circuit.
4. Now connect voltmeter across the inductor (coil). Read and record
the voltage VL
5. Again connect voltmeter across the resistor (bulb) Read and record
the voltage VR

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Estimate the inductive reactance XL of the coil from
X L = VL I

2) Find the resistance R of the bulb R = VR I

3) Calculate the average impedance Z of the circuit from

Z
= R 2 + X L2
4) Estimate the inductance L of the coil used in this experiment
from X L = 2π fL ,where f = 50 Hz is the frequency of the
source.

Experiment 11.2: Demonstration of an electric circuit

consisting of Ac voltage and capacitor.

Rationale

The most common use for capacitors is energy storage. Additional uses
include power conditioning, signal coupling or decoupling, electronic
noise filtering, and remote sensing. Because of its varied applications,
capacitors are used in a wide range of industries and have become a
vital part of everyday life.

300
 Objective

This experiment you will demonstrate how to design an electric circuit

consisting of AC voltage and capacitor.

Materials:
• Capacitor
• Milliammeter
• Voltmeter
• Connecting wires
• A.C power supply

Set up

Fig. 11.2. Capacitor connected across A.C supply.

Procedures
1. Connect a capacitor using connecting wires in the circuit made in
the above illustration.
2. Connect the low frequency generator to the main (make sure the
generator is “off”). Switch on the generator.
3. Set the generator at a frequency where both the milliammeter
and voltmeter show a reading.
4. Record the variation of current and voltage with time.

301
 5. Repeat the experiment by increasing the frequency of a.c signal.
6. On the same axes, plot the graph of variation of current and
voltage with time.

Current Voltage 1 V (r.m.s )

Time (S) X= X =
(r.m.s) (r.m.s) 2π fC I (r.m.s )
1
2
3
4
5

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Find the capacitance in the circuit.
2) Find the capacitor reactance.

302
UNIT 12 REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Experiment 12.1. Verification of the laws of refraction of

light

Rationale/Purpose

Refraction is used in the working of telescopes, microscopes, peepholes

of house doors, cameras, movie projectors, magnifying glasses.

Objective

In this experiment you will verify the law of refraction of light and
measure the refractive index of a glass block.

Materials
• Rectangular glass slab
• white sheet of paper
• a drawing boards.
• four drawing pins
• cello tape
• Protractor, ruler and a pencil.
Set up

Fig 12.1. Verification of laws of refraction

303
Procedures
1. Place a white sheet of paper on a soft board.
2. Put a rectangular glass slab on this white sheet and trace out its
boundary ABCD.
3. Remove the glass slab and draw a normal N1N2 at O.
4. Draw an incident ray IO inclined at an angle say 300 with the
normal.
5. Fix two pins P and Q on the incident ray IO.
6. Place the glass slab within its boundary ABCD.
7. Looking from the other side of the glass slab, fix two other pins
R and S such that P, Q, R and S appear to lie on the same straight
line.
8. Remove the glass slab and the pins. Mark the pin points P, Q, R
and S.
9. Join the pins R and S and produce the line on both sides.
10. Join OO’. It is the refracted ray.
11. With O as center, draw a circle of a convenient radius of 2.5 cm in
such a way that it cuts the incident and the refracted rays at F and
G respectively.
12. From F and G draw perpendicular to the normal N1N2.
13. Triangle FHO and triangle GKO are right-angled triangles.
14. Measure the length of FH and GK.
15. Repeat the experiment for different values of angle of incidence
and find the value of ​ FH for different values of i .
GK
16. Record your results in suitable table including values of FH and GK

i /0 FH/cm GK/cm
30
40
50
60

304
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Plot a graph of FH against GK
2) Calculate the slope of the graph.
3) Deduce the refractive index of the glass block.
4) From this experiment state laws of refraction of light
applied.

Experiment 12.2. Investigation the relationship between

the angle of incidence and the angle of
refraction
Rationale

Refraction has a lot of applications in optics and technology. Refraction

of light helps us to see an object because there is a convex lens in our
eyes. When we have seen an object, the light from the object, being
refracted by the lens of the eye, forms an image on the retina. We can
see the object when a real and inverted image of that object is formed
on the retina.

Objective

In this experiment you will clearly explain the phenomenon of refraction

of light by experimentally establishing the laws of refraction of light.

Materials
• Thick glass block
• Protractor
• Source of light

305
Set up

Fig. 12.2: Relationship between the angle of incidence

and the angle of refraction

Procedures
1. Using drawing pins, fix a white paper on soft board
2. Place a glass slab on a white paper and draw its outline ABCD.
3. Place a thin circular “protractor” graduated in degrees such that
the edge AB coincides with the 90º–90º mark of the protractor
and a line along 0º–0º mark appears to be normal as shown in Fig.
12.2.
4. Remove a glass slab and draw a normal NQM at Q along 0º–0º
mark.
5. Replace the glass slab on its outline.
6. Fix a pin P at angle i=20º and look through the glass slab on the
other side and fix other two pins P2 and P3 such that they appear
to be on the same straight line with the image of the first pin.
7. Remove glass slab and pins, then draw a line P2P3 to meet CD at
point R.
8. Draw a refracted ray QR by joining points Q and R
9. Measure and record the angle of refraction, r.
10. Repeat procedures 6 to 9 for i=30o,40o,50o,60o and 70o
11. Record the results in a table below.

306
 i /o sin i sin r
r /o

20
30
40
50
60
70

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Plot the graph of sin i against sin r

2) Find the slope n of the graph.
3) Discuss the meaning of the slope in 2 above.

Experiment 12.3. Determination of refractive index of a

glass block

Rationale

The refractive index tells the behavior of light in different materials. The
index is used to determine the focusing power of material like lenses.
It is also used to measure the number of particles that are dissolved
in a solution. In many industries, a refractive index measurement is
used to check the purity and concentration of liquid, semi-liquid and
solid samples. Liquids and semi-liquid samples can be measured with
high accuracy.

Objective

In the experiment you will determine the refractive index of the glass
block.

307
Materials
• Rectangular glass
• Protractor
• 4 drawing pins
• 4 optical pins
• Ruler and plain A4 paper
Set up

Fig 12.3. Refractive index of a glass block

Procedures
1. Place the glass block in the middle of the paper and use a pencil
to draw its outline ABCD.
2. Remove the glass block and trace the normal at point of incidence
O.
3. Trace an incidence ray with the angle of incidence i=50o
4. Fix two pins on the incident ray
5. Replace the glass block on its outline and look from other side to
see the image of two pins.
6. Fix other two pins such that they appear on the straight line with
the images of first pins.

308
 7. Draw a line P3 P4 to meet CD at point M.
8. Trace a line OM and the angle r it makes from the normal.

9. Calculate the ratio n =

sin i
sin r

10. Repeat procedures 3 to 9 for i=45o,40o, and 35o

11. Record your results in the table below

i /o r /o n = sin
sin i
r

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Find the average value of refractive index of the used glass
block
2) What could be happen if the incidence angle has been
gradually increased?

Experiment 12.4. Investigation of the critical angle and

total internal reflection
Rationale

There is a frequent application of total internal reflection of light in

everyday life. The phenomenon of total internal reflection of light is used
in many optical instruments like telescopes, microscopes, binoculars,
spectroscopes, periscopes etc. The brilliance of a diamond is due to total
internal reflection.

Objective

In this experiment you will investigate the critical angle and total internal
reflection

309
Materials
• Semi-circular glass block • a ruler and a pencil
• Optical pin • a protractor
• White paper

Set up

Figure 12.4. Position of Semi-circular glass block

Procedures
1. Draw around a semi-circular glass block on a sheet of white paper.
2. Remove the glass block. Locate the centre of the side AB and,
using a protractor, draw a normal and label it O.
3. Replace the glass block carefully on its outline.
4. Fix pin P1 along a radius of the block towards O. The angle of
incidence at O should be i = 15o.
5. Observe the image of P1 through side AB – away from the normal
into air.
6. Position your head near the edge A and slowly increase the angle
of incidence, until the image of pin P1 appears to locate at point
of incidence O.
7. Fix pin P1 and remove the block.

8. Trace line P1O.Measure and record the angle ic between NO and

P1 O

310
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) From your results, estimate the critical angle of glass block
used in this experiment.
2) State two conditions necessary for total internal reflection
to occur.
3) What will happen as the angle of incidence increases
beyond critical angle?

Experiment 12.5. Illustration of dispersion of white light

Rationale

Well understand the phenomena of refraction of light, helps to know its

significance and its applications that we meet in everyday life (eg. Petrol
mixed with the water produces different colors).

Objective

In this experiment you will demonstrate dispersion of light using a glass

prism.

Materials

• Triangular prism
• White screen
• Ray of white light

Set up

Fig. 12.5: Dispersion of white light forming a spectrum of colours

311
Procedures
1. Point a narrow beam of white light (such as sunlight, light from
carbon arc lamp or a mercury vapour lamp) from a narrow slit, in
a semi-dark room, to an equilateral glass prism.
2. Adjust the angle of incidence until a distinct band of colours is
obtained on a white screen placed on the other side of the prism
as shown in figure 12.5.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What colours are obtained on the white screen?
2) How many of the colours can you identify?
3) Is the angle of deviation the same for each colour?

Experiment 12.6. Illustration of total internal reflection

of light using a right-angled prism.
Rationale

Some examples of total internal reflection in daily life are the formation
of a mirage, shining of empty test-tube in water, shining of crack in
a glass-vessel, sparkling of a diamond, transmission of light rays in an
optical fibre, etc

Objective

In this experiment, you will illustrate total internal reflection of light

using a right-angled prism.

Materials:
• 1 soft board,
• 1 white sheet of paper,
• 4 optical pins,
• 4 drawing pins,
• 1 glass prism,
• 1 mathematical set.

312
Set up:

Figure 12.6. Illustration of total internal reflection of light

Procedures:
1. Fix a white sheet of paper onto a soft board.
2. Place the glass prism on the sheet of paper.

3. Trace its outline PQR .

4. Remove the glass prism.
5. Draw a normal N1 at O .

6. Draw a line AB at angle α = 350 and replace the prism.

7. Fix two pins P1 and P2 along AB , and by looking from side RQ ,

place pins P3 and P4 such that they appear to be in line with the
images of P1 and P2 seen through the glass prism.
8. Remove the glass prism.
9. Draw line BC that meet side RQ at B.
10. Draw the normal line N2 at B.
11. Draw line OB
12. Measure and record the angle r and i.
13. Repeat procedures (6) to (12) for α = 300 , 250 , 200 ,150 and 100 .

14. Record your results in a table including values of sin r and sin i .

313
 Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Plot a graph of sin i against sin r .

2) Find the slope of the graph.

3) Find the critical angle of the prism from rc = sin −1 (1 s )

4) Explain what will happen for any value of r which is greater
than rc
5) Provide the two conditions of total internal reflection.

EXPERIMENT 12.7: Determination of critical angle of glass

prism
Rationale

When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away
from the normal and as the angle of incidence in denser medium
increases, the angle of refraction in the rarer medium also increases and
at a certain angle, the angle of refraction becomes 90o, this angle of
incidence is called critical. It is the basis for the construction and working
of fiber optic cables.

Objective

In this experiment, you will determine the critical angle c of glass prism
provided

Materials:
• soft board,
• 1 white sheet of paper,
• 3optical pins,
• 4drawing pins,
• 1 glass prism,
• mathematical set.

314
Set up:

Fig 12.7. Ray diagram

Procedures:
1. Fix a tracing paper provided onto a soft board using drawing pins.
2. Place the prism on the sheet of paper and trace its outline ABC as
shown in the figure.
3. Stick a pin at O, a distance t =1.5 cm from A.
4. View the image I of the pin from the side BC of glass prism.
5. Your head from left to right and vice versa, locate a point when
the suddenly becomes bright.
6. With your eye in this position, fix pins P1 and P2 such that they are
in line with the image I of the pin O.
7. Remove the glass prism
8. Draw a perpendicular line to AB passing through a point O to
meet AB at T.
9. Mark a point on a perpendicular drawn in (h) above such that
OT=TI
10. Draw a straight line from I to D and label the point E, where it
intersects with side AB.
11. Measure and record the distances OE and OI as x and y respectively.
12. Repeat the procedures (3) to (11) for t =1.7, 1.9, 2.1, 2.3 and 2.5cm.
13. Tabulate the table of results and include the values of y2 and x2.

315
 t/cm x/cm y/cm x2/cm2 y2/cm2

1.5

1.7

1.9

2.1

2.3

2.5

Questions to guide interpretation of results

a) Plot a graph of y2 against x2.
b) Find the slope S of your graph.
c) Compute the critical angle c of the glass prism from
−1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
the expression; c = cos ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
2

Experiment 12.8. Determination of the image formed by

converging lenses

Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

Objective

In this experiment, you will analyze the image formed by converging

lenses

316
Materials:
• Convex lens
• Lens holder
• Screen (you may use white wall)
• Real object (tree)

Set up

Fig12.8. Formation of image of a distant object

Procedures
1. Place the convex lens between the wall of laboratory or classroom
(it is better to use white wall or white paper to maximize the view)
and a far way object (tree) outside the room.
2. Adjust the distance between the lens and the wall until the image
of the tree is observed on the wall.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What are the characteristics of the image formed?
2) In peers, discuss how you can explain the formation of such
image using ray diagram.

317
Experiment 12.9. Determination of the characteristics of
images formed by convex lenses when
the object is at infinity
Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application.

Objective

In this experiment, you will describe the characteristics of images formed

by convex lenses when the object is at infinity
Materials
• Converging lens
• Lens holder
• Screen (you may use white wall)
• Real object (tree)
Set up

Fig 12.9 Formation of an inverted image by a convex lens.

Procedures
1. Position a convex lens vertically in front of a tree far away from
the lens (through a window).
2. Place a white screen on the other side of the lens as shown in
Figure above. Adjust the screen until you see a sharp image of the
tree.

318
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Compare the size of the image with that of the object (tree).
2) Is image upright or inverted?
3) Measure and record the distance from the lens to the screen.
4) What does the distance from the lens to the screen represent
in this set up?

Experiment 12.10: Determination of images formed by

convex lens when the object is beyond 2F

Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

Objective

In this experiment, you will describe images formed by convex lens when
the object is beyond 2F.

Materials:
• Candle
• Converging lens
• Lens holder
• Screen

319
Set up

Fig 12.10. Formation of image by a convex lens when the object is beyond 2F.

Procedures
1. Mark the positions of the principal focus F and 2F on both the
sides of the lens with a piece of chalk.
2. Place a lit candle on the table along the principal axis of the lens,
slightly away from 2F.
3. Place a white screen, on the other side of the lens, perpendicular
to the principal axis of the lens and adjust the position the lens to
and fro to the screen and observe what happens.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Estimate the values of u and v, that you have used in this
experiment.
2) What are the characteristics of the image formed on the
screen?

Experiment 12.11: Determination of images formed by

convex lens when the object is at 2F
Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

320
 Objective

In this experiment, you will describe images formed by convex lens when
the object is at 2F

Materials
• Candle
• A 10 cm focal converging lens
• Lens holder
• Screen

Set up

Fig 12.11. Formation of image by a convex lens when the object is at 2F.

Procedures
1. Mark the positions of the principal focus F and 2F on both the
sides of the lens with a piece of chalk.
2. Place a lit candle on the table along the principal axis of the lens,
at 2F.
3. Place a white screen, on the other side of the lens, perpendicular
to the principal axis of the lens and adjust its position to and fro
to the screen and observe what happens.

321
 Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Locate the image formed during this experiment.
2) What are the characteristics of the image formed?

Experiment 12.12: Determination of the images formed by

convex lens when the object is between
F and 2F
Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

Objective

In this experiment, you will describe images formed by convex lens when
the object is between F and 2F

Materials:
• Candle
• Converging lens
• Lens holder
• Screen
Set up

Fig 12.12 Images formed by convex lens when the object is between F and 2F

322
Procedures
1. Mark the positions of the principal focus F and 2F on both the
sides of the lens with a piece of chalk.
2. Place a lit candle on the table along the principal axis of the lens
between F and 2F.
3. Place a white screen, on the other side of the lens, perpendicular
to the principal axis of the lens and adjust its position to and fro
to the screen and observe what happens.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) What did you observe on the screen when the object was
exactly placed between F and 2F?
2) From your observation, characterize the image formed on
the screen.

Experiment 12.13: Characterization of images formed by

convex lens when the object is between
F and lens

Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

Objective

In this experiment, you will describe images formed by convex lens when
the object is between F and P

Materials:
• Candle
• Converging lens
• Lens holder
• Screen

323
Set up

Fig 12.13. Image of an object located between lens and F

Procedures
1. Mark the positions of the principal focus F and 2F on both the
sides of the lens with a piece of chalk.
2. Place a lit candle on the table along the principal axis of the lens
closer to the lens and look through opposite side. Note your
observation.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1. What are the characteristics of the image formed?
2. Compare the characteristics of images formed in experiment
12.12 with that of this experiment. Explain?

Experiment 12.14. Determination of the focal length, f of a

converging lens
Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

324
 Objective

In this experiment, you will describe images formed by convex lens when
the object is at 2F
Materials
• Converging lens
• Lens holder
• Screen (white wall)
• Wire gauze
• Bulb
• Dry cells
• Switch
Set up

Fig 12.14. Determine the focal length, f of a converging lens

Procedures
1. Mount the lens provided in a lens holder.
2. Focus a distant object onto the screen.
3. Measure and record the distance, d between the lens and the
screen.
4. Align the screen, the converging lens and the illuminated wire
gauze such that the centers and the gauze are at the same height
above the bench and lie in a straight line as shown in the figure
12.14.
5. Place the lens at a distance U = 20 cm from the gauze.

325
 6. Adjust the position of the screen until a clear image of the wire
gauze is formed on the screen.
7. Measure and record the distance, V of the screen from the lens.
8. Repeat procedures (5) to (7) for values of U = 25, 30, 35, 40 and
45 cm.
V
9. Tabulate your results, including values of in the table below.
U
U/cm V/cm
20
25
30
35
40
45

Questions to guide interpretation of results

V
1) Plot a graph of U
against V .
V
2) From your graph, find the value of V when U =0 .
3) Calculate the slope, S of the graph.
4) Calculate the focal length, f of the converging lens from
1
the expression f =
S
.

5) Compare distance d measured in procedure 3 and the

calculated value of focal length.

Experiment 12.15: Determination of the images

formed by concave lens
Rationale

Human eye, magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes,

microscopes, projectors, are all a real examples of lens application

326
 Objective

In this experiment, you will describe images formed by concave lens

Materials:
• Candle
• Concave Lens
• Lens holder
• Screen

Set up

Fig 12.15: Images formed by concave lens

Procedures
1. Mark the positions of the principal focus F and 2F on both the
sides of the lens with a piece of chalk.
2. Place a lit candle on the table along the principal axis of the lens
slightly away from 2F.
3. What are the characteristics of the image formed?
4. Now move the candle far away from 2F.

327
Questions to guide interpretation of results
1) Describe what you have observed while carrying out this
experiment?
2) Describe the characteristics of the image formed.

328
 ENVIRONMENTAL
UNIT 13 PHENOMENA AND RELATED
PHYSICS CONCEPTS

Experiment 13.1: Explanation of the laws that govern heat

transfer in the environment
Rationale

In what ways has the global climate changed, and the causes and impact
of climate change in the world, and ways in which we can control climate
change

Objective

In this experiment, you will explain the laws that govern heat transfer
in the environment

Materials:
• Metallic rod • Tripod stand
• Ink • Water (in a beaker)
• Retort stand • Small pins
• Heating source • Steel wire
• Candle wax

Set up

Fig.13.1. Heat transfer by conduction

329
Procedures
1. Stick the candle wax at different points towards one end of the
metallic rod. Fix the pins on each candle wax.
2. Now hold the rod from the other end and start heating it as shown
in Figure.
3. Heat the metallic rod for some time.
4. Remove the rod from the Bunsen burner and move your hands
near but beside the burning flame.
5. Put one drop of ink at one side of the water in the beaker. Place
the beaker on the tripod stand and start heating.

Questions to guide interpretation of results

1) Explain what happened to the pins on the candle wax when
the metallic rod heated for some time?
2) What did you feel while moving your hands near but beside
the burning flame?
3) After adding ink, what did you observe after 5 minutes of
heating of water?
4) When heat flows between two objects, does the temperature
increase in one object always equals to the temperature
decrease of the other object? Discuss.
5) Describe how the thermal energy of an object changes
when the temperature of an object changes.
6) Basing on experiment above, Explain the three modes of
heat transfer.
7) Share your findings with your friend and then to the whole
class.
8) Discuss your findings as the whole class with the help of the
teacher and note them down in your notebooks.

330
APPENDIXES
Most of all experiments in this book were tested. These appendixes
include the expected results of the tested experiments. You may
not obtain the same results in the data recording; however, the
final results and observations will be almost the same.

SENIOR ONE
EXPERIMENTS’ EXPECTED
RESULTS

331
 LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
UNIT 1 AND MEASUREMENTS OF
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

Experiment 1.1: Measurement of length, width, and height

of a glass block (You might use any kind of
block such as wooden block, a brick or even
improvise your own block to use.)
Expected answers for interpretation of results
No. Length/cm Width/cm Thickness/cm
Reading 1 11.8 6.6 1.9
Reading 2 11.8 6.5 1.8
Reading 3 11.9 6.6 1.7
Average reading 11.8 6.6 1.8
1. Length 11.8
= = cm, Width 6.6=
cm, Thickness 1.8cm
2. The least count of measuring instrument is the smallest
measurement which can precisely be measured using that
instrument. For a metre rule the least count is 0.1 cm or 1mm.
3. The importance of taking one measurement many times is to
minimize the errors that can occur reading on the instrument due
to wrong position or other fluctuations during reading.
4. The reason of differences in results obtained by different groups
may have come from different source of errors in measurement
such as instrumental errors in instruments used, personal issues of
vision, wrong position of the eye during reading on the measuring
instrument.

Conclusion
Errors in measurement can’t be avoided but can be reduced. Measurement
of one quantity should be made more than once and the average
calculated to reduce the error that may occur in measurement due to
fluctuation, wrong positioning of the reader etc. Therefore,
• The length of the measured glass block is 11.8 cm
• The width of the measured glass block is 6.6 cm
• The thickness of the measured glass block is 1.8 cm

332
Depending on the difference of standards of glass block used you might
get a variety of results, but make sure you use the glass block of the
same standards, and when the learner gets difference in results the only
difference should be on the last digit of the two decimals provided.
Experiment 1.2: Measurement of diameter of optical pin by
using micrometer screw gauge

Expected answers for interpretation of results

Table of results
Diameter Measured value/mm
D1 1.04
D2 1.03
D3 1.01
Average diameter, 1.03
D
1. Measured diameter of the optical pin was 1.03cm
2. The smallest division or the least count of used micrometer screw
gauge was 0.01mm
3. The importance of taking the measurements many times is
to minimize the errors. Calculating the average of different
measurement of one quantities measured give you one typical
result.

Conclusion:
The micrometer screw gauge has an accuracy of 2 decimal places
(0.01mm). Before using a micrometer screw gauge, its scale must be
studied to determine the zero error. The zero error must be subtracted
from the subsequent measurement. The diameter of the optical pin
obtained from this experiment is 1.03cm. However, depending on the
difference of standards of optical pin used you might get a variety of
results, but make sure you use optical pin of the same standards, and
when the learner gets difference in results the only difference should be
on the last digit of the two decimals provided.

333
Experiment 1.3: Measurement of internal diameter of the
test tube by using a vernier caliper.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
Measurements of the Main scale Vernier scale Diameter/cm
internal diameter of readings/ cm readings/ cm
test tube.
Reading 1 1.2 0.09 1.29
Reading 2 1.2 0.08 1.28
Reading 3 1.2 0.06 1.26
Average diameter D 1.27
1. The internal diameter of the test tube is 1.27
2. The Vernier caliper gives more precision and accuracy measuring
small length over meter ruler.
Conclusion
The internal diameter of a test tube obtained from this experiment
is 1.27cm. However, depending on the difference of standards of test
tubes used you might get a variety of results, but make sure you use the
test tubes of the same standards, and when the learner gets difference
in results the only difference should be on the last digit of the two
decimals provided.

Experiment 1.4: Measurement of the external diameter of the

test tube using a vernier caliper.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
Measurements of Main scale Vernier scale Diameter/cm
the external test readings/cm readings /cm
tube.
Reading 1 1.5 0.00 1.5
Reading 2 1.5 0.00 1.5
Reading 3 1.5 0.00 1.5
Average diameter D 1.5
1. The external diameter of the measured test tube is 1.5cm

334
 2. Though you might get no deviation of results, but the cause of
deviation of results might be due to error in measurement coming
from the instruments used, personal vision and position of the eye
reading on the measuring instrument.

Conclusion
The external diameter of a test tube obtained from this experiment is
1.5cm. However, depending on the difference of standards of test tubes
used you might get a variety of results, but make sure you use the test
tubes of the same standards, and when the learner gets difference in
results the only difference should be on the last digit of the two decimals
provided.

Experiment 1.5: Measurement of the depth of the beaker

using a vernier caliper.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
M e a s u r e m e n t s Main scale Vernier scale Depth/cm
of depth of the readings/ cm readings/cm
beaker
Reading 1 9.0 0.00 9.00
Reading 2 9.0 0.03 9.03
Reading 3 9.0 0.04 9.04
Average readings 9.02
1. The depth of the beaker measured is 9.02cm
2. The advantage of using the vernier caliper in measuring the depth
of a beaker is that it gives more precise and accurate measurement.
3. Students in different group may obtain different measurement
due to different factors.
• Having measured beakers of different standards.
• Errors in measurement that may come from wrong position
reading on the measuring instrument or different fluctuation
handling the measuring instrument.

335
Conclusion
The depth of the beaker measured in this experiment is 9.02 cm, however
depending on the different standards of beaker used, you might get
a variety of results. Therefore, make sure you use the beakers of the
same standards, and when the learner gets difference in results the only
difference should be on the last digit of the two decimals provided.

Experiment 1.6: Measurement of the thickness of the test

tube using a vernier caliper.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
Internal diameter of the External diameter Thickness of the
test tube/cm of the test tube/cm test tube/cm

1.27 1.5 0.23

1. The thickness of the test tube is 0.23cm

2. Some advantage of using the vernier caliper in measuring the
thickness of the test tube is that it provides the accurate and
precise results.
3. The possible sources of deviation from the correct measurement
might be experience of the experimenter or observer, the zero
mark of the vernier caliper.
Conclusion
Vernier caliper is well positioned to providing accurate and precised
measurement of the thickness of the test tube, however depending on the
different standards of test tube used, you might get a variety of results.
Therefore, make sure you use the test tube of the same standards, and
when the learner gets difference in results the only difference should be
on the last digit of the two decimals provided.

336
Experiment 1.7: Measurement of the mass of an object by
using a spring balance
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. The S.I unit of the mass is “kg”
2. The mass is the quantity of matter in a physical body. It is not
changed regardless of the measuring instrument used to measure
it. However, different value can be obtained when measured
using different measuring instruments due to their sensibility and
calibrations.
Conclusion
The object will have almost the same mass using different types of
balance. In order to be familiar with use of balances, a student might
measure a range of different objects with the use of those three types
of balance.

Experiment 1.8: Measurement of the time by using stopwatch

Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
Number of heart beeps Time taken
81 beeps 1 min
1. The duration between two heart beeps is 1.35 seconds.
2. Start by finding the time interval between two heart beat for each
member of the group and then calculate the average.
Conclusion
For a normal child ranging from 1 to 16 years old, the heart beeps will
range from 80 to 100 per 1 min. But to get an accurate result make
sure that you start counting as you press on the stop watch. i.e. your
counting and the timer should start at the same time.

337
Experiment 1.9: Determination of the volume of an
irregularly shaped solid (stone) using
Eureka can
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
Number of readings Volume/ml
V1 30.5
V2 30.0
V3 30.0
Average volume 30.2

Conclusion
The water overthrown from eureka can is equal to the volume of the
immersed irregular shaped stone, thus we conclude that the volume of
the measured stone is 30.2ml.
Note: Depending on the different size of stone used, you might get a
variety of results.

Experiment 1.10: Determination of the volume of a regularly

shaped solid using a measuring cylinder.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
The diameter is 1.8cm, thus, the radius is 0.9cm. Using the formula
3 3 Vo 3=π 0.93 3.05cm3
Vo = π=
r
4 , 4
The result shows that V1= 31.0cm3 and V2=34.0cm3 , Thus,

V = V1 − V2 = 34.0 − 31.0 = 3.0cm3

1. V and VO are almost the same and equal to the volume of the
pendulum bob used.
2. A difference in result can occur due to different source of errors
in measurement but if the measurement were carefully made, the
difference would be very small.

338
Conclusion
Though we used different method of finding the volumes, we obtained
the same quantitative data. So, both ways are relevant to use while
calculating the volume of an irregular object.

Experiment 1.11: Measurement of density by using spring

balance and a measuring cylinder
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Data: V1= 31.0cm3 and V2=34.0cm3

V = V1 − V2 = 34.0 − 31.0 = 3.0cm3

m=30g

1. ρ =m V

30 g
=ρ = 10 g 3
3cm3 cm

30 g
2. So, the=ρ = 10 g= 104 kg 3
3cm3 cm3 m

Conclusion

The calculated value 104 kg is the estimated density of the material

m3
by which the pendulum bob is made of.

339
However, depending on the different standards of solid used, you might
get a variety of results. Therefore, make sure you use the solid of the
same standards, and when the learner gets difference in results the only
difference should be on the last digit of the two decimals provided.

Experiment 1.12: Measurement of relative density of a

solid
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Data: V1= 31.0cm3 and V2=34.0cm3

V = V1 − V2 = 34.0 − 31.0 = 3.0cm3

m=30g

1. ρ =m V
30 g
=ρ = 10 g 3
3cm 3
cm

30 g
2. =
So, the ρ = 10 g= 3 104 kg 3
3cm 3
cm m

3. Given that the density of water is 1000

kg , the relative
m3
density of the material of which the pendulum bob is made is given by

104 kg 3
ρs m
the relation
=
ρw = 10
1000 kg
3
m

4. The relative density doesn’t have unit

340
Conclusion
Because the units of the two densities are the same, we found our
relative density to have no unit.
You might get a different result depending on the standards of the solid
considered in your experiment. You are advised to use solid with same
standard.

Experiment 1.13: Measure Density of liquid (cooking oil or

water)
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Data: mc = 49.90g
Volume /cm3 Mass/g Mo/g mo
/ gcm −3
V
20 69.36 19.46 0.973
30 79.13 29.23 0.974
40 89.22 39.32 0.983
50 99.75 49.85 0.997

1) The observation in the ratio ρ = mo V is that the results are slightly

the same.
2) The density of water is 1g/cm3

Conclusion
The density of water is around 1g/cm3, by using this experiment you
can also determine the density of any liquid. However, you might get
different result depending on the quality of water used. Therefore, make
sure you use the water of the same standards, and when the learner
gets difference in results the only difference should be on the last digit
of the two decimals provided.

341
 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF
UNIT 2 LINEAR MOTION

Experiment 2.1: Measurement of acceleration due to

gravity by using spring balance
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Number of readings Weight/N
W1 1.0
W2 0.9
W3 1.0
Average Weight 1.0
1) m=100g=0.1kg

w 1.0 N
2) Constant “g” is equal to g
= = = 10 N
m 0.1kg kg

3) The unit of constant “g” is N which can be equivalent to

kg
m
s2
4) The “g” calculated presents the acceleration due to gravity of the
earth.

Conclusion
When you use the standard spring the earth acceleration due to gravity
is 10N/kg, however, the errors from your readings might cause a variety
of results.

342
 APPLICATIONS OF
UNIT 3 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Experiment 3.1: Demonstration of effects of friction force

Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Before the block started moving, the spring balance readings
increased for the block to start the moving.
2. Then after the block starts moving, the spring balance will read
lower weight and it will be easier for the block to keep moving.
3. The force being applied is called “Friction force”.
4. The effect of friction force is that it reduced the speed of the
moving block.

Conclusion
In the first case, there is a force preventing the stationary block of
wood from moving which is friction force. But as it was in the motion
the velocity was low, though it was moving.

Experiment 3.2: Demonstration of upthrust force

Expected answers for interpretation of results
Data observed:
i. Wo=0.48N
ii. W=0.42N
1. When the solid was in air it had higher weight, but due to the
influence of water its weight decreased.
2. The force applied by the water is called “the upthrust force”

3. Upthrust = 0.48N − 0.42N = 0.06N

4. The influence of water on the solid weight, is that the solid
became lighter than it was before.

343
Conclusion
The upthrust helped the solid body to float and its weight decreases
when it was submerged fully in the water.
Depending on the different size and standard of solid used, you might
get a variety of results. Therefore, make sure you use the solid of the
same standards, and when the learner gets difference in results the only
difference should be on the last digit of the two decimals provided.

Experiment 3.3: Determination of spring constant and the

verification of Hook’s law
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
XO=0cm
Mass/g New Extension F = m × g /N Constant, k/
position (X1/ Ncm -1
X = ( X 1 − X O ) /cm
cm)
50 0.3 0.3 0.5 1.667
100 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.667
150 0.9 0.9 1.5 1.667
200 1.2 1.2 2.0 1.667

Conclusion
To conclude, the spring constant is 1.667 k/Ncm-1 and it remained the
same of each mass added.
However, depending on the different standards of spring (balance)
used, you might get a variety of results. Therefore, make sure you use
the spring of the same standards, and when the learner gets difference
in results the only difference should be on the last digit of the two
decimals provided.

344
Experiment 3.4: Demonstration of the existence of an
electrostatic force
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. A rubbed ruler attracted the pieces of paper. And this behavior
was caused by an electrostatic force.
2. Electrostatic force is created when the plastic ruler was rubbed
against a dry piece of cloth.

Conclusion
When rubbed together, the ruler and dry piece of cloth exchange
charges, one becoming positively charged and the other becoming
negatively charged.

Experiment 3.5: Demonstration of the existence of a magnetic

force
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. In procedure 2, the bar magnets repelled one another
2. In procedure 3, there will be attraction between them.
3. For the iron rod is a metal which has magnetic material in it, it was
attracted by the magnet.

Conclusion
Like pole of a magnet repel each other while unlike pole of a magnet
attracts.
Metals like brass, copper, zinc and aluminum are not attracted to
magnets, because they do not have magnetic properties in them.

345
UNIT 4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION (I)

Experiment 4.1: Demonstration of the inertia using a coin

Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. It is observed that when the card is pulled slowly, the coin moves
together with the card or sheet of paper.
2. When the card is pulled suddenly, the coin is left behind and drops
vertically down into the beaker.
3. Because of the inertia in the coin in procedure 2, it could not move
with the sheet of paper as it did in procedure 1.

Conclusion
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any sudden change of state.
If the pull is slow, the change of state of the coin and the card board
is not sudden hence, they move together. If the pull is fast, the coin is
urged to resist the sudden change of its state hence, drops vertically
downwards into the beaker. A perfect example of this principle is when
a car stop suddenly, the passenger tend to move forward.

346
UNIT 5 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Experiment 5.1: Location of the position of centre of gravity

of a regular object.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. It observed that the cardboard balances horizontally at point M
only. This point, M, is called Centre of gravity of the cardboard.

Conclusion
The center of gravity is the average position of the total weight of an
object.
Although the mass of the cardboard is distributed over the whole
body, at point “M” the whole weight of the cardboard appears to be
concentrated there.

Experiment 5.2: To locate the Centre of gravity of a

regular lamina

Expected answers for interpretation of results

1. Yes, the plumb line pass through “M”
2. The point M is the center of gravity of the lamina.

Conclusion
Bodies with uniform cross section area and density have their C centers
of gravity located at their geometrical centers.
Experiment 5.3: Determination of centre of gravity (c.o.g) of
irregular lamina.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Yes, it will pass through M.
2. Because the finger is at the center of gravity, the lamina will
balance horizontally.
Conclusion
This activity proves that when a body is freely suspended it rests with its
center of gravity vertically below the point of suspension.

348
 WORK, POWER AND
UNIT 6
ENERGY (1)

Experiment 6.1: Work done in pulling an object along a

horizontal surface.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. When the block of wood was being pulled, the spring balance
registered the force applied
W = f × d = 0.6N × 0.5m = 0.3J
2.
Force F/N Distance D/M Work done W/J
0.6 0.5 0.3

Conclusion
Since the block was on a smooth surface, we assume that friction force
is negligible hence the force applied is constant along the distance of
motion, d. Work done in moving the block is given by: Work = force ×
distance.

Experiment 6.2: Demonstration the law of conservation

of Mechanical Energy using a swinging
pendulum
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. M = 25g = 0.025kg

Ho = 4cm = 0.04m
h1 = 14cm = 0.14m
l = 70cm

h = h1 − ho = 0.14 − 0.04 = 0.01m

PE B = mgh = 0.025 × 10 × 0.10 = 0.025J

349
 2. At position A, vA=vmax and at position B, vB=0
3. KEB=0, whereas the KEA=KEmax

So, KEB is almost the same to KEA.

4. ME
= PE=
max PE
= B 0.025 J

2PE B ⎛ 0.025 ⎞
vmax = = 2⎜ ⎟ = 1.414 m −1
m ⎝ 0.025 ⎠ s
5. No, it does not change. The mechanical energy is conserved.

Conclusion
As the bob moves forth and back, at point B and C, the bob has gained
the maximum potential energy due to its height above the ground while
it has a minimum potential energy as it passes the point A. The bob gain
maximum kinetic energy at point A and has zero kinetic energy at both
point B and C. At all point the mechanical energy is conserved as the lost
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy and vice versa.

350
 UNIT 7 SIMPLE MACHINES (I)

Experiment 7.1: Determination of the mass of the solid

provided by using principle of levers
Data recording:
1. G=50.7cm
2. GX=50.7cm

3. P1X=46.4cm and GP1 = 50.7 − 46.4 = 4.3

GP2 4.3
U1
4. = = = 0.09
P1 X 46.4
5. P2X=37.0

GP2 = 50.7 − 37.0 = 13.7

GP2 13.7
U2
6. = = = 0.37
P2 X 37.0
Expected answers for interpretation of results

30 30 30
1. m= = = = 107.14g
v2 − v1 ( 0.37 − 0.09 ) 0.28

2. Mass in kg, 107.14 × 10−3 = 0.10714kg

Conclusion
When we use laboratory ruler in this experiment, the expected mass
should range between 100 to 125 g.

351
Experiment 7.2: Determination of velocity ratio of a system
of pulleys
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results

Lo=10.4cm
Distance moved Measured value of 1/ velocity ratio
by effort cm cm l1 − lo /cm
10 15.1 4.7 2.13
20 20.2 9.4 2.13
30 25.0 14.6 2.05
40 30.1 19.7 2.03
1. They are slightly equal
2. The quantity e/l has no unit
3. The approximation of VR is 2.00
Conclusion
Velocity ratio is directly proportional to the distance moved by the effort.

Experiment 7.3: Determination of the mechanical

advantage of a system of pulleys
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. L = m × g = 0.100 × 10 = 1N
E=0.68N

1N
= L=
MA = 1.47
E 0.68 N

2. M.A is dimensionless.

352
Conclusion
The mechanical advantage determines the relationship between the
load and effort. A simple machine has a great mechanical advantage
if a small effort can be used to produce work. As the effort to be used
decrease the mechanical advantage increases.

Experiment 7.4: Determination of the efficiency of a system

of pulleys using spring balance
Expected answers for interpretation of results
L=20cm
E=0.68N
1N
MA = 1.47
1. = 0.68 N

e 41.5cm
2. VR= = = 2.08
l 20cm

MA 1.47
η
3. = = = 0.71
VR 2.08

4. η = 71%
5. η has no unit.

Conclusion
The degree to which friction and other variables lower a machine’s
actual work production from its theoretical maximum is measured by its
efficiency. A frictionless machine would have a 100 percent efficiency.
The output of a machine with a 20% efficiency is merely one fifth of its
theoretical output. The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of its output
(resistance multiplied by distance moved) to its input (effort multiplied
by distance exerted); As the effort is decreasing as the mechanical
advantage and efficiency increase.

353
UNIT 8 KINETIC THEORY AND
STATES OF MATTER

Experiment 8.1: Comparison of viscosity of two liquids

(Water and cooking Oil)
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. In cylinder A of graduation 250ml (water) time is short of 0.69
secs. Whereas, in cylinder B of graduation 250ml (oil) time is a bit
longer of 1.00secs.
2. Oil is more viscous than water and it has strong cohesion force
than water.
Conclusion
The marble took more time to reach the bottom of measuring cylinder
B and less time to reach the bottom of measuring cylinder A. This shows
that cooking oil is more viscous than water. However, when carrying
out this experiment consider using the same container of the same
graduations and the level of water and oil should be the same.

Experiment 8.2: Determination of melting point of water

Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
Time, t/s Temperature, T/oC
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
10 0
12 1
14 2
16 3
1. The value of temperature that last for a long period without
changing is 0˚C. It lasted for 10 minutes.
2. From this experiment, the melting point of the ice is 0˚C.

354
 4. Referred to this experiment, melting point of iced substance is
that temperature at which iced substance transforms into liquid.
This temperature is kept constant until all ice gets melt.
5. At 12 seconds of the process, all amount of ice got melt.

Conclusion
The melting point of water (ice) is approximated to be 00 C. During
melting the temperature does not change. This show that the melting
substance gain more heat which is used to melt it the reason why its
temperature remains the same in the process.

Experiment 8.3: Determination of boiling point of water

Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. T1=25˚C
2. T2=100˚C
3. From the experiment, the Boiling point of water is 100˚C.
4. There was no more change in temperature. At 100oC , the heat
gained by water is used to boil it the reason why its temperature
remain constant until the boiling process is finished for the
temperature to change again.
Conclusion
As the temperature increases gradually, the water starts heating as
the kinetic energy is increasing along with rise in the temperature. At
a certain temperature, the intermolecular space increases up to such
an extent that the water molecules break free from each other and
vaporize. This temperature is called the boiling point of water. As the
water change the state from liquid to vapor the temperature remain
constant.

355
UNIT 9 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Experiment 9.1: Investigation of the difference between

heat and temperature
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. T1w=23.5 ˚C, then temperature T2w is 98˚C
2. T1oil=25 ˚C, then the value of temperature T2 oil is 91˚C?
3. No, the two temperatures are not the same. Therefore, two
substances can have equal heat energy supplied but be at different
temperatures.
Conclusion
When the tubes are heated for the same time, i.e. the same heat energy
passes from the burner to the tubes, both oil and water gain equal
amount of heat energy but are at different temperatures. Temperature
is the measure of hotness of something while heat is energy from hot to
cold substance.

356
UNIT 10 MAGNETISM (I)

Experiment 10.1: Determination of the poles of bar magnet

using the earth’s magnetic field.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. It rests in geographic north-south direction of the earth.
2. The axis is on the vertical plane, which is called the Magnetic
meridian
3. The south pole of this bar is near the geographical north pole
and north pole at the geographical south pole. Therefore, when
a magnet is suspended freely the magnetic poles of the earth
attracts the opposite pole of the magnet, which is why it comes to
rest in the north-south direction.
Conclusion:
The pole that points towards the north pole of the earth is called the
north seeking pole or simply the North Pole (N). The other pole is called
the south seeking pole or South Pole (S). The north geographic pole holds
earth’s south magnetic pole which attract the north of the suspended
magnet.

Experiment 10.2: Demonstration of difference in magnetic,

ferromagnetic and non-magnetic materials.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Some materials were attracted by the bar magnet and some others
were not attracted to the magnet.
2. The classification of the substances is in the table below. And we
classified them by ferromagnetic and non-magnetic

357
 Substances attracted by a bar Substances not attracted by a bar
magnet magnet
1. Steel 1. aluminium, pen
2.cobalt 2.copper, cork
3.nickel 3.brass, paper
4. 4.zinc

Conclusion:
The materials which are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic
materials while those which are not attracted are called non-
magnetic materials. The magnetic materials that are strongly
attracted by a magnet are called ferromagnetic materials.
These include nickel, iron, cobalt and steel.

Experiment 10.3: Demonstration of poles of a bar magnet.

Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. The head of the compass needle will be attracted to the South pole
of the bar magnet, and the tail of the compass will be attracted to
the south of the North pole of the bar magnet.
2. According to answer in question 1, you will take a decision of
which pole is which.

Conclusion:
In order to easily identify the poles of a magnet, the ends are usually
painted in different colors. For example, the N-pole is painted red while
the S-pole is painted blue or white.

Experiment 10.4: Demonstration of magnetic field by using a

compass needle.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. The direction of the compass needle changes.
2. When you move the magnetic compass toward or around the
magnet, the direction of the magnetic needle (compass) change
to align with the magnetic field of the magnet.

358
 3. There exist two behaviors of magnetic force. Magnetic force of
attraction and magnetic force of repulsion.
4. Earth’s south magnetic pole is near Earth’s geographic north.
Earth’s magnetic north pole is near Earth’s geographic south.
That’s why the north pole of the soldier’s compass point toward
north, that’s where Earth’s south magnetic pole is located and
they attract.
Conclusion:
The space or region around the magnet is called magnetic field, and is
represented by the lines of force called magnetic field lines. These field
lines form a pattern called magnetic field pattern.

Experiment 10.5: Demonstration of the action of one pole

of a magnet to another.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. The north and south pole attracts
2. The south pole repels the south pole
3. Like pole repel each other while unlike pole attracts

Conclusion
Two unlike pole of a magnet attracts each other and two like pole repel.

359
UNIT 11 ELECTROSTATICS (I)

Experiment 11.1: Find out materials that produce static

electric charges when they are rubbed
together.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. When the glass rod and the silk are rubbed against each other,
they both get charged by friction. This is confirmed when they
were brought near the electroscope and the gold leaf deflect. The
glass rod gains positive charges, and the silk cloth gain negative
charges.
2. When the metal rod is rubbed against the silk cloth, it gains some
charges but are directly conducted as the metal rod is a good
conductor. This is confirmed by the fact that when the metal
rod is approached to the gold leaf electroscope, no deflection is
observed because no the rod is not charged.
3. when the glass rod is rubbed against the silk cloths, it is charged
by friction that it can attact small papers or deflect gold leaf
electroscope. However, for the metal rod, the acquired charges
are directly conducted as it is a good conductor hence it is not
charged and will not be able to deflect the gold leaf electroscope.

Conclusion
When two different materials are rubbed together, there is an exchange
of charges between them with one loosing electrons to the other
material. This cause one object to become positively charged (the
electron loser) and the other object to become negatively charged (the
electron gainer).

360
Experiment 11.2: Demonstration of charging a body by
rubbing.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. On both cases pieces of paper were attracted to both the glass rod
and pen.
2. In procedure 5, the pen repelled the glass rod.
3. Because both glass rod and pen were positively charged, they
attracted pieces of paper.

But when they were again brought together, they repelled from each
other due to the same charge gained from rubbing.

Conclusion:
When two objects are rubbed together, they get charged by friction
by with opposite charges. The electric charge acquired by glass rod is
positive while the silk cloth acquired negative charges.

Experiment 11.3: Demonstration of charging a body by

conduction.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Before touching the electroscope, it was neutral. And after
touching it, it was negatively charged due to the negative charges
in the human hands from the earth. So, the gold leaves repelled
one another.
2. By attaching it with the positively charged balloon, it was also
positively charged and the leaves of the electroscope were
attracted to each other.
3. The name of the method used is charging by conduction.

Conclusion
The electroscope was positively charged by conduction when it was
attached to the positively glass rod. And negatively charged when your
hand touched it.

361
Experiment 11.4: Demonstration of charging a body
induction.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. The initial charge of the electroscope was neutral.
2. After bringing the glass rod and balloon near the electroscope,
it gained a positive charge. And this process is called charging by
induction.
3. After some 5min, the electroscope will be neutral again.
Conclusion:
The electroscope was positively charged by induction when it was
brought near a positively charged glass rod. But after some time, it will
become neutral again.

Experiment 11.5: Determination of type of charge of

charged body using electroscope.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Because the electroscope was negatively by touching it. The glass
rod was positive because the leaves of the electroscope contracted.
The silk cloth and metal rod were negatively charged.
2. A pen and a drinking straw were charged by rubbing. A pen was
positively charged; a drinking straw was positively charged.

Conclusion
The electroscope can be charged negatively using your hand because you
are standing on the ground. And you can also charge the electroscope
using any positively charged body.

362
UNIT 12 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (I)

Experiment 12.1: Measure electric current, potential

difference, and resistance in simple circuit
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. After closing the switch, the bulb glows. The ammeter and the
voltmeter starts reading. Their needles move clockwise.
2. V=2.3v
3. I=0.53A

V 2.3V
4. R= = = 4.34Ω = 4Ω .
I 0.53 A

Conclusion
The cell provides electrical energy needed to light the bulb. The bulb
converts electrical energy into light and heat energy. A cell is a kind of a
‘pump’ which provides electrical energy needed to drive charges along
a complete path formed by the wire through the bulb switch and back
again to the cell.

363
Experiment 12.2: Verification of Ohm’s law.

Expected answers for interpretation of results

1) Graph of U against I

2)

Current, I/A Voltage, U/v

0.2 2.4
0.4 2.2
0.6 1.8
0.8 1.3

1.0 1.1

1.2 0.9

364
 S=
(0.60 − 2.54)V = −1.47Ω
Slope, , The absolute value of the
(1.4 − 0.1) A
slope is 1.47Ω
3) Unit of the slope is Ω.
4) For any resistor, the potential difference pd across its ends is
proportional to the current flowing through it. This fact is
expressed by the Ohm’s law.

Conclusion.
For any resistor, the potential difference pd across its ends is proportional
to the current flowing through it. This fact is expressed by the Ohm’s
law.

Experiment 12.3: Investigation of the chemical effect of

electric current.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Yes.
2. There is formation of bubbles around the nail connected to the
negative terminal.

NaCl → Na + + Cl −

Conclusion.
A chemical reaction takes place when an electric current passes through
a conducting solution. As a result, bubbles of a gas may be formed on
the electrodes. Na+ molecules will be attached to the negative electrodes.

365
Experiment 12.4: Investigate the heating effect of electric
current
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. After 4 minutes, the bulb got hot
2. The bulb got hot because of the electric current that is passing
through it. Hence the bulb can convert electric current into heat
and light.

Conclusion
As you carry out the experiment, you have noticed that the bulb got hot
as the time increased and the electric current

Experiment 12.5: Investigation of the magnetic effect of

electric current
1. When the circuit is open, nothing happens on the magnetic needle
2. When the circuit is closed, the magnetic needle deflects showing
that electric current has produced magnetic field around it.

366
 RECTILINEAR
UNIT 13
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Experiment 13.1: Image formed by pin hole camera

Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. U=25cm

V=15cm
2. I=0.9cm
v 15cm
3. m= = = 0.6
u 25cm

4. I 0.9cm
O
= = = 1.5cm
m 0.6
5. The image formed by pinhole camera is:
• Real
• Inverted
• Diminished
Conclusion
When an object is in front of a Pinhole camera, an image forms on the
film. Since the Pinhole camera has a small hole, only a small amount of
light can go through the camera and reflect on the film. The image in
a pinhole camera is inverted (upside down) as compared to the object.
The image in a pinhole camera is real (because it can be formed on a
screen)

367
Experiment 13.2: Verification of the laws of reflection using
optical pins.
Expected answers for interpretation of results
Table of results
i/0 r/0
10 10
20 19
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
1) i: angle of incidence, r: angle of reflection
2) i and r are equal (i=r)
3) - Incident ray, reflected ray and normal are in the same plane
• Angle of incidence equals to the angle of reflection.

Conclusion
The observations show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal, all lie in the plane of the paper.

368
Experiment 13.3: Location of image on plane mirror
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. x=17cm
2. y=17.2cm
3. x and y are approximately the same (x = y = 17.0cm) Note: The
position of image formed by a plane is symmetric to the position
of object about the mirror.
4. The image formed by a plane mirror is:
• Virtual
• Lateral inverted
• Has the same size as the object.

Conclusion:
• A plane mirror always forms a virtual image (behind the mirror).
• The image and object are the same distance from a flat mirror,
the image size is the same as the object size, and the image is
upright.

Picture of reference.

369
Experiment 13.4: Verification of rectilinear propagation of
light
Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. When three cardboards are all on straight line, you can see the
lighting candle.
2. When cardboards are disorganized, I did not see the candle except
the surface of moved cardboards.
3. From this experiment, I can conclude that the candle can be seen
if and only if all cardboards are aligned such that three holes are
on straight line. Hence, the light travels through straight path.

Conclusion
You should have observed that when the holes are aligned, light from
the candle is seen through the three holes in a straight line. When the
holes are not aligned, the light is not seen.

Experiment 13.5: Construction of a simple periscope

Expected answers for interpretation of results
1. Yes, the images were observed.
2. The characteristic of images formed
• Virtual
• The same size as the object
• Upright

Conclusion
In the periscope, light hits the top mirror at 45˚C and reflects away at
the same angle. The light then bounces down to the bottom mirror.
When that reflected light hits the second mirror, it is reflected again at
45 degrees, right into our eye. Hence, the image is due to the reflections
at two mirrors.

370
 SENIOR TWO
EXPERIMENTS’ EXPECTED
RESULTS

371
 SOURCES OF ERRORS
UNIT 1 IN MEASUREMENT OF
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Experiment 1.1: Determination of the compound errors in

single measured physical quantities

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Table of results
Number of reading Length /cm Width/cm
Reading 1 29.7 21.0
Reading 2 29.8 21.0
Reading 3 29.7 21.0

1. Common sources of error include instrument used, environmental

issues, procedures taken, and human error. All these errors can be
either random or systematic depending on how they affect the
results.
2. – Check the instrument for accuracy
– Make the measurement with the instrument that has the
highest precision
– Make sure observers are in the right position. And this position
is your eyes being perpendicular to the instrument being read.
– Take the measurement under controlled conditions.

Conclusion
There are a variety of source of errors which might lead to the deviation
of the accurate results. So, when carrying out a range of experiments, try
to avoid any possible mistake which might deviate the results severely.

372
Experiment 1.2: Investigation of the sources and types of
errors

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

L = (29.50 ± 0.05)cm
W = (20.30 ± 0.05)cm

1. C ± ΔC = 2(L ± ΔLr + W ± ΔL) = 2(L + W ) ± 2(Lr + ΔL)

= 2 ⎡⎣(29.50 + 20.30) ± 2(0.05 + 0.05) ⎤⎦ cm
= ⎡⎣( 2 × 49.84 ) ± ( 2 × 0.10 ) ⎤⎦
= ( 99.68 ± 0.20 ) cm
C = 99.68cm and ΔC = ±0.20cm

S = L ´W
2.
S ± DS = ( L ´ W ) ± (WDLr + LDLr )
= [(29.52 ´ 20.32 ) ± (20.32 ´ 0.05 + 29.52 ´ 0.05 )]cm 2
= [599.85 ± (1.016 + 1.47 )]cm 2
= (599.85 ± 2.50 )cm 2
S = 599.85cm and DS = ±2.50cm 2
3. The final result is larger than the uncertainty in the individual
measurement because during experiment propagation of errors
were added up and multiplied.

Conclusion
The propagation of errors in measurement helps in proper treatment
of unsuspected sources of error that would emerge if measurements
covered a range of operating conditions and a sufficient time.

373
Experiment 1.3. Investigation of the sources and
types of errors
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
D = (6.30 ± 0.05)cm
∆L = 0.05cm
H1 = 2.40 H1 = ( 2.40 ± 0.05) cm
H2 = 6.20 H 2 = ( 6.20 ± 0.05) cm
H3 = 8.50 H 3 = (8.50 ± 0.05) cm

1. Surface area of the base

2 2
⎛ D⎞ 22 ⎛ D ± ΔLr ⎞
S =π⎜ ⎟ = ×
⎝ 2⎠ 7 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

22 ⎛ D 2 ± 2DΔLr ⎞
= ×
7 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

22 ⎛ ( 6.30 ) ± ( 2 × 6.30 × 0.05) ⎞ 2

2

= ×⎜ ⎟ cm
7 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

22 ⎛ 39.69 ± 0.63 ⎞ 2
= ×
7 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ cm

⎛ 22 39.69 22 0.63 ⎞ 2
=⎜ × ± × cm
⎝ 7 4 7 4 ⎟⎠
= ( 31.18 ± 0.49 ) cm2
S ± ΔS = ( 31.19 ± 0.49 ) cm2

*Volume corresponding with H3,

V3 = S × H 3 = ( S ± ΔS ) × ( H 3 ± ΔLr )
= ⎡⎣( 31.18 ± 0.49 ) × (8.50 ± 0.05) ⎤⎦ cm3
= ⎡⎣( 31.18 × 8.5) ± ( 31.18 × 0.05 + 8.50 × 0.49 ) ⎤⎦ cm3
= ⎡⎣ 265.03 ± (1.56 + 4.16 ) ⎤⎦ cm3
= ( 265.03 ± 5.72 ) cm3

374
 *Volume corresponding with H2,

V2 = S × H 2 = ( S ± ΔS ) × ( H 2 ± ΔLr )
= ⎡⎣( 31.18 ± 0.49 ) × ( 6.20 ± 0.05) ⎤⎦ cm3
= ⎡⎣( 31.18 × 6.20 ) ± ( 31.18 × 0.05 + 6.20 × 0.49 ) ⎤⎦ cm3
= ⎡⎣193.32 ± (1.56 + 3.04 ) ⎤⎦ cm3
= (193.32 ± 4.60 ) cm3

*Volume corresponding with H1

V1 = V3 − V2 = ⎡⎣( 265.03 ± 5.72 ) − (193.32 ± 4.60 ) ⎤⎦ cm3

= ⎡⎣( 265.03− 193.32 ) ± (5.72 + 4.60 ) ⎤⎦ cm3
= ( 71.71± 10.32 ) cm3

2. They are the same

3. Relative error in V1,
ΔV1 10.32
=± = ±0.144
V1 71.71
ΔV1
or = ±14.4%
V1

Conclusion
The propagation of errors in measurement helps in proper treatment
of unsuspected sources of error that would emerge if measurements
covered a range of operating conditions and a sufficient time.

375
Experiment 1.4. Rounding off a number
Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Table of results
Obtained value Round off to 2 decimal place

62.63 62.70

17.23 17.00

51.84 51.90

73.14 73.00

1) When rounding, we are creating numbers that are approximate

to their original value. The advantage to rounding is that it
gives us numbers that are easier to work with
2) It disadvantages of using round off numbers is that the numbers
will not always be exact.

Conclusion
As humans, it is harder to use just any number to make sense of things.
Rounding numbers makes simpler and easier to use. Although they are
slightly less accurate, their values are still relatively close to what they
originally were.

376
 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
UNIT 2
OF LINEAR MOTION

Experiment 2.1: Determination of acceleration due to

gravity.

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Table of results
Mass/g Weight/N
20 0.2
40 0.4
60 0.6
80 0.8
100 1.0
120 1.2
140 1.4
160 1.6
180 1.8
200 2.0

1) From the figure,

WA − WB
S=
mA − mB

S=
( 2.4 − 0.1) N = 2.3N = 0.01 N
( 240 − 10) g 230g g
0.01N
= = 0.01× 103 N = 10.0 N = 10.0 m 2
−3
10 kg kg kg s

2) The S.I Unit of the slope is m

s2
3) Slope is slightly equal to the average value of “g”

377
 4) Because of the earth’s pull of gravity.

Experiment 2.2: Determination of acceleration due to

gravity by using Simple Pendulum

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Table of results
L/cm t20/s T/s T2/s2
40.00 25.00 1.25 1.56
60.00 30.00 1.50 2.25
80.00 35.00 1.75 3.06
100.00 40.00 2.00 4.00
120.00 45.00 2.25 5.05
140.00 50.00 2.50 6.25

378
1)

2) Slope, m =
TB 2 − TA2
=
(6.50 − 1.00) s2 = 5.50s2 = 0.04 s2
lB − l A (150.00 − 26.00) cm 124cm cm

3) SI Unit of slope, m = m
s2
4π 2
m=
g
4π 2 ( 3.14 ) × 4
2

g= = = 985.96cm / s 2
4) m 0.04 s
2

cm
Thus, g = 985.96 cm 2 = 9.86 m 2
s s

l
5) Yes, he was correct, since T = 2π , then T& l . (i.e. as l increases,
period T increases) g

6) Air resistance affects the time period T of the pendulum, by

increasing.

379
Conclusion
As conclusion, the value of gravitational acceleration obtained in our
experiment is 9.86 m/s2, the actual value of g is 9.81 m/s2. However due
to errors which may be made in the experiment the value of g should
vary in the range of 9.71 and 9.91.
Experiment 2.3. Determination of acceleration of a body
using inclined plane and marble

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Materials arranged with an inclined angle of 100
Distance, d Time, Initial velocity, Final velocity,
/m t/s Vi/m/s Vf/m/s
1 2.06 0 0

2 2.66

3 3.20

1) v AB = 2.06s = 0.48m / s
1m

2) v BC = ( 2.66−2.06) s = 1.67m / s
1m

3) vCD = (3.20−2.66) s = 1.85m / s

1m

4) The marble is fastest through distance CD.

2
5) a AC = 1.85 3.20 = 0.58m / s

Conclusion:
The velocity of the marble increases as it moves down the inclined plane.
At the bottom of the inclined plane the marble reaches the maximum
velocity and this velocity starts decreasing as the marble moving
horizontally until it will slow down.

380
UNIT 3 FRICTION FORCE

Experiment 3.1: Determination of coefficient of friction

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

M = 808g
M= 500g

0.500 × 10 − 0.808 × 10 × sin 20o

1) µ =
0.808 × 10 × cos 20o
µ = 0.29

2) No. The value of µ will increase.

Conclusion
It is clearly shown that the coefficient of friction determines the
“stickiness” between two objects and many areas of everyday life are
affected by friction issues.

Experiment 3.2: Investigation of tension force

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Table of results
m/g W/N
400 0.4
600 0.6
800 0.8

1) Tension force
2) The tension decreases the apparent weight of the stone, because
it acts as the action-reaction.

381
Conclusion
Tension is described as the pulling force transmitted axially by the
means of a string, a cable, chain, or similar object, or by each end of a
rod, truss member, or similar three-dimensional object; tension might
also be described as the action-reaction pair of forces acting at each end
of elements. Tension could be the opposite of compression.

382
 DENSITY AND PRESSURE
UNIT 4
IN SOLIDS AND FLUID

Experiment 4.1: Investigation of the pressure of a solid

Expected answers for interpretation of results.
L =18.0cm
w = 8.0cm
h = 4.5cm
A1 = l × w = 18.0cm × 8.0cm = 144.0cm2 , depression caused by large side,
δ 1 = 0.5cm

A2 = l × w = 8.0cm × 4.5cm = 36.0cm2 , depression caused by small,

δ 2 = 0.8cm

1) P1 = W A1 = 12 N 0.0144m2 = 833.3N / m2

2) P2 = W A2 = 12 N 0.0036m2 = 3,333.3N / m2

3) Pressure P2 exerted by large, small side, is higher than the

pressure P1 exerted by large side.
4) The difference in the depression is due to the difference in
pressure exerted by different sides of the brick. As the surface
becomes smaller as the depression become high.

Conclusion
As the experiment run, the relationship between pressure, force and
area of contact, can solve problems involving pressure, force and area in
some more activities.

383
Experiment 4.2: Investigation of the pressure in liquids

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) If we connect the manometer to a process there would be
variations in the liquid level of the column, and these variations
will be dependent on the pressure source that is to be measured
2) The cause of that change is based on hydrostatic balance principle
which state that the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is due
to the weight of the overlying fluid.

Conclusion
Pressure increases as the depth increases. The pressure in a liquid is due
to the weight of the column of water above. Since the particles in a
liquid are tightly packed, this pressure acts in all directions.

Experiment 4.3: Determination of the densities of two

liquids by means of Hare’s apparatus
1. The liquids rise until the pressures exerted at the base of each
column are each equal to atmospheric pressure
2. The liquids rise until the pressure due to each liquid column is
equal to the difference between atmospheric pressure and the
pressure P inside the glass tube.
3.

Hence, PA = ρ A gH1 + PandPB = ρ B gH 2 + P or PA = PB

Then ρ A gH1 + P = ρ B gH 2 + P

Or ρ A gH1 = ρ B gH 2

Or ρ A H1 = ρ B H 2

ρ A H1 Kg
Or ρ B = or H1=26.4cm, H2=24.6, and ρ A = 1000 3
H2 m

384
 Kg
1000 × 26.4cm
m3 Kg
Or ρ B = = 1073 3
24.6cm m

Conclusion
This experiment shows that in Hare’s apparatus, some air is sucked out
of the tubes through the center limb of the T-piece and the clip closed.
Removal of air causes a reduction of pressure inside, with the result that
atmospheric pressure pushes the liquids up the tubes.

Experiment 4.4: Measurement of atmospheric pressure

using barometer
1. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or
contract.
2. The aneroid barometer is sensitive to temperature variations,
because the capsule and its linkages will expand or contract as the
temperature changes.

Conclusion
An aneroid barometer has a sealed metal chamber that expands
and contracts, depending on the atmospheric pressure around it.
So it measures how much the chamber expands or contracts. This
measurements are aligned with atmospheres or bars.

Experiment 4.5: Demonstration of the use of a Siphon

1. Liquid flows from the higher-pressure area of the jerry can to the
lower-pressure(bucket) zone at the top of the siphon, over the
top, and then, with the help of gravity and a taller column of
liquid, down to the higher-pressure zone at the exit
2. In Siphon, liquids flow upward, above the surface of a container,
with no pump, but powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows
down the tube under the pull of gravity, then discharging at a
level lower than the surface of the container from which it came.

385
Conclusion
In this experiment, a simple siphon raises water over a crest and discharges
it a lower level. As water flows through a siphon, energy due to pressure
is either lost to pipe friction or converted to kinetic energy.

Experiment 4.6. Investigation of atmospheric pressure using

drinking straws

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) Air presses down equally on the water in the bottle and in the
straw when there is no balloon present (or the balloon is pegged)
but when the peg is removed, air from the balloon increases the
air pressure (atmospheric pressure) in the bottle which pushes
down on the water, forcing it through the straw.

Conclusion
Be careful as it might shoot out further than you expect.

Experiment 4.7: A can/ plastic bottle crushing (deformation)

experiment
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) When we placed the bottle in the ice and poured cold water on it,
the air inside the bottle began to cool down rapidly. The cool air
exerts less pressure than hot air, therefore the air pressure inside
the bottle began to decrease.
2) The air pressure inside the bottle decreased to the point where it
was less than the air pressure outside the bottle. Therefore, the air
pressure pushing in was greater than the air pressure pushing out,
causing the bottle to be crushed!

Conclusion
You can conclude that, the coldness from ice cools the air inside the
bottle. As the air temperature changes, the air pressure drops and the
sides of the bottle collapse.

386
Experiment 4.8: Investigation of atmospheric pressure in
using candle

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) After some time, the candle dims and goes out. Just before the
candle dies, the water level rises to almost 1/10 th of pitcher
height. No air bubbles are seen. The water level stays up for many
few minutes more.
2) The candle heats the air and expands it. This cancels the depletion
of the oxygen temporarily and the water level stays down. When
the oxygen is depleted, the candle goes out and the air cools. The
volume of the air decreases and the water rises. The temporary
temperature change delays the rise of the water.

Conclusion
In this experiment, during the heating stage air escapes. Afterwards, the
air volume decreases and pulls the water up.

387
 MEASURING LIQUID
UNIT 5
PRESSURE WITH MANOMETER

Experiment 5.1: Investigation of the pressure in liquids

using communicating vessel
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) When the liquid settles, it balances out to the same level in all
of the containers regardless of the shape and volume of the
containers. If additional liquid is added to one vessel, the liquid
will again find a new equal level in all the connected vessels.
2) Pressure exerted on a molecule of a liquid is transmitted in full
and with the same intensity in all directions. It occurs because
gravity and pressure are constant in each vessel following the
hydrostatic pressure

Conclusion
In this experiment, when the liquid settles, it balances out to the same
level in all of the containers regardless of the shape and volume of the
containers.

Experiment 5.2. Investigation of the the pressure in liquids

1. The pressure increases with increasing depth (height). With holes

of the same size at three different levels in the can, the jet from
the top hole reach the table nearest the can, the jet from the
middle arrive further out and the jet from the lowest hole, with
the biggest pressure arrive farthest out. Hence, the range reached
by water depends on the pressure inside the can, where is higher
at the bottom than the top
2. The water falls at different distance because the difference
outpolling pressure.
3. The pressure in a liquid is different at different depths. Pressure
increases as thWe depth increases. The pressure in a liquid is due
to the weight of the column of liquid above. Since the particles in
a liquid are tightly packed, this pressure acts in all directions.

388
 4. To calculate the velocity v with which water emerges from a hole
at depth h below the surface of the water, use:

mV 2
5. = mgh hence, V 2 = 2gh
2
6. Where g is the gravitational field strength. Then the water can be
treated as a projectile moving under gravity.

Conclusion
In this experiment, we poured more water in a plastic can with holes
and we have seen that the holes at the bottom squeeze water with high
speed than the holes at the top. This indicates that the pressure exerted
by water increases with the increase of depth.

Experiment 5.3. Determinationof the relative density

using a manometer

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1. The difference between h and h’ is due to the difference in liquids’
density. The denser the fluid is, the higher pressure it can support,
and the lower height it produces.
2. The principle of the manometer is that the pressure to be measured
is applied to one side of the tube producing a movement of liquid,
as shown in Figure 5.3. It can be seen that the level of the filling
liquid in the side where the pressure is applied, i.e. the left side of
the tube, has dropped, while that in the right hand side has risen.
A scale is fitted between the tubes to enable us to measure this
displacement. Let us assume that the pressure we are measuring
and have applied to the left hand side of the manometer is of
constant value. The liquid will only stop moving when the pressure
exerted by the column of liquid, h is sufficient to balance the
pressure applied to the left side of the manometer, i.e. when the
head pressure produced by column h’ is equal to the pressure to
be measured. Knowing the length of the column of the liquid, H,
and density of the filling liquid, we can calculate the value of the
applied pressure

389
 3. Results from the experiment revealed that

M1 = N1 = 228mm

M 2 = 320mm
N 2 = 314mm
h' = N 2 − N1 = ( 314 − 228) mm = 86mm
h = M 2 − M1 = ( 320 − 228) mm = 92mm
PA = PB
PA = P + ρoil gh
PB = P + ρ water gh'
PA = PB ⇒ P + ρoil gh = P + ρ water gh'
ρoil gh = ρ water gh'
ρ water × h'
ρoil =
h
Kg
1000 3 × 86mm
m Kg
ρoil = = 934.7 3
92mm m

Conclusion
In this experiment, the pressure at a certain level in liquid is the same at
all points of the container on that level. Manometer is a device used to
measure the pressure or comparing the densities of two liquids.

390
 APPLICATION OF
UNIT 6
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

Experiment 6.1. Investigation of the variation of Pressure

with Depth.
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) Pressure and depth have a directly proportional relationship.
Pressure increases as the depth increases. This causes the water to
flow with higher speed at the bottom than the top. The pressure
in a liquid is due to the weight of the column of water above.
Since the particles in a liquid are tightly packed, this pressure acts
in all directions and cause the water to flow far.
2) As the pressure increases, water flows out with a high speed and
reached a long distance.
3) To calculate the velocity v with which water emerges from a hole
at depth h below the surface of the water, use:

mV 2
4) = mgh hence, V 2 = 2gh
2
5) Where g is the gravitational field strength. Then the water can be
treated as a projectile moving under gravity
6) The pressure exerted by a static fluid depends upon the depth of
the fluid, the density of the fluid, and the acceleration of gravity.
The fluid pressure at a given depth does not depend upon the
total mass or total volume of the liquid

Conclusion
In this experiment, we have seen that pressure increases as the depth
increases. The pressure in a liquids is due to the height of the column
of water above. Since the particles in a liquid are tightly packed, this
pressure acts in all directions.

391
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND
UNIT 7
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Experiment 7.1. Demonstration of the existence of

atmospheric pressure

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) The atmospheric pressure made the card to be pushed upwards.
2) The force exerted by air (atmospheric pressure) is greater than the
weight of the water inside the glass

Conclusion
From the experiment done, it implies that there is always atmospheric
pressure acting on the surfaces at all points equally in all directions.

Experiment 7.2. Measurement of atmospheric pressure

using barometer

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1. The colored water was seen rising up in the capillary tube. After a
certain time, colored water stopped rising.
2. From observation made in Q.1, the rising of water is due to the
presence of greater pressure in water than in the capillary tube.

Conclusion
The water moves upwards in the capillary tube due to pressure difference
between the free surface of water container and the capillary tube,
hence liquids always move from regions of higher pressure to regions of
lower pressure.

392
Experiment 7.3. Investigation of the the up thrust
(buoyancy) of water

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) For each mass, there is an apparent weight and actual weights
that are measured as required.
2) Some objects are denser than water that is why they sink. Thus,
those that are less dense than water float.
3) Volume of solid is equal to the volume of displaced water.
4) The difference in weights is due to the up thrust that caused the
decrease in the apparent weight of the immersed mass.

Conclusion
Basing on the experiment carried out, for any given mass, there is
apparent weight and actual weight. Hence, their difference is the up
thrust force (buoyancy of Archimedes force).

Experiment 7.4. Verification of Archimedes principle

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) The change are due to resistance forces that is exerted by water.

2) This is a resistive force that oppose the real weight resulting to net
force being less than real weight
3) The upward force is equal to the weight of displaced water.
4) Up thrust = Difference in weight DW = ( M1 − M 2 ) g , the answer
depends on the values of masses used in the experiment.

W = ρ wVg
5)
ρ w = 1000kgm−3

V=depends on the volume obtained in the experiment

g=10m/s2

393
 E.g= Using a mass of 100g=0.1kg. Volume of displaced water=12.5ml
V = 12.5 ´ 10 -6 m 3
Then W = 1000 ´ 12.5 ´ 10 -6 ´ 10 = 12.5 ´ 10 -2 N = 1.25 ´ 10 -1 N ,

Note: Remember that you can use any mass. This means that the volume
of displaced water wil depend on the mass and the nature of body used.

Conclusion
The upward force exerted by water (Called upthrust) is equal to the
weight of displaced water. Basing on this, Archimedes Principle is verified.

Experiment 7.5. Determination of the density / Relative

density of a solid using Principle of
Archimedes
Expected answers for interpretation of results.

Mass
1) D =
Volume
2) Depending on the values of mass used in the experiment and
volume of displaced liquid, then the density can be easily calculated
using the above formula.

Conclusion
The density of a solid object can be obtained by overflow method.

394
 WORK, POWER
UNIT 8
AND ENERGY (II)

Experiment 8.1. Determination of the personal

power

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) Vertical height = 6steps × 0.15m = 0.9m

2) ( m
)
Work done in climbing the stairs = 50kg × 10 s 2 × 0.9m = 450J
3) Time is 4s

4) 450J
Power = = 112.5W
4s

Conclusion
Work, energy and power are fundamental concepts of Physics. Work is
the displacement of an object when a force (push or pull) is applied to
it. We define the capacity to do the work as energy. Power is the work
done per unit of time.

395
 CONSERVATION OF
UNIT 9 MECHANICAL ENERGY IN
ISOLATED SYSTEM.

Experiment 9.1. Energy conversion (potential energy into

kinetic energy and vice versa)
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) The fro and to movement results from the decrease in speed,
because observations show that as the mass is released, it starts by
moving in increasing the speed. While at the edge of the path it
returns because its speed becomes zero.
2) The mean position (Equilibrium position) is the point where the
bob was at rest when no external force was applied upon it.
3) At the equilibrium position, the body occupy lowest position
relative to the horizontal surface. At that point the bob has
minimum potential energy and the bob tends to move fast around
this position, hence having highest (maximum) kinetic energy.

Conclusion
From this experiment, we have seen that the total mechanical energy in
the system of the pendulum remains constant. This is called conservation
of energy of mechanical energy. Similarly, the energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. It only be changed from one form to another.
This is called law of conservation of energy.

Experiment 9.2. Investigation of the open and closed system

Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) The temperature recorded in calorimeter is greater than that
recorded in cooking vessel.
2) The temperature in cooking vessel decreases rapidly because
there is a high loss of heat as the hot water and vessel are in open
environment. The temperature in calorimeter decreases slowly
because there is no contact of hot water with the surrounding.
So, the system is closed.

396
 3) The calorimetric system is closed while cooking vessel system is
opened.

Conclusion
From this experiment, we have seen that in the open system, temperature
will be gradually reduced as the time increases. This means that the
energy (heat) and matters (water vapor) will be transferred out of the
beaker (open system). In the closed system (closed flask) the energy is
exchanged but no matter transferred out the flask.

397
UNIT 10 GAS LAWS’ EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 10.1. Verification of Boyle’s law

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) It is somehow hard to push the plunger as the lower opening is
closed. The air is compressed and the balloon gradually decreases
the volume. Increase of the pressure in the syringe decreases the
volume of the balloon.
2) When you pull the plunger, the balloon inside the balloon increases
the volume as you pull.

Conclusion
Boyle’s law state that the pressure and volume of an ideal gas are
inversely proportional as long as its temperature remain constant.

Experiment 10.2. Verification of Charles’s law

Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) The reason behind the inflation of the balloon is that there is a
change in temperature of the air in the balloon.
2) The gas expand by heating because the volume of the gas increase
or decrease by the change of the temperature.

Conclusion
Charles’ law state that the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature. If the pressure remains
constant.

V1 V2
= , V as volume and T as temperature
T1 T2

398
 MAGNETIZATION AND
UNIT 11
DEMAGNETIZATION

Experiment 11.1. Magnetization by electric current

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) By bringing the nails toward the steel rod before it is connected
to the source of voltage, there was no effect on it (The nail was
not attracted).
2) By switching on the source of current, it was observed that there
was no effect of the steel rod on the nail. After 10 minutes, it was
observed that the steel rod started attracting the iron nail.
3) The nail was attracted because of the existence of magnetic field
which was created by the current that was passing through the
copper wire wounded on the steel rod.

Conclusion
From the experiment, it is found that the current flowed through the
wire created magnetic field. It intensively increases with number of
turns of the copper wire.

Experiment 11.2. Magnetize a steel bar by single-touch

method
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1. Before stroking, the steel rod did not have any effect on the iron
nail.
2. After stroking, it was observed that the nail was attracted to the
steel rod.
3. From the results, it is observed that before stroking, the steel rod
had no effect on the nail because its magnetic domain was not
affected. After stroking, the magnetic domain of the steel rod
was aligned leading to the magnetization of the steel rod, hence
attracting the iron nail.

399
Conclusion
The movement of a magnet along the steel rod (or any ferromagnetic
material) leads to the alignment of its magnetic domain. Thus, making
the steel rod magnetized.

Experiment 11.3. Magnetization by induction

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) It was observed that the steel rod had no effect on the nail.
2) By putting the iron nail near or towards the steel bar, it was found
out that the iron nail was attracted to it. This indicates that the
steel rod became magnetized by induction process.
3) At first, the steel did not attract the iron nail because the steel
was not magnetized. For the second case, the steel was brought
into magnetic field of the magnet and in turn, the steel became
magnetized. The magnetization of the steel rod was due to
magnetic field of the strong magnet.

Conclusion
From the observations, when a ferromagnetic material is brought near
a strong magnet, it becomes magnetized by induction.

Experiment 11.4. Demagnetization by Heating

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) The heated magnet did not attract the nail
2) A magnet subjected to heat experiences to a reduction or total
loss of its magnetic properties. This is because according to kinetic
theory of matter, increase in temperature leads to the increase in
vibrations of particles in the magnet leading to misalignment of
magnetic domain in the magnet.

Conclusion
A magnet can lose its magnetism after being heated.

400
Experiment 11.5. Demagnetization by Hammering
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) When the hammered magnet is brought near the nail, the nail is
not attracted to it.
2) The nail not attracted because the hammered magnet had lost its
magnetic properties during hammering. As long as hammering the
magnet leads to both displacement and increase of temperature
of atoms in the magnet.

Conclusion
From the observations, it is clear that hammering a magnet can lead
to demagnetization of that magnet due to misalignment of magnetic
atoms within the magnet.

401
 ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS
UNIT 13
IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Experiment 13.1. Investigation of the magnetic effect of the

electric current

Expected answers for interpretation of results.

1) Placing a compass needle at any location indicates the geographical
North and South.
2) The compass needle stays stable indicating the geographical
North.
3) When the circuit is closed, the compass needle starts to deflect.

Conclusion
The observed effect is called the magnetic effect of current also known
as electromagnetic effect. It is observed when a compass needle is
brought near a current carrying conductor the needle of the compass
get deflected because of the flow of electricity. This shows that electric
current produce a magnetic effect.

Experiment 13.2. Investigation of the heat effect of the

electric current
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) Before switching on the circuit, the bulb is cold.
2) After the circuit is closed within 1min, there is a gradually increase
in bulb’s temperature.

Conclusion
Passing current through an electrical conductor produces thermal
energy. This effect is known as joule heating effect.

402
Experiment 13.3. Investigation of the Chemical effect of the
electric current.
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) There is a formation of bubbles around the nail connected to the
negative terminal
2) The bulb progressively lost its luminosity.

Conclusion
The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution causes
chemical reactions. As a result, bubbles of gases may be formed on one
nail (electrode). This effect is called electrolysis. Electrolysis is the process
by which ionic substances are decomposed (broken down) into simpler
substance when an electric current is passed through them.

Experiment 13.4: Making a simple electric circuit

Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) When the connections are made properly, the circuit will close
and the current will flow through the circuit and light the lamp.
This effect is called simple circuit.

Conclusion
From this activity, we conclude that the moving electrons through the
circuit will cause the change of electrical energy into light.

Experiment 13.5: Measurement of electric current using

Ammeter
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
Table of results
Number of reading I/A
I1 0.22
I2 0.22
I3 0.23

403
 1) The current that flow in the circuit is constant or the same
2) The brightness of the bulbs depend on the current flowing in the
circuit. The higher the current, the more the brightness of the
bulbs.

Conclusion
Placing the bulbs in series causes the resistance of the pair to be dou-
ble that of a simle bulb because there is only one path for the elec-
trons to flow. Therefore, the same electric current is displayed in each
ammeter.

Experiment 13.6: Measurement of potential difference

using Voltmeter
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
Table of results
Number of readings V/V
V1 2.53
V2 0.93
V3 1.41
1) The sum of voltage drop across the bulbs must be equal to the
voltage of the battery. The difference is due to voltage dissipated
within internal resistances of the component of the circuit.
2) The brightness of a bulb depend on the voltage across its terminal,
however, it is affected by the internal resistance of the bulb.

Conclusion
Each voltmeter will read the potential difference (voltage) across the
terminal of every component in the circuit.

404
Experiment 13.7. Investigation of series and parallel
connections
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
a) In series
Number of readings V/V
V1 2.00
V2 1.80
V3 1.50
Source of voltage 5.44

I=0.27A
1) When one bulb is removed, all bulbs get switched off.
2) The p.d across each bulb are respectively V1=2.00V, V2=1.80V
and V3=1.50V
3) Reading of ammeters, the maximum current is 0.27A

b) In parallel circuit
1) When one bulb is removed from the circuit, other two bulbs
continuous lighting up.
2) When the second bulb is removed from the circuit, the remaining
bulb continuous to light.
3) The current through each bulb is I1=0.29A, I2=0.25A, and
I3=0.30A
4) The potential difference across each bulb is V1=5.75V, V2=5.74V
and V3=5.76V

Conclusion
i) A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain,
so the current has only one path to take.
ii) The current is the same through each resistor.
iii) A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with
their heads connected together, and their tails connected together.

405
 iv) The current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with some flowing along
each parallel branch and re-combining when the branches meet
again.
v) The voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same.

Experiment 13.8: Investigation of Ohm’s law

Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1)
Number of Voltage/v Current/A Resistance/Ω
batteries
1 1.14 0.29 3.93
2 1.76 0.36 4.88
3 2.76 0.45 6.13
4 3.34 0.49 6.81
5 4.23 0.55 7.69

2) Graph below
ΔV ( 4.80 − 0.80 )V 4.00V
3) S = = = = 12.50Ω
ΔI ( 0.60 − 0.28) I 0.32 A

4) The value of the slope “S” calculated from the graph has the same
derived dimension as V/I calculated in the table.

5) The slope “S” expresses the resistance.

Conclusion
If the voltage is held constant, then the current is inversely proportional
to the resistance. If the voltage polarity is reversed (that is, if the applied
voltage is negative instead of positive), the same current flows but in
the opposite direction. If Ohm’s law is valid, it can be used to define
resistance as: R=VII

406
407
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT IN
UNIT 14
CURVED MIRRORS

Experiment 14.1: Verification of laws of reflection

for plane mirror
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
Table of results
No Incident angle i/˚ Reflected angle r/˚
1 30.0 32.0
2 35.0 36.0
3 40.0 40.0
4 45.0 47.0
5 50.0 51.0
6 55.0 57.0

1) Changing the angle of incidence leads to change of angle of

reflection. i.e. increasing the incidence angle leads to increase of
the reflected angle.
2) When the mirror is not silvered on one side, part of the light is
reflected and the other part is refracted. This leads to formation
of unclear images of optical pins.
3) Sources of error in this experiment
• Placing and replacing the plane mirror after trial. i.e. resetting
the setups frequently.
• Incorrect measurement of angles
• Poor positioning of the eye.
• Using a blunt pencil while tracing lines on a piece of paper
pinned on cardboard.
4) Using two or more optical pins yield high precision

408
 5) Graph paper below
6) From the graph
Changeini / ° ( 60 − 25) / ° 35°
S= = =
Slope, Changeinr / ° ( 60 − 27 ) / ° 32°
Slope = 1.09

Conclusion
Basing on the value of the slope that is almost 1, this implies that the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This verifies the
law of reflection of light.

409
Experiment 14.2: Determination of the focal length of
concave mirror
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) The following are the results that we obtained after performing
the experiment.
U=20cm, V=20cm
UV
f =
Thus, from U +V
20 × 20
f = = 10cm
20 + 40
Note: The value of “f” depends on the mirror used. Students can use
concave mirrors of focal length of 15cm or 20cm.
2) Repeating the experiment for different values of distance of object
leads to minimizing errors in the experiment leading to obtaining
precise/exact value of focal length of the minor.

Conclusion
Basing on the obtained results in the experiment, the focal length of a
concave mirror can be obtained using the method described above.

Experiment 14.3: Determination of the focal length of a

convex mirror
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
Table of results

SI No. Distance from lens to Radius of curvature, R/cm

Object u/cm Image V/cm

1 30.0 15.0 14.0
2 28.0 15.0 14.0
3 26.0 16.0 14.5
4 24.0 16.5 14.5

410
 1) Obtained values radius R from each trial are slightly equal.
R
2) Radius of curvature and focal length are related through f = ,
where R is radius of curvature while f is focal length. 2

3) The average value of focal length of used mirror is

f =
(14.0 + 14.0 + 14.5 + 14.5) / 4 = 7.1cm
2
Conclusion
The focal length of a diverging mirror is half of radius of curvature. Thus

R
f =
2

411
 BASIC ELECTRONIC
UNIT 15
COMPONENTS

Experiment 15.1. Analyzing diodes and transistors in an

electronic device.
Expected answers for interpretation of results.
1) On opening the device, among other parts of the device, diodes
and transistors were present.
2) Appearance of diodes: They have 2 leads
3) Appearance of transistor of transistor: They have 3 leads

Note: Students can describe a transistor or a diode in terms of color or

size.

Conclusion
Transistor and diodes are always connected in circuits because of their
importance, for instance, a transistor can being used as a switch or
amplifier, whereas, diodes are used to make current flow in one direction.

412
 SENIOR THREE
EXPERIMENTS’ EXPECTED
RESULTS

413
 FRICTION FORCE AND
UNIT 2
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Experiment 2.1: Verification of friction force

Answers for interpretation of results

W = 0.6kg × 10 m
s2
FD = 2N

1) Friction is a force that resists the sliding or rolling of one solid

object over another
2) They may cause motion, they may also slow, stop or change the
direction of motion of an object that is already moving. Since
force cause changes in the speed or direction of an object, we
can say that forces cause changes in velocity.

Conclusion
The force of friction depends on two factors: the coefficient of
friction and the normal force. For any two surfaces that are in contact
with one another, the coefficient of friction is a constant that depends
on the nature of the surfaces. The normal force is the force exerted by
a surface that pushes on an object in response to gravity pulling the
object down. In equation form, the force of friction is f = µN Where μ is
the coefficient of friction and N is the normal force.

Experiment 2.2: Illustration of linear momentum.

Answers for interpretation of results

1) The penetration distance depends on two major factors: driving
force (force exerted by the hammer) and the nature of the block
materials.

414
 2) Momentum can be defined as mass in motion. All objects have
mass, so if an object is moving, then it has momentum and mass
in motion. The amount of momentum that an object has depends
upon two variables: How much stuff masses are moving and how
fast the masses are moving.

Conclusion
To drive a nail into wood, a certain rate of motion (velocity) and mass of
the hammer is required. The quantity involving both motion and mass
of a body is called linear momentum. It is denoted by the letter p and is
called momentum in short.

Experiment 2.3: Demonstration of Newton’s second law

of motion
Answers for interpretation of results
1) We observed that the heavier block causes the entire system
to move. The whole system moves on the same rate, and the
rate at which the system moves is the acceleration. Whereas this
acceleration depends on all external forces acting on the system.
2) Here below,

F=
ΔP
Δt
(
or ΔP = Pfinal − Pinitial ⇔ ΔP = m V final − Vinitial )
Δt = t final − tinitial
⎛ V − Vinitial ⎞
F = m ⎜ final ⎟ ⇔ F = m.a
⎝ t final − tinitial ⎠

Conclusion
We can say that one of the effects of a force is that it changes the state
of motion of an object. i.e. it causes a body at rest to move and a moving
body to accelerate or come to rest. Any change in the velocity of a body
causes a change in its momentum.

415
Experiment 2.4: Demonstration of action and reaction force
Answers for interpretation of results
1) - As you pull the spring balance, you will feel that the spring
balance is being pulled back
2) Both the spring balances will show the same force. When you
repeat the process in different directions, the two spring balances
will continue to show the same force.
3) i.) When you jump, your legs apply a force to the ground
and the ground applies an equal and opposite reaction
force that propels you into air.
ii.) Pulling an elastic band
iii.) Sitting on a chair
iv.) Bouncing a ball
v.) Pushing someone or pushing something you tend to move
backward.

Conclusion
So we conclude that when the second spring balance exerted a force on
the first which was the action force, the first spring balance also exerted
an equal and opposite force on the second which was the reaction force.
The action and reaction force are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction.

Experiment 2.5: Determination of the coefficient of friction

Answers for interpretation of results

Table of results
Mass /g Reaction R /N Spring reading F /N
50.0 0.5 0.700
100.0 1.0 1.200
150.0 1.5 1.700
200.0 2.0 2.275
250.0 2.5 2.785

416
 1) The normal force acting on the block is equal and opposite to
the weight of the block on a horizontal surface. While when the
block is on a level surface, the weight is equal to the force of
gravity.
2) Check the graph

ΔF ( 2.375 − 0.625) N
S= = = 0.813
ΔR ( 2.600 − 0.450 ) N
The slope represent the coefficient of static friction.

Conclusion
The results from a similar activity showed that the readings on the
spring balance increase with the increase of mass. When a column of
F
was added and completed in the table, it was noted that the value of
R
F
was constant.
R

417
 APPLICATIONS OF
UNIT 3
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Experiment 3.2: Demonstration of some applications

of atmospheric pressure

Answers for interpretation of results

1) Drinking straw: A drinking straw works because when you
suck the air out of the straw, it creates a vacuum. This causes
a decrease in air pressure on the inside of the straw. Since the
atmospheric pressure is great on the outside of the straw, liquid
is forced into and up the straw and into your mouth.

2) Syringe: is a pump consisting of a sliding plunger that fits

tightly in a tube. The plunger can be pulled and pushed inside
the precise cylindrical tube, or band, letting the syringe draw in
or expel a liquid or gas through an orifice at the open end of the
tube.

3) A vacuum cleaner: The pressure level in the area behind the

fan drops below the pressure level outside the vacuum cleaner.
This creates suction, a partial vacuum, inside the vacuum cleaner.

4) The main points of discussion under this experiment is that

drinking straw, syringe, and vacuum cleaner works because there
is creation of vacuum, which causes a decrease in air pressure
which allows the atmospheric pressure to push liquid up.

Conclusion
Air pressure is caused by weight of the air molecules above. Even tiny
air molecules have some weight, and the huge numbers of air molecules
that make up the layers of our atmosphere collectively have a great deal
of weight, which presses down on whatever is below.

418 418
 RENEWABLE AND NON-
UNIT 4
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Experiment 4.1: Making a simple wind turbine.

Answers for interpretation of results
1) The turbine moved in a direction parallel to the wings of the
turbine.
2) This turbine has application in electrical generators.
3) Knowledge acquired is useful in that one can use it to design a
generator that can be used to generate electricity.
4) Yes, because it converts wind energy into electrical.

Conclusion
Wind is produced as a result of giant convection currents in the Earth’s
atmosphere which are driven by heat energy from the sun. This means
that the kinetic energy in wind is a renewable energy resource; as long
as the sun exists, the winds will always be.

Experiment 4.2: Demonstration of effects of solar energy

using a convex lens.
Answers for interpretation of results

1) Convex lens concentrates the light energy to one spot on the

paper so that the heat energy accumulates on that one small
spot of paper. As the heat increases, combustion will occur when
the spot becomes too hot and the paper will burn.
2) The concave lens will diverge the rays of sunlight falling on it.
Hence the paper will not burn.
3) Application of:
– Solar electricity – Solar ventilation
– Solar water-heating – Solar lighting
– Solar heating – Etc

419
Conclusion:
As the concave lens might scatter away the sun’s rays, it cannot be
appropriate to use it when generating the solar energy. However, the
convex lens will be suitable because of it will bring together all the rays
focused on the paper.

Experiment 4.3: Demonstration of the transformation of

potential energy to kinetic energy.

Answers for interpretation of results

Mass of the bob used, m = 30g = 0.03kg
h = 43cm = 0.43m
g = 10m/s2

(
1) PE = mgh = ( 0.03kg ) × 10 m
s2 ) × (0.43m) = 0.129J = 0.13J
2) The pendulum bob moved forth and back.

3) In this case, at the lowest point of the swing

1 2 PE 2 × 0.13J
mgh = mv ⇒ v = 2gh = 2 = = 2.94 m
2 m 0.03 s

PE = KE = 0.13J
4) At the lowest point,
KE = 0.13J
5) The pendulum bob will have the greatest PE at the releasing
point. i.e. at h = 43cm

6) The pendulum bob will have the greatest KE at the lowest point
of the swing.

Conclusion
At the highest point of swing, potential energy is maximum while kinetic
energy is minimum (zero). When the pendulum bob is set to oscillate, the
potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy. At the lowest point

420
kinetic energy is maximum and potential energy is minimum (zero).
However, in all points mechanical energy is conserved.

Experiment 4.4: Making a simple motor.

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When you spin the coil, it undergoes a continuous rotational
motion.
2) In electric motor, the imparted electrical energy is transformed
into mechanical energy of the rotor.
3) The device that transforms mechanical energy into electrical
energy is called electrical generator.
4) The concept applied in this experiment is the interaction
between magnetic field and current carrying a conductor, when
the current is directed to the coil placed into magnetic field,
there will be a deflecting force that causes the coil to rotate.

Conclusion
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the
interaction between the motor’s magnetic field and electric current in
a wire winding to generate force in the form of moment applied in the
motor’s shaft.

Experiment 4.5: Demonstration of transformation of

mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When the magnet is moving through the coil, the needle of a
galvanometer kicks. This is due to the change in magnetic field,
results in the coil that induces electromotive force in the circuit.
2) Types of energy involving in this experiment are mechanical
energy and electrical energy. The mechanical energy of a moving
magnet was converted into electromotive force that is causing
the needle of galvanometer to kick.

421
Conclusion
The change in magnetic field through the coil induces electromotive
force. This is the working principle of electrical generators, electric
guitar, ATM machine, etc.
From the experiment, it can be observed that heat was transferred from
the heat source to the beaker that contained ice. This means that heat
flow from higher temperature zones to lower temperature zones and
not vice-versa. This verifies the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

422
 HEAT TRANSFER AND
UNIT 5
QUANTITY OF HEAT

Experiment 5.1: Verification of thermal expansion of solid

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When the ball is not heated it passes freely into the ring.
2) When you try to pass the ball into the ring after 5 minutes of
heating it can’t pass into the ring.
3) When the solid is heated, it increases in volume, in length,
breadth and thickness.

Conclusion
Solids expand on heating and contract on cooling. The expansion (or
contraction) depends on the original length, the rise in temperature,
and the coefficient of linear expansion.

Experiment 5.2: Verification of thermal expansion of liquid.

Answers for interpretation of results
1) During 16 seconds of heating water level increased by 18.5cm.
2) Water expanded through capillary tube due the applied heat
which broke water intermolecular forces that caused movement
of water molecules. Hence water expanded through capillary
tube.

Conclusion
The water in the test tube expands as it is heated. There is only one
direction to expand in, the glass tube. This glass tube is narrow so that
a small change in volume will result in a considerable change in height;
your signal is amplified.

423
Experiment 5.3: Experiment on thermal expansion of
given gas.

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When the test tube is heated, the trapped water in glass tube
moving up.
2) The trapped water moving up because when the gas in test tube
is heated it starts expanding which caused pressure to push up
the trapped water

Conclusion:
On heating the test tube, the air in the test tube expands and pushes
the colored water up. If the test tube is cooled, the air contracts and the
level of the colored water comes down to its original level.

Experiment 5.4: Demonstration of causes of expansion

and contraction.
Answers for interpretation of results
1) Before heating test, the balloon was flattened
2) After 2 minutes of heating, the balloon blown up due to the
air expansion that contained in test tube. Hence, there was air
expansion.
3) After 3 minutes of cooling, the balloon got flatten due to the air
compression.

Conclusion
When heating test tube, the air inside expands and it fills the balloon
while when test tube is placed in cold water the air contract on cooling,
so the balloon gets deflated.

424
Experiment 5.5: Demonstration of heat transfer in solids

Answers for interpretation of results

1) Initial temperature of all three spoons was 21oC while their final
temperatures were:
– For plastic spoon :35oC
– For Metal spoon :45oC
– For wooden spoon :24oC
2) The temperature increase in
– Plastic spoon :14oC
– Metal spoon: 24oC
– Wooden spoon:3oC

3) The caused the temperature raise is heat transfer by conduction.

4) The temperature change is not the same in all spoons because

they are made from different materials. Metal spoon is made
from metals which are good conductors of heat so it got hotter
than other spoon while wooden spoon is made from wood that
is poor to conductor of heat.

Conclusion
Metals are good conductors of heat because they have a big number of
free electrons which facilitate the conduction process when the heat is
applied on them. The temperatures can change depends on the size of
spoons used and the room temperature of where you are carrying out
the experiment.

Experiment 5.6: Investigation of heat transfer by conduction

Answers for interpretation of results

1) At t=0, Temperature in of beaker θ1 = 60o C while the temperature
of test tube θ 2 = 21o C

425
 2) The equilibrium temperature of beaker and test tube was,
θ = 53o C

3) When the test is put in the beaker, heat energy starting transfer
from hot water molecules to the walls of test tube. The molecule
of test tube got hot and then transfer gained heat energy to
the water contained in the tube. This phenomenon of heat
transferred from walls of test tube to it is known as “conduction
of heat”

Conclusion
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer that takes place into solids. In this
experiment, the conduction happened while the heat was transferred
through the walls of test tube which in turn caused its content getting
hot.

Experiment 5.7: Illustrate heat transfer by convection

Answers for interpretation of results

1) As water started warm up, the potassium permanganate (colored
water) moved up and spread out in water as the heating process
continued.
2) The phenomenon that took place during this experiment is
called “Convection”.
3) Convection is the mode of heat transfer that takes place in
fluids (liquids and gases), it involves the movement of molecules
from one point to another that create convection currents in
hole fluid; The direction of the convectional currents is from the
bottom of container to its top.

Conclusion
Based on the results of our observation, Convection is the process of heat
transfer in which transfer of heat energy occurs by the mass movement
of molecules of the fluids like gases and liquids. Gases and liquids are
not a good conductor of heat under normal conditions, but they can
easily transfer heat.

426
Experiment 5.10: Determination of the specific heat
capacity of water by the method of
mixtures
Answers for interpretation of results
Data:
M s = 0.0258kg
Cs = 375J / kg.K ( for brass)
Mass of glass = 0.1kg
Cs of the glass used = 800J / kg.K

Mass of container + water =0.207 kg

Mass of water only= 0.207 kg − 0.1kg= 0.107 kg

From this exp eriment ,

θ=
1 21°C
θ s ( at boiling po int)
= 100°C
θ=
2 24°C

1. When the solid is put into cold water (in a container), the
temperature of water rises by 3˚C.
2. From
= QS M s Cs (θ s − θ 2 )
QS = 0.048 × 375 (100 − 24 )= 1368 J

=
3.
Qs M wCw (θ 2 − θ1 )
=1368 0.107Cw ( 24 − 21)
1368
Cw =
0.321
Cw = 4261.68 J / kg .K

427
Conclusion
The temperature of the solid decreased from θ s to θ 2 , showing that
the solid lost heat energy.

Experiment 5.11: Determination of the specific heat

capacity of a liquid by electrical method.

Answers for interpretation of results

Data: M c = 0.03291kg
M l = 0.05897kg
Q1 = 22ûC
V = 0.5V
I = .82 A
Q2 = 24ûC
t = 18.40min = 1104secs

∆θ = θ 2 − θ1
1)
∆θ = 24°C − 22°C = 2°C

Electrical energy = IVt

2) E = ( 0.82 ) ( 0.5) (1104 )
E = 452.64J

3) From Electrical energy = Heat gained by liquid supplied

4) Heat gained by liquid
H = M wCw Δθ = 452.64
452.64 = M l Cl Δθ
452.64 = 0.05897Cl × 2
452.64
Cl = = 3837.88J / kg.K
2 ( 0.05897 )

428
Conclusion
From the experimental results obtained above, the specific heat capacity
of a liquid can be determined by electrical Method. The sampled results
gives 3837.88J/kg.K which is almost 4200J/kg.K (exact specified heat
capacity of water). In the experiments learners may get different results
but which are around 4200J/kg.K .

Experiment: 5.12: Determination of the specific latent heat

of fusion of ice
Answers for interpretation of results
1) When you drop ice into warm water, the ice melts quickly.

M c = mass of calorimeter = 32 × 10−3 kg

2) θ1 = Temperatureof warm water = 55°C
M w = mass of water = 74 × 10−3 kg
M ice = mass of ice = 18 × 10−3 kg

Cc = specific heat capacity of copper (calorimeter) =385J/kg.K

Cw = specific heat capacity of water=4200J/kg.K

M ice L + M iceCw (θ1 − 0°C ) = M cCc Δ (θ 2 − θ1 ) + M wCw (θ 2 − θ1 )

M ice L = M cCc (θ 2 − θ1 ) + M wCw (θ 2 − θ1 ) − M iceCw (θ1 − 0°C )

M ice L = 32 ×10−10 kg × 385J / kg.K × (55°C − 29°C ) + 74 ×10−3 kg × 4200J / kg.K × (55°C − 29°C ) −18 ×10−3 kg × 4200J / kg.K × ( 29°C − 0 )

M ice L = ( 320,320 + 8,080,800 − 2,192,400 ) ×10−3 = 6,208,720 ×10−3

6,208,720 ×10−3
L= = 344,928J / kg
18 ×10−3

Conclusion
Since pure ice melts at 0 °C under standard atmospheric pressure, the
specific latent heat of fusion of ice (lice) is defined as the quantity of
heat energy required to change 1 kg of ice at 0 ºC to 1 kg of water at 0
ºC under standard atmospheric pressure.

429
Normally a total of 334 J of energy are required to melt 1 g of ice at 0°C,
which is called the latent heat of melting. At 0°C, liquid water has 334 J
g−1more energy than ice at the same temperature.

Experiment 5.14: Demonstration of the working principles

of bimetallic strip.

Answers for interpretation of results

1) Once heated, the bimetallic strip start bending gradually, the
brass expands more than the steel and the strip curves with the
brass on the outside.
2) If the strip is cooled, it curves with the steel on the outside.

Conclusion
The bimetallic strip consists of two thin strips of different metals, each
having different coefficient of thermal expansion. When heated, the
two strips expands at different rates resulting in bending effect that is
used to measure the temperature change.

430
UNIT 6 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Experiment 6.1: Demonstration of the first law of

thermodynamics
Answers for interpretation of results
1) During heating, the applied heat energy caused evaporation
of water. Produced vapor started expanding which resulted in
transformation of heat into mechanical energy of the vapor.
2) The law governed in this experiment can be stated as “Whenever
heat is applied to a system, it transforms into equal amount of
other forms of the energy.”

Conclusion
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to another.
This law is obeyed by all systems including thermodynamic systems. In
thermodynamic systems, the law of conservation of energy governs the
energy transformations involving applied heat and internal energies. In
such systems, the heat applied (external energy) and the work done by
the environment onto the system are converted to internal energy.

Specifically, for thermodynamic systems, the law of conservation of energy

is summarized into what is known as the first law of thermodynamics.
The law states that the change in the internal energy (ΔU) of a system
is equal to the sum of the heat (Q) that flows across its boundaries and
the work (W) done on the system by the surroundings.

Experiment 6.2: Demonstration of the Second law of

thermodynamics

Answers for interpretation of results

1) On dropping the ice into the warm water, the temperature
immediately dropped by 10˚C. Later, when the ice completely
melts, the temperature then slowly decreases.

431
 2) On heating melted ice and warm water, the temperature slowly
increases with time. The increase does not happen spontaneously.
This process is not reversible.

Conclusion
From the experiment, it can be observed that heat was transferred from
the heat source to the beaker that contained ice. This means that heat
flow from higher temperature zones to lower temperature zones and
not vice-versa. This verifies the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

Experiment 6.3: Demonstration of heat exchange using

cold and hot water

Answers for interpretation of results

√ Initial temperature of beaker X and beaker Y were measured to be
19oC
√ After heating Beaker X for 3 minutes its temperature become 95oC
1) The final temperature of the mixture after stirring was 53oC
which is high than the initial temperature of beaker Y.
2) The temperature in beaker Y raised by (53-19) oC= 34oC.
3) During the mixing up of water in beaker X and Y, Heat moved
from hot water (in beaker X) to cold water (in beaker Y)
4) For natural process, heat transferred from hot to cold regions.

Conclusion
Heat exchange between an individual and the surrounding environment
is realized through conventional heat exchange pathways of conduction,
convection, radiation, and evaporation.

432
Experiment 6.4: Determination of the specific heat of
copper using the method of mixture

Answers for interpretation of results

M1 = 212g, M 2 = 276g, T1 = 19o C, M 3 = 25g, T2 = 96o C, T = 23o C
1) There were heat energy exchange.
M 3S (T2 − T ) = M1Sc (T − T1 ) + ( M 2 − M1 ) S w (T − T1 )

2)
S w = 4200J / kg oC
o
Where Sc = 399J / kg C

( )( ) (
M1Sc T −T1 + M 2 − M1 S w T −T1 )
S= (
M 3 T2 −T1 )
0.212kg×399 Jkg −1 o C −1 ×( 23−19 ) o C+( 0.276−0.212 )×4200 Jkg −1 o C −1 ×(23−19) o C
S= 0.025kg×( 96−23) o C
= 774.5Jkg −1 oC

Conclusion
– The specific heat capacity S of a material is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the
material by a unit. S = Q
m∆T

– A material with higher specific heat capacity retains its

temperature for a longer duration as more energy is required
to change its temperature
– When two bodies at different temperatures are brought into
thermal contact, the net heat lost by the hot bodies is equal to
the net heat gained by the cold bodies until they both attain
thermal equilibrium.

433
Experiment 6.5: Verification of heating curve of ice

Answers for interpretation of results

Time/seconds 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature/ 0C 0 4 11 35 60 75 96 100 100
1) On heating, the amount of ice reduces and time reaches to the
point where all ice blocks/cubes turn into water/liquid.
2) Graph
3) From the graph, between 0 and 40 seconds, the curve is slowly
increased i.e. the temperature is increasing slowly. Between 40
and 120 seconds, the curve increases at a high rate (thus, showing
a high increase in temperature in that interval of time). Then
between 120 and 140 seconds, the curve increases slowly for 20
seconds and then becomes constant for the last 20 seconds.

Conclusion
From the observation seen, it implies that as the system is heated, it
absorbs heat and its temperature increases with time. However, at
the boiling point of the melted ice, the temperature remains constant
(100˚C).

434
 INTRODUCTION TO
UNIT 7 ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Experiment: 7.2: Demonstration of the induced

current produced when there is
a relative motion between the
magnet and solenoid.

Answers for interpretation of results

Bar Magnet Solenoid Galvanometer reading
Pushed into the Stationary Galvanometer needle changes
solenoid direction i.e. there is induction
of e.m.f
Stationary Stationary No readings
Pulled out of the Stationary Galvanometer change the
solenoid direction in opposite side
when you push i.e. there is
induction.
Stationary Pushed Galvanometer change the
towards bar direction in opposite side
magnet when you push i.e. there is
induction.
Stationary Pushed away Galvanometer change the
from bar direction in opposite side
magnet when you push i.e. there is
induction.

The galvanometer shows a positive reading when a bar magnet is pushed

into the solenoid or solenoid pushed towards bar magnet.
1) The galvanometer shows a negative reading when a bar magnet
is pulled out of the solenoid or solenoid pushed away from bar
magnet.
2) The current is induced in solenoid whenever there is a relative
motion between a bar magnet and solenoid.

435
Conclusion
Moving the bar magnet into the solenoid induces an e.m.f. in the
solenoid (according to Faraday’s law), and because the circuit is
closed, a current flows and a magnetic field is induced.

436
 ELECTRICAL POWER
UNIT 8
TRANSMISSION

Experiment 8.1: Verification of the working of transformers

N in = 30
Vin = 4V
N out = 600 → Vout = 75.7
N out = 200 → Vout = 24.9
N out = 400 → Vout = 50.7

Number of coils in N2
secondary coil, N2 Ratio, V2
N1 Output voltage, V
200 6.67 24.93
400 13.33 50.74
600 20.00 75.79

N2
1) The output voltage V2 and the ratio N1
are directly proportional
N2
i.e. if the ratio N1 increases also V2 increases.

2) N1 and N2 must be different because, the transformer can either

transform power by increasing (step up) or decreasing (step
down).
3) There are two types of transformer:
• Step-up transformer which step-up output.
• Step-down transformer which step-down output.

Conclusion
From this experiment, the effect of the ratio of coils between the
primary and secondary coil and the output voltage implied that when
we increase the number of coils on the secondary transformer, then
the output voltage is increased. And the output voltage will be directly
proportional to the ratio of coils.

437
Experiment 8.2: Investigation of the relationship
between number of coils and the
induced e.m.f

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When the magnet is at rest inside the magnet, the needle
(pointer) of galvanometer did not deflect/kick. There it read
zero.
2) While magnet moved through the coil the galvanometer kicked.
3) When the number of turns increased, the rate of deflection
of galvanometer increased i.e. the induced e.m.f into the coil
increased.
4) From this experiment, we observed that when the number of
turns increased induced e.m.f increased.

Conclusion
The magnitude of induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the number
of turns of the coil.

438
UNIT 9 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Experiment 9.1: Demonstration of the electrostatic

law between two negatively
charged polythene rods.
Answers for interpretation of results
1) As you bring rod B closer to rod A, as the rod A moved away from
rod B. Then as the distance between them become stronger.
2) When the two rods A and B rubbed vigorously, the force of
repulsion exerted between them leads to the creation of wide
deflection i.e. it becomes stronger.
3) When the two rods A and B, are rubbed strongly, they accumulate
high number of charges which causes significant repulsion.
Hence, as the number of charges is large, the force becomes
strong.

Conclusion
The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged
particles is directly proportional to the magnitude of their charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Experiment 9.3: Verification of the strength of an

electric field varies with quantity
of charge and distance from the
charge.

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When a small piece of straw is released, it will be attracted by
charged plastic drinking straw.
2) As the plastic straw is brought very close to the other piece of
straw, the force of attraction between them becomes strong.
Hence, it was attracted by plastic straw strongly.

439
 3) When plastic straw is charged vigorously, the force of attraction
between straw and a piece of straw observed to become strong.
If the distance of separation is maintained constant.
4) A. As the quantity of charges on the plastic straw increased by
rubbing vigorously, the attraction between and the small piece
of other straw became strong due to the increase in magnitude
of electric field created by the charges on the rubbed plastic
straw. Hence, the magnitude of electric field depends on the
quantity of electric charge that creates it.
5) B. When the distance between the straw and a piece of straw
became short, the force of interaction between two electrically
charged object increased. This is due to the electric field of plastic
straw become stronger while the distance is shortened.

Conclusion
Electric field intensity is the measure of the strength of an electric field
at a specified point. It is defined as the electrostatic force per unit charge
experienced by a test charge placed at a specified point in an electric
field.

electrostatic force
Thus, Electric field intensity, E =
ch arg e

440
 HOUSE ELECTRIC
UNIT 10
INSTALLATION

Experiment 10.1. Simple house installation

Answers for interpretation of results

1) All bulbs are lit.
2) When you remove one bulb in parallel circuit, the remaining
bulb will continue to light.
3) Connect bulbs in series circuit.
4) When you remove one bulb in series, other bulbs also are
switched off.

Conclusion
From this experiment, in our houses are connected to the electricity. So
this experiment will help you in trial of installing your own house.

441
 BASIC ALTERNATING
UNIT 11
CURRENT CIRCUITS

Experiment 11.1: Determination of Inductance of a coil

(inductor)
Answers for interpretation of results
VR = 4.080V
1) VL = 0.062V
I = 0.50 A
VL 0.062V
2) XL = = = 0.124Ω
I 0.50 A

3) VR 4.080V
R= = = 8.08Ω
I 0.50 A

(8.08) + (0.124) Ω = 8.081Ω

2 2
4) Z = R2 + X L2 =

XL 0.124Ω
5) X L = 2π fL ⇒ L = = = 3.949 × 10−4 H
2π f 2 × 3.14 × 50HZ
or L = 0.395mH

Conclusion
An inductor coil is an electrical conductor which passes electricity and
generates a magnetic field and is wound in the form of a coil or spiral.

Inductance is the name given to the property of a component that

opposes the change of current flowing through it and even a straight
piece of wire will have some inductance.

442 442
UNIT 12 REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Experiment 12.1. Verification of the laws of refraction of

light
Answers for interpretation of results
1)

i /˚ FH/cm GK/cm
30 2.1 1.7
40 2.8 1.8
50 3.3 2.0
60 3.7 2.4

2) S = ΔFH = 4.0 − 1.6 = 2.4 = 1.5

ΔKG 2.6 − 1 1.6
3) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface
of any two given mediums; all lie in the same plane.
– The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and sine of
the angle of refraction is constant.
4) Laws of refraction state that: The incident ray refracted ray,
and the normal to the interface of two media at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane. The ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

Conclusion
The refractive index of a glass block is 1.51. Therefore, experimentally
the range of the refractive index should be between 1.45 to 1.57.

443
444
Experiment 12.2. Investigation of the relationship between
the angle of incidence and the angle of
refraction.

Answers for interpretation of results

i /o r /o sin i sin r

20 15 0.34 0.26
30 18 0.50 0.31
40 22 0.64 0.37
50 28 0.77 0.47
60 35 0.87 0.57
1) Graph
Δ ( sin i ) (1.00 − 0.20) = 1.45
2) Slope, n = =
Δ ( sin r ) ( 0.65 − 0.10 )

3) The slope “n” represents the ratio of sine of the angle of

incidence and sine of the angle of refraction; this ratio is always
equivalent to the index of refraction of used glass.

Conclusion
From this experiment, we can conclude that:
• The incident ray, normal line and refracted ray at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.

• The ratio
(sin i ) , where i is the angle of incidence and r is the
(sin r )
angle of refraction; it is equivalent to the refractive index of
used material.

445
446
Experiment 12.3. Determination of refractive index of a
glass block

Answers for interpretation of results

i /o r /o n= sin i
sin r

50 29 1.58
45 27 1.55
40 25 1.52
1.58 + 1.55 + 1.52
1) The average value of nav = = 1.55
3
2) When you increase the value of incident angle, the value of
refracted angles also increases, and vice-versa.

Conclusion
From this experiment, we can conclude that:
• The incident ray, normal line and refracted ray at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.

• The ratio
(sin i ) , where i is the angle of incidence and r is the
(sin r )
angle of refraction; it is equivalent to the refractive index of

used material.

Experiment 12.4. Investigation of the critical angle and

total internal reflection
Answers for interpretation of results
1) The value of critical angle observed in this experiment is 41˚.
2) Two conditions for total internal are:
• Incident ray must pass from denser medium to less dense
medium.
• The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

447
 3) When the angle of incidence become greater than the critical
angle, there will be total internal reflection i.e. all amount of
incident light gets reflected (bounced back).

Conclusion
• The value of critical angle of glass block can be approximately
ranged between 40˚ and 44˚.
• When the angle of incidence is smaller than the critical angle
refraction of light through the glass block occurs while the
total interval reflection occurs when angle of incidence become
bigger than the critical angle.

Experiment 12.5. Illustration of dispersion of white light

Answers for interpretation of results

1) On a white screen we observed a band of colors composed of
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet.
2) If you observe carefully, the colors identified were seven (7).
3) No, the angle of deviation is not the same on each color because
red is less deviated, and violet is highly deviated.

Conclusion
Dispersion of light occurs when white light is separated into its different
constituent colors because of refraction and Snell’s law. So, the colors
of light observed in the experiment had different wavelength, they
scattered from white light into seven visible colors.

448
Experiment 12.6. Illustration of total internal reflection of
light using a right-angled prism.
Answers for interpretation of results
1)
α /˚ i/˚ r/˚ Sin i Sin r
30.00 40.00 25.00 0.64 0.42
25.00 45.00 28.00 0.70 0.46
20.00 51.00 32.00 0.77 0.52
15.00 58.00 35.00 0.84 0.57
10.00 65.00 38.00 0.90 0.61
2) Slope, S = Δ sin i = 0.95 − 0.55 = 0.40 = 1.33
Δ sin r 0.65 − 0.35 0.30
rc=critical angle

( s)
rc = sin −1 1

⎛ 1 ⎞
= sin −1 ⎜
⎝ 1.33 ⎟⎠
= 48°

3) If the angle of incidence in the glass is greater than the critical

angle, the total internal reflection occurs.
4) Condition for total internal reflection
– Incident ray is from denser medium to lower dense medium.
– The incident angle is greater than critical angle.

Conclusion
Condition for total internal reflection
– Incident ray is from denser medium to lower dense medium.
– The incident angle is greater than critical angle.

449
450
Experiment 12.7: Determination of the critical angle of
glass prism

Answers for interpretation of results

1) On the graph paper
ΔY 2 ( 31.5 − 14.0 ) cm 17.5
2

2) S = = = = 2.24
ΔX 2 (9.4 − 1.6) cm2 7.8
⎛1 ⎞
C = Cos −1 ⎜ s
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
3) ⎛1 ⎞
= Cos −1 ⎜ 2.24 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
C = 41.5°

Table of results
t/cm OE = x /cm OI= y /cm X2/cm2 Y2/cm2
1.50 1.80 4.00 3.24 16.00
1.70 2.00 4.40 4.00 19.36
1.90 2.30 4.70 5.29 22.09
2.10 2.60 5.20 6.76 27.00
2.30 2.80 5.40 7.84 29.16
2.50 3.00 5.60 9.00 31.36

Conclusion
The incident ray bends towards the normal when it enters the prism
and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal. With the
increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation decreases.
After attaining the minimum value, it increases with an increase in the
angle of incidence.

451
452
Experiment 12.8. Determination of image formed by
converging lenses

Answers for interpretation of results

1) The image formed was:
• Real because it was formed on the screen
• Small than object
• Inverted
2) To draw the image of a distant object we can use two or three
important incident rays for each draw point image and thereafter
we join point image.

Conclusion
• A ray of light parallel and close to the principal axis, passes
through the principal focus
• A ray of light through the principal focus emerges parallel to
the principal axis of refraction
• A ray through the optical centre, P, is not deviated after refraction
through the lens

453
Experiment 12.9. Determination of the characteristics of
images formed by convex lenses when
the object is at infinity

Answers for interpretation of results

1) The size of formed image is smaller than the size of object
2) The image is inverted compared to the direction of an object.
3) The distance between lens and the screen was measured to be
15.0cm.
4) The distance between the lens and screen is expected to be focal
length of the used lens during this experiment.

Conclusion
The image formed is real, inverted, and diminished. The distance from
the centre of the lens to the screen is nearly equal to the focal length,
f, of the lens.

Experiment 12.10: Determination of image formed by convex

lens when the object is beyond 2F

Answers for interpretation of results

1) The object distance u = 35cm, where u>2F
2) The image distance v =15cm, where F<v<2F
• The image formed is
• Real
• Inverted
• Smaller than object

Conclusion
When the object is placed beyond 2F, it forms the image which is
diminished, real, inverted and located between F and 2F.

454
Experiment 12.11: Determination of image formed by convex
lens when the object is at 2F
Answers for interpretation of results
1) The position of the image formed is at distance v =20cm that is
equivalent to 2F.
2) The image formed is:
• Real
• Inverted
• Approximately equal size as an object
• Located at 2F=20cm

Conclusion
When an object is placed at distance u=2F in front of a convex lens, it
forms a real, inverted image of the same size as the object. That image
is located at distance v=2F behind a lens.

Experiment 12.12: Determination of the image formed by

convex lens when the object is between
F and 2F

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When the object is placed exactly at distance u between F and 2F
a clear and big image formed on the screen.
2) The image formed was:
• Real
• Inverted
• Bigger than object
• Located beyond 2F (20cm)

Conclusion
The image of an object placed between F and 2F in front of a converging,
it is real, inverted, bigger than object and located at distance v>2F.

455
Experiment 12.13: Characterization of images formed by
convex lens when the object is between
F and P

Answers for interpretation of results

1) The image formed is:
• Virtual since it can’t form on the screen
• Magnified
• Upright compared to the direction of the candle flame.
2) The image formed Exp.12.12 is real and inverted while in this
Exp. The image is virtual and upright

Conclusion
The image formed is virtual and cannot be projected on the screen. An
enlarged, upright image can be seen through the lens on the same side
with the object. A magnified, upright and virtual image is formed on
the same side as object.

Experiment12.14. Determination of the focal length, f of a

converging lens

Answers for interpretation of results

Table of results
1) Distance, d=10.0cm
N0 U/cm V/cm
1 20.0 20.0 1.00
2 25.0 17.0 0.68
3 30.0 14.0 0.47
4 35.0 13.0 0.37
5 40.0 12.0 0.31
6 45.0 12.0 0.27

456
 2) When v u = 0, v = 9.00cm
v
Δ
3) S = u = 1.07 − 0.13 = 0.94 cm−1 = 0.103cm−1
Δv (19.59 − 10.5) cm 9.09
1 1
4) f = = = 9.71cm
s 0.103cm−1

5) The measured distance d=10.0cm is the image distance for object

place at infinity. This distance is slightly equal to the calculated
value of focal length f.

Conclusion
Since the focal length of used lens is 10cm, then the image distance for
object located at infinity is equivalent to focal length of the lens.

457
458
Experiment 12.15. Determination of the image
formed by concave lens

Answers for interpretation of results

1) When the object (candle) is placed in front of a concave lens,
the image is formed in the same side as the object. By trying to
change the position of the object (candle), the image distance
also changes but it is always formed in the same side as the
object (candle).
2) The image formed is:
• Virtual
• Diminished
• Upright

Conclusion
When the object is placed in front of a concave lens, an upright,
diminished and virtual image is formed at principal focus F. For all other
positions of the object, an upright, diminished, virtual image is always
formed between F and lens.

459
 ENVIRONMENTAL
UNIT 15 PHENOMENA AND RELATED
PHYSICS CONCEPTS

Experiment 15.1. Explaination of the laws that govern heat

transfer in the environment
Answers for interpretation of results
1) On heating the part of the metal where the candle wax and pins
are attached, the wax melted, and the pins fell.
2) Putting hands near the burning flame, heat was felt i.e. the heat
was transferred through air (from the bunsen flame through air
and then to the hand).
3) After heating, the ink redistributed itself throughout the whole
liquid making the liquid colored. The color depends on the color
of the ink added.
4) When heat flows between 2 objects, the heat lost by one object
is equal to the heat gained by another object. This happens in
order to attain thermal equilibrium.
5) As the temperature changes, the thermal energy of the object
also changes. This is because the thermal energy depends on the
average temperature of individual particles in an object.
6) According to the experiment, three modes of heat transfer are:
i. Conduction: the transfer of heat energy or movement of
heat through a substance without the movement of the
particles of the substance. Conduction also takes place
between two bodies that are in contact with each other
ii. Convection: the transfer of heat energy in a fluid by the
movement of warmer and cooler fluid particles from place
to place.
iii. Radiation: the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.
Radiation does not necessarily require a material medium
for the heat energy to flow through.

460
Conclusion
Basing on the experiment, it is observed that heat can be transferred in
different media. The medium determines the mode of heat transfer. E.g:
for solids it is conduction, liquids it is convection and gases is radiation.

461
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