Class notes:

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data.

Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
 Takes data as input.
 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output
 Controls all the above four steps.

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
 accepts and stores data input,
 processes the data input, and
 generates the output in a required format.

Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.
 High Speed
- Computer is a very fast device.
- It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
- The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
- It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months for doing the same task.

 Accuracy
- In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
- The calculations are 100% error free.
- Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been given.

 Storage Capability
- Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
- A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
- It can store large amount of data.
- It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

 Diligence
- Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
- It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
- It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

 Versatility
- A computer is a very versatile machine.
- A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
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 - This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
- At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it
may be playing a card game.

 Reliability
- A computer is a reliable machine.
- Modern electronic components have long lives.
- Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

 Automation
- Computer is an automatic machine.
- Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
- Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

 Reduction in Paper Work

- The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up a process.
- As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance
of large number of paper files gets reduced.

 Reduction in Cost
- Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena.
 NoI.Q
- A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
- Each instruction has to be given to computer.
- A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

 Dependency
- It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being.

 Environment
- The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

 No Feeling
- Computers have no feelings or emotions.
- It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a human
being.

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 Applications
Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which made
it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for:
- Payroll calculations
- Budgeting
- Sales analysis
- Financial forecasting
- Managing employees database
- Maintenance of stocks etc.

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Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
- Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,
overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
- ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

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Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance
companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
- procedure to continue with policies
- starting date of the policies
- next due installment of a policy
- maturity date
- interests due
- survival benefits
- bonus

Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
- The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
- CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
- The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

- There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to educate
the students.
- It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on
this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
- Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
- At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerised
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be
filled by the customers.

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Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by
computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
- Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
- Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
- Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as
in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
- Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug’s
side effects etc.
- Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

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Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of
images. Some fields are:
- Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships, Buildings,
Budgets, Airplanes etc.
- Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement of
integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
- Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Computers are largely used in defence. modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also employs
computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
- Missile Control
- Military Communication
- Military Operation and Planning
- Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this
category are:
- E-mail
- Chatting
- Usenet
- FTP
- Telnet
- Video-conferencing

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 Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
- Budgets
- Sales tax department
- Income tax department
- Male/Female ratio
- Computerization of voters lists
- Computerization of driving licensing system
- Computerization of PAN card
- Weather forecasting

History of the modern computer

Most histories of the modern computer begin with the Analytical Engine envisioned by Charles
Babbage following the mathematical ideas of George Boole, the mathematician who first stated the
principles of logic inherent in today's digital computer. Babbage's assistant and collaborator, Ada
Lovelace, is said to have introduced the ideas of program loops and subroutines and is sometimes
considered the first programmer. Apart from mechanical calculators, the first really useable
computers began with the vacuum tube, accelerated with the invention of the transistor, which then
became embedded in large numbers in integrated circuits, ultimately making possible the relatively
low-cost personal computer.

Modern computers inherently follow the ideas of the stored program laid out by John von
Neumann in 1945. Essentially, the program is read by the computer one instruction at a time, an
operation is performed, and the computer then reads the next instruction.

From the mid-1900s to the present, the advancement of computers is divided into five generations.
While the year span for each generation varies depending on the reference source, the most
recognized generational timeline.

Computer Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But
nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each
generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers:

S.N. Generation and Description

1 First Generation The period of first generation: 1946-
1959. Vacuum tube based.

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 2 Second Generation The period of second generation:
1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation The period of third generation: 1965-
1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation The period of fourth generation:
1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
5 Fifth Generation The period of fifth generation: 1980-
onwards.ULSI microprocessor based

First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes
as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes,
like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations,
therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations. In this
generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. Punched cards, paper tape, and
magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used machine
code as programming language.

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The main features of first generation are:
- Vacuum tube technology
- Unreliable
- Supported machine language only
- Very costly
- Generated lot of heat
- Slow input and output devices
- Huge size
- Need of A.C.
- Non-portable
- Consumed lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used that were
cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first
generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation
assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The
computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
- Use of transistors
- Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
- Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
- Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
- Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
- Faster than first generation computers
- Still very costly
- A.C. needed
- Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094

Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used integrated
circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along
with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers
smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-
programming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

- IC used
- More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
- Smaller size
- Generated less heat
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 - Faster
- Lesser maintenance
- Still costly
- A.C needed
- Consumed lesser electricity
- Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
- IBM-360 series
- Honeywell-6000 series

Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of
fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In this generation time
sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages
like C, C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

- VLSI technology used
- Very cheap
- Portable and reliable
- Use of PC's
- Very small size
- Pipeline processing
- No A.C. needed
- Concept of internet was introduced
- Great developments in the fields of networks
- Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

- DEC 10
- STAR 1000

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware
and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which
interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level
languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:
- Robotics
- Neural networks
- Game Playing
- Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
- Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

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 - ULSI technology
- Development of true artificial intelligence
- Development of Natural language processing
- Advancement in Parallel Processing
- Advancement in Superconductor technology
- More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
- Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
We can categorize computer in three ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities (functionality),
purpose and size.
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
 Analogue Computer
 Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are used
where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it
into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples
of analogue computers.
Advantages of using analogue computers:
Advantages of using analogue computers:
o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers
for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It
provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform
the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs
integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions. Its
height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and the

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 solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as per
the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals flow
through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical
interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates
the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts
the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with
programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops
including smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.
Advantages of digital computers:
o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you
need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without
making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,
humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both
continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before
processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is
processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel
flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.
Advantages of using hybrid computers:
o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount of
data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
interconnected processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:
o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.

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 o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in
NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any
type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in brain
injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring the
solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in
the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They
can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires
integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking
sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any
error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and
data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order
to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease
updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to
their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and colleges.

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 o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to
200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such as
billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:
o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two
primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the
process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and
share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients and
customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has
a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such
as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:
o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used as
a workstation.
o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors
before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives
to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple
drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other starts
functioning.

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 o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work
while processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is
designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage
area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.
They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at
office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

Types of Computer Based on the Purpose

There are two types of computers according to their purpose.
» General Purpose Computers
» Special Purpose Computers

General Purpose Computers

Most computers in use today are General-Purpose computers — those built for a great variety of
processing jobs. Simply by using a general purpose computer and different software, various tasks
can be accomplished, including writing and editing (word processing), manipulating facts in a data
base, tracking manufacturing inventory, making scientific calculations, or even controlling
organization’s security system, electricity consumption, and building temperature. General purpose
computers are designed to perform a wide variety of functions and operations. You will probably use
this type of computer reading this article and I am using a general purpose computer typing this
article in some software (MS Word). A general purpose computer is able to perform a wide variety
of operations because it can store and execute different programs in its internal storage.
Unfortunately, having this ability is often achieved at the expense of speed and efficiency. In most
situations, however, you will find that having this flexibility makes this compromise a most
acceptable one.

Special Purpose Computers

As the name states, a Special-Purpose Computer are designed to be task specific and most of the
times their job is to solve one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers,
because they are dedicated to perfom a single task over and over again. Such a computer system
would be useful in playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic lights control system, navigational
system in an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil exploration, and in
automotive industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or Robot helicopter. While a special purpose
computer may have many of the same features found in a general purpose computer, its applicability
to a particular problem is a function of its design rather than to a stored program. The instructions
that control it are built directly into the computer, which makes for a more efficient and effective
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operation. They perform only one function and therefore cut down on the amount of memory needed
and also the amount of information which can be input into them. As these computers have to
perform only one task, therefore, they are fast in processing. A drawback of this specialization,
however, is the computer’s lack of versatility. It cannot be used to perform other operations.

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

There are six main elements that make up a computer system. They all interact with each other and
perform the task at hand. Let us take a look at all of them.

1] Hardware
These are all the physical aspects of a computer system. They are tangible, i.e. you can see and touch
them. Hardware components are the electronic or mechanical instruments, like keyboard, monitor,
printer etc. They help the users interface with the software, and also display the result of the tasks being
performed.

Hardware can actually be of four types, depending on which function they perform. The four types of
hardware are:

 Input Hardware: For users to input data into the computer system. Examples: Keyboard, mouse,
Scanner
 Output Hardware: To translate and display the result of the data processing =. Example: Monitor
Screen, Printer etc
 Processing and Memory Hardware: Where data and information are processed and manipulated
to perform the task at hand. It is also the workspace of the computer, where it temporarily stores
data. Examples: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Read Only Memory (RAM)
 Secondary Storage Hardware: Where the computer system stores data permanently. Example:
Harddisk, Pendrive etc
2] Software
Software is nothing but a set of programs (computer instructions), which helps the user to do a set of
specific tasks. It helps the user interact with the computer system with the help of hardware. Software,
as you can imagine, is the intangible aspect of the computer system.

Basically, there are six main types of software, which are as follows,

 Operating System: These specialized programs allow the communication between software and
hardware. The operating systems run all the other computer programs, and even regulate the
startup process of the computer. Examples: Windows XP, Macintosh etc
 Application Software: These are designed to perform a specific task or a bunch of tasks. They
can be user-designed (specific to the user’s needs) or readymade application software. Example:
PowerPoint, Tally etc.

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 Utility Software: Like operating systems, it is system software. It helps maintain and protect the
computer system. For example, Anti-virus software is utility software.
 Language Processors: Software that interprets computer language and translates it into machine
language. It also checks for errors in language syntax and fixes the problems.
 System Software: This types of software control the hardware, the reading of the data and other
such internal functions.
 Connectivity Software: The special software that facilitates the connection between the computer
system and the server. This allows the computer to share information and communicate with each
other.
3] People
The people interacting with the computer system are also an element of it. We call this element the
Liveware. They are the ultimate “users” of the computer systems. There are three types of people that
interact with the system, namely
 Programmers: Professionals who write the computer programs that allow users to interact with
the computer. They must have technical knowledge of computers and computer languages.
 System Analyst: They mainly design data processing systems, and solve problems that arise in
data processing
 End-Users: Also known as operators, they are the people who interact with the computer system.
4] Procedures
These are a set of instructions, written in code, to instruct a computer on how to perform a task, run a
software, do calculations etc. There are three types of procedures in a computer They are,
 Hardware-Oriented Procedure: Instructs the hardware components of the system, ensures they
work smoothly
 Software Oriented Procedure: Provides instructions to launch and run software programs
 Internal Procedures: Directs the flow of information and sequences the data

5] Data
Data is essentially the raw facts and figures that we input in the computer. The data gets processed via
the computer system and becomes information, which is processed and organized data. Information can
then be used for decision-making purposes.
The measurement of data is done in terms of “bytes”. One kilobyte (KB) is approximately 1000 bytes, 1
megabyte (MB) is 1 million bytes and finally, 1 gigabyte (GB) is approximately 1 billion bytes.
6] Connectivity
This is when the computers are linked to a network. It facilitates sharing of information, files, and other
facilities. Computers can connect to a network via LAN cables, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, satellites etc. The
internet is the most obvious example of connectivity in a computer system.

Computer Hardware Parts

Sr. Operation Description

No.
1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the
computer system.
2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they are available
for processing as and when required.
3 Processing Data Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data
in order to convert them into useful information.
4 Output Information The process of producing useful information or results
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 for the user, such as a printed report or visual display.
5 Control the workflow Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the
above operations are performed.

These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:
1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices
3. Storage Devices
4. Internal Components

1. Input Devices
Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In
other words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the
computer. This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a
computer-acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing.

Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
- Keyboard
- Mouse
- Joy Stick
- Light pen
- Track Ball
- Scanner
- Graphic Tablet
- Microphone
- Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
- Optical Character Reader(OCR)
- Bar Code Reader
- Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys
are also available for Windows and Internet. The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr. No. Keys Description

19
 1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit
keys (0-9) which generally give same layout as that
of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement.
Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid
out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard
which are arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and
is used for some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It
includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys
also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys
Keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space
bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons.
Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into
the computer.
Advantages
- Easy to use
- Not very expensive
- Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick

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Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a
stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a
small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the
whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing
and image manipulation applications.
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Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is
used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

 It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record sounds. It
converts human speech or voice into electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed by the
computer and the word is recognized.

Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are written or printed
on paper using a low-frequency light source. This light is absorbed by the dark areas and reflected
by the light areas, now this reflected light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

 OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially
used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric pulse which will
further processed by the computer. Here, the barcode is data that is coded into white and black
lines(or light and dark lines).

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

CPU –Central Processing Unit

CPU consists of the following features:
- CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
- CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
- It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
- It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

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CPU itself has following three components.
- Memory or Storage Unit:
- Control Unit
- ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory
or primary storage or Random access memory(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types
of memories in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:
- It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
- It stores intermediate results of processing.
- It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
- All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
- It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
- It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
- It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
- It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
- It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely
- Arithmetic section
- Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

Logic Section

23
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and
merging of data.

Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer
- Monitors
- Graphic Plotter
- Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
- Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
- Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT
- Large in Size
- High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer,
graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories :
- Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
- Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal
Device)

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers
- Impact Printers
- Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the
paper.

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Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following
- Very low consumable costs
- Very noisy
- Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
- There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

- Character printers
- Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types
- Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
- Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of
dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
- Inexpensive
- Widely Used
- Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
- Slow Speed
- Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name)
that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in
offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages
- More reliable than DMP
- Better quality
- The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages
- Slower than DMP
- Noisy
- More expensive than DMP

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Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
are of further two types
- Drum Printer
- Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters,
drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different character sets
available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one
line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters’ fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page
at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
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  Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Give good graphics quality
 Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages
 Expensive.
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with
presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable

Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

Summary
Output Devices
These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in
human-readable form.
Now we discuss some output devices:
 Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and
it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to
display text, video, images, etc.
 Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format
by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further,
there are also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet
printers.
 Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large
drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings
and large in size.
 Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is
generally used to play music or anything having sound.

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 MEMORY
Amemory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is
the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing
are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell
has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer
has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these
locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which
are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache
memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows

Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It
has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required
to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

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RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is
small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of
6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need
not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount
of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory
and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
- It has long life
- There is no need to refresh
- Faster
- Used as cache memory
- Large size
- Expensive
- High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
- It has short data lifetime
- Need to be refreshed continuously
- Slower as compared to SRAM
- Used as RAM
- Lesser in size
- Less expensive
- Less power consumption

Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on
it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
29
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Types of ROM:
- ROM (Read only memory)
- ◦Masked ROM
- ◦PROM (programmable)
- ◦EPROM (erasable programmable)
- ◦EEPROM (electronically erasable programmable)

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses
which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge
has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal
window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz
lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM,
any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time,
rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
- Non-volatile in nature
- These cannot be accidentally changed
- Cheaper than RAMs
- Easy to test
- More reliable than RAMs
- These are static and do not require refreshing
- Its contents are always known and can be verified

Secondary Memory (devices)

30
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories
are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM,
DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic
polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a standard
size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness. There are
basically 3 types of CDs, which are:
 CD-ROM (CD – Read Only Memory): Contents of this type of CD cannot be erased by the
user. Only the publisher is allowed to access the data imprinted on this CD. CD-ROM is
basically used for commercial purposes like for a music album or any application package by a
software company.
 CD-R (CD-Recordable): In this, content or data can be stored once. After that, they can be
read many times but the data or content cannot be rewritten or erased. (Kind of one-time use)
 CD-RW(CD-Rewritable): As the name suggests, this type of CD is used to rewrite the content
or erase previous content and again write new content many times.
2. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some more features.
A DVD comes in single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater storage capacity in
comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a DVD with one-sided single layer is – 4.7 GB, one-
sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double-sided single layer – 9.4 GB, and double-sided double layer –
17 GB. There are also some types in DVDs, which are :
 DVD-ROM: In this type, the contents of the DVD cannot be written on or erased by the
user. DVD ROM is used for applications and database for distributing them in large amounts.
 DVD-R / DVD+R: DVD-R (DVD minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R) are two different
kinds of discs and they are once recordable format. Also, they have no difference virtually.
 DVD-RW / DVD+RW: This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,000 rewrites.
 DVD-RAM: DVD RAM is accessed like a hard disk. It provides high data security and storage
capacity. This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,00,000 rewrites.

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 3. Hard Disk: An hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to store
digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for desktops and
2.5 inches in size for laptops. A hard disk can be classified further into 3 types, which are:
 Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or TB. A system case or
cabinet is the place where it is located. It can perform faster operations and its storage is fixed.
It is mainly used to store large data files and programs.
 Internal Cartridges: The Internal hard disk can’t be removed from the system cabinet easily.
To resolve this problem Internal Cartridges are introduced. So, Internal cartridges are easy to
remove CDs. It has a storage capacity of 2 GB to 160 GB. It is used as an alternative to an
internal hard disk.
 Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as banks, and government sector
organizations to store large amounts of data. It has a storage capacity of a range of PB( Peta
Bytes).
5. Flash disks

System Unit Components

 Motherboard — the primary device of the system unit. All other devices are connected to it. The
motherboard unites all computer devices (video card, RAM, sound card, hard drive, etc.) and links
them together, subsequently regulating their close-knit work.
 Processor is an incredibly complex chip that performs billions of mathematical calculations per
second. It is also called a central processing unit (CPU).
 RAM (Random Access Memory) — system memory. The RAM is connected directly to the
motherboard and carries out a fast exchange of information with the processor.
 Hard Drive — a mechanical drive that works on the principle of magnetic recording, is the central
storage of data on most computers.
 Video Card (Graphics Adapter) — graphics accelerator, a computer component responsible for
generating and displaying images. Modern Video Cards support HDMI (High Definition Multimedia
Interface), VGA (Video Graphics Array), and DVI (Digital Visual Interface).
 Power Supply — a component that converts electrical energy into direct current required by the
computer.
Functions of components
Each component has peculiar indispensable functions, which provide proper system functioning.
They are:
 Motherboard. The main purpose is to connect all computer nodes into one device, so, by and large,
this is just a set of wires between the processor contacts and the contacts of memory modules and
peripheral devices.
 Processor is the core of the computer, so to speak, its central brain, the component that performs the
bulk of the computer’s work. Data from other details is sent to the processor for calculations. After
mathematical calculations, the data is returned to the various devices that use it.

32
 RAM aims to store and quickly access data. All information on it is lost after the power is turned
off.
Hard Drive is designed to store music, videos, photos, documents, and other files in the computer’s
permanent memory.
 Video Card converts the image in the computer’s memory into a video signal for the monitor.
 Power Supply provides power to the PC. It also performs the functions of stabilization and
protection against minor interference in the electrical network.

Memory Units
Memory unit is:
 the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
 that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Sr. Unit Description
No.
1 Bit (Binary A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active
Digit) state of a component in an electric circuit.
2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
3 Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can
represent a data item or a character.
4 Word A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit which varies from computer to computer but is
fixed for each computer. The length of a computer word is called
word-size or word length and it may be as small as 8 bits or may be
as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.

Few higher storage units are following:

Sr. No. Unit Description
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

PORTS

What is a Port?
Aport:
 is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.
 can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to
computer or over the internet.

Characteristics
A port has the following characteistics
- External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
- Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

33
 - Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone,
speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports :

Serial Port
- Used for external modems and older computer mouse
- Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
- Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port
 25 pin model
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port
- Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
- Also called mouse port
- Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
- Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
- It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner,
mouse, keyboard etc.
- It was introduced in 1997.
- Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
- Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
- USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 Has 15 holes.
 Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket

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Firewire Port

Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

 Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
 Invented by Apple
 Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector
ModemPort
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connect network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.

 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.

Game Port
- Connect a joystick to a PC
- Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to
make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary
to each other.

Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a
sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software
 System Software
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  Application Software

System Software
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by computer
manufactures. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages which
interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between
hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers etc.

Features of system software are as follows

 Close to system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand

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 
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment.
All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application
software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and
editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package,
which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are following
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft Powerpoint

Features of application software are as follows

 Close to user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Operating System (OS)

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.
An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's hardware.
The software that contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.
The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (spftwares) to interact with
a computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System,
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like
mobile phones, personal computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.

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 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Network Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Application software

Application software, also called application program, software designed to handle specific tasks for
users. Such software directs the computer to execute commands given by the user and may be said to
include any program that processes data for a user.

What are the 4 types of application software?

Types of Application Software
 Web browsers.
 Presentation software.
 Spreadsheet software.
 Graphic software.
 Word processors.
 Database software.
 Multimedia software.
 Education software.

NUMBER SYSTEM
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system where there are
only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number

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  The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available
in the number system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so
on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234
consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in
the thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)

(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)

1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number
systems which are frequently used in computers.

1 Binary Number
System Base 2.
Digits used: 0, 1
2 Octal Number
System Base 8.
Digits used: 0 to 7
3 Hexa Decimal
Number System
Base 16. Digits
used: 0 to 9, Letters
used: A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
 Also called base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20

 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Binary Number Decimal Number
Equivalent: Step
Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23)
+ (1 x 22) + (0 x 21)
+ (1 x 20))10
Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 +
1)10
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 Step 3 101012 2110
Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80

 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Octal Decimal Number

Number
Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) +
(7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
Step 3 125708 549610

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16x
where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Binary Number Decimal Number
Equivalent: Step
Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x
161) + (E x 160))10
Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13
x 161) + (14 x 160))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210
Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

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