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Chapter 5 and 6

This document discusses various aspects of mobile radio propagation including: 1. It outlines basic propagation models including reflection, diffraction, and scattering. 2. It describes characteristics of radio waves and how their properties are dependent on frequency. 3. It discusses the need for propagation models to determine coverage areas and transmission requirements. 4. It introduces large-scale and small-scale propagation models and the differences between them.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
29 views62 pages

Chapter 5 and 6

This document discusses various aspects of mobile radio propagation including: 1. It outlines basic propagation models including reflection, diffraction, and scattering. 2. It describes characteristics of radio waves and how their properties are dependent on frequency. 3. It discusses the need for propagation models to determine coverage areas and transmission requirements. 4. It introduces large-scale and small-scale propagation models and the differences between them.

Uploaded by

kassayeabate21
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 3

Mobile Radio Propagation

1
Outline
• Free space propagation
• Basic Propagation models
 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering
• Path Loss and Shadowing Models

2
Wave Propagation
 Radio, microwave, infrared and visible light portions of the spectrum can all be used to
transmit information
 By modulating the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the waves.
 The amount of information a wireless channel can carry is related to its bandwidth
 Wavelength dictates the optimum size of the receiving antenna

3
Characteristics of Radio Waves
 Easy to generate
 Can travel long distances
 Can penetrate buildings
 Used for indoor and outdoor communication
 Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies (greater than
100MHz) using parabolic antennas (like satellite dishes)
 Subject to interference from other radio wave sources

4
Characteristics of Radio Waves(cont.)
Properties of radio waves are frequency dependent
 At low frequencies, they can pass through obstacles , but the power falls
off sharply with increase in distance from the source
 At high frequencies, they tend to travel in straight lines and bounce of
obstacles (they can also be absorbed by big objects)
LOS path

Reflected Wave

5
Communication Channels
 Wired Channel
o Stationary
o Predictable
 Wireless channel
o Random
o Difficult to analyze
o Susceptible to noise, interference, other time varying channel impairments

6
Channel models for Wireless Communication
 Physical models: Considers exact profile of the propagation environment.
 Modes of propagation considered: Free-space or LOS, reflection, and
diffraction.
 Statistical models: Takes an empirical approach.
 The model is developed on measuring propagation characteristics in a variety of
environments. They are easy to describe and use than physical models.

7
Need for Propagation models

Propagations models can be used to determine


 Coverage area of a transmitter
 Transmit power requirement
 Battery lifetime
 Modulation and coding schemes required to improve
the channel quality
 Maximum achievable channel capacity of the system
8
Propagation models
Large-scale propagation models
o Characterize signal strength for large Transmitter -Receiver separation (several
hundreds or thousands of meters)
o Compute local average received power by averaging signal measurements over a track of
5 to 40
o Received signal decrease gradually
o Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
Small-scale propagation models
o Characterize rapid fluctuations in the received signal strength over very short travel
distances (a few wavelengths)
o Signal is the sum of many contributors coming from different directions. Thus phases of
received signals are random and the sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading)
o Received power may vary by as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB)

9
Small-Scale and Large-Scale Fading

10
Free-Space Propagation Model
 Predict the received signal strength when transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS
path between them.
 Ex: Satellite communication system, microwave LOSsystem

 The received power decays as a function of Transmitter-Receiver separation raised to some power.
 Free space power received by a receiver antenna is given by Friis free-space equation

oPt is transmitted power o Pr(d) is the received power


oGt, Gr is the Tx, Rx antenna gain o d is Tx-Rx separation distance in meters
(dimensionless quantity) o  is wavelength in meters
o L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L≥1). L= 1 indicates no loss in system
hardware (we consider L = 1 in our calculations)

11
Free-Space Propagation Model (cont.)
 The gain of an antenna G is related to its affective aperture Ae by G = 4Ae / 2 where
• Ae is related to the physical size of theantenna
•  is related to the carrier frequency ( = c/f = 2c / c ) where
o f is carrier frequency in Hertz
o c is speed of light in meters/sec
o c is carrier frequency in radians per second
 Isotropic radiator generally considered a reference antenna in wireless systems; radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic
antenna emits to produce peak power density in the direction of maximum antenna gain.
 EIRP = PtGt
 Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic antenna)

12
What is Decibel (dB)
 A logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio between two values of a physical
quantity (usually measured in units of power or intensity)
oThe ratio of two values 𝑃1and 𝑃2 in dB is
 10 log (𝑃/ 𝑃2)dB

 dB unit is generally used to describe ratios of numbers with modest size.

13
dBm

14
dBW

15
Free-Space Path Loss

16
Reference Distance, 𝑑0

17
Radio propagation mechanisms

18
Radio propagation mechanisms, cont..

Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications


19
Reflection
 Reflection occurs when wave impinges upon an obstruction much larger in size compared to the wavelength of
the signal
oExample: reflections from earth and buildings

 Reflected waveform may interfere with the original signal constructively (Positively) or destructively
(Negatively)
 When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted
oPerfect dielectric:
Part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the
first medium
 no loss of energy in absorption
o Perfect conductor:
 All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium
 No loss of energy.

 The fraction that is reflected is described by the Fresnel equation and is dependent upon the incoming light's
20
polarization and angle of incidence. (Reading assignment on Fresnel equation derivation )
Reflection (cont.)
 Electromagntives waves are transmitted in two orthogonal dimensions, referred to as
polarizations. Two commonly used orthogonal sets of polarizations are
o Horizontal and Vertical polarization
• Vertical polarization is commonly used in terrestrial mobile radio communication. In
VHF band, vertical polarization produces a higher field strength near the ground. Also,
mobile antennas for vertical polarization are more robust and convenient to implement.
o Left-hand and right-hand circular polarization
• Often used in satellite communication. Can be used together for well-designed
communication links to double the transmission capacity in a given frequency band.
 In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the Base Station and a mobile is
seldom the only physical means for propagation and the Free space propagation model is
inaccurate in most cases when used alone. Two-ray model is
• Based on geometric optics and it considers both the direct path and a ground reflected
propagation path
• Reasonably accurate for predicting the large scale signal strength over distances of several
kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers. 21
Ground Reflection Model (cont.)

22
Ground Reflection Model (cont.)

23
Diffraction
 Diffraction occurs when radio wave is obstructed
by an impenetrable body or a surface with sharp
irregularities (edges)
 Due to bending of radio waves it enables
communication between devices with no line-
of-sight path
 Secondary waves are present throughout the
space including the space behind the obstacle
due to bending of waves around the obstacle.
 Enables communication even when a line of
sight path does not exist between transmitter
and receiver.
 At high frequencies, diffraction depends on the
geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude,
phase and polarization of the incident wave at the
point of diffraction

24
Diffraction
Huygens’Principal
 All points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for
producing secondary wavelets
 Secondary wavelets combine to produce new wavefront in the
direction of propagation
 Diffraction arises from propagation of secondary wave front into shadowed
area
 Field strength of diffracted wave in shadow region =  electric field
components of all secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle
 Consider a transmitter-receiver pair in free space
 Obstacle of effective height h with infinite width is placed between Tx and Rx
• distance from transmitter = d1
• distance from receiver = d2
 LOS distance between transmitter & receiver is 𝑑 =𝑑1+𝑑2
25
Diffraction (cont.)

26
Diffraction Fresnel zones

27
Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)
 Fresnel Zones explains the concept of
diffraction loss as a function of path difference.
 Secondary waves in successive regions
have a path length n/2 greater than LOS
path.
• nth region is the region where path length of
secondary waves is n/2 greater than that of
LOS path length
 Regions form a series of ellipsoids with
attentions at Tx & Rx antennas

28
Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)

2(d1  d 2 ) 2d1d2
v= h  
d1d2 (d1 d 2 )

TX RX
d1 d2 d1 h d2
TX RX 
If h = 0, then  and v are 0

If  and v are negative, then h


is negative
29
Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)

30
Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)

31
Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)

32
Diffraction፡ Diffraction Loss
• Diffraction Loss is caused by blockage of secondary (diffracted) waves
 Partial energy from secondary waves is diffracted around an obstacle
 obstruction blocks energy from some of the Fresnel zones and only a portion of
transmitted energy reaches receiver
 Received energy is vector sum of contributions from all unobstructed Fresnel zones
 depends on geometry of obstruction
 phase of secondary (diffracted) E-field is indicated by the Fresnel Zones
 Obstacles may block transmission paths causing diffraction loss
 construct a family of ellipsoids between TX & RX to represent Fresnel zones
 join all points for which excess path delay is multiple of 𝜆 / 2
 compare geometry of obstacle with Fresnel zones to determine diffraction loss (or
gain)

33
Diffraction፡ Diffraction Loss (cont.)
 Place ideal, perfectly straight screen between Tx and Rx
 If top of screen is well below LOS path then
screen will have little effect
 the Electric field at Rx = 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 (free space
value)
 As screen height increases, Electric field will  If (55 to 60)% of 1st Fresnel zone is clear
vary as screen blocks more Fresnel zones than further Fresnel zone clearing does not
 The amplitude of oscillation increases until significantly alter diffraction loss
the screen is just in line with Tx and Rx  For free-space transmission condit-
 field strength = ½ of unobstructed field ions,1st Fresnel Zone is kept unblocked
strength

34
Diffraction፡Knife Edge Diffraction Model
 Diffraction Losses
 estimating attenuation caused by diffraction over obstacles is
essential for predicting field strength in a given service area
 not possible to estimate losses precisely
 theoretical approximations typically corrected with empirical
measurements
 Computing Diffraction Losses
 for simple terrain: expressions have been obtained
 for complex terrain: computing diffraction losses is complex

35
Huygens
secondary

Diffraction source

Knife Edge Diffraction Model (cont.)


 Knife-edge model is the simplest model that
provides insight about magnitude of diffraction loss
 Diffraction losses are estimated using the classical Fresnel solution
for field behind a knife edge
 Useful for shadowing caused by 1 knife edge object
 Considers receiver Ris located in shadowed region
 E-field strength at R is vector sum of all fields due to secondary
Huygens’ sources in the plane above the knife edge

36
Diffraction
Knife Edge Diffraction Model (cont.)
 The diffraction gain due to the presence of knife edge, as compared to
the free space E-field

37
Diffraction: Knife Edge Diffraction Model (cont.)

38
Diffraction
Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Bullington's model
owith more than one obstruction: compute total diffraction loss is by
replacing multiple obstacles with one equivalent obstacle
ouse single knife edge model
Disadvantage:
ooversimplifies problem
ooften produces overly optimistic estimates of received signal strength

39
Scattering
 Scattering occurs when obstacle size is less than or of the order of the
wavelength of propagating wave
 Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
 Occur due to small objects, rough surfaces, and other irregularities of the
channel.
 Number of obstacles are quite large
 Scattering follows the same principles as diffraction
 Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted by
reflection/diffraction models alone
 The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is scattered in
many directions and provides more energy at a receiver
 Energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected to the receiver
o flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)
o rough surface → EM scattering (many directions) 40
Scattering (cont.)
 Critical height for surface protuberances ℎ𝑐
for given incident angle

 Let ℎ be the maximum


protuberances, then surface is
considered
o smooth if ℎ < ℎ𝑐
o rough if ℎ > ℎ𝑐

41
Reflection, Diffraction, and Scattering
 As a mobile moves through a region, these mechanisms have an
impact on the instantaneous received signal strength
 In case LOS path exists between the devices, diffraction and
scattering will not dominate the propagation.
 If device is at a street level without LOS path, then
diffraction and scattering will probably dominate the
propagation.

42
Path Loss Models
 Radio Propagation models are derived using a combination of empirical and
analytical methods.
 These methods implicitly take into account all the propagation factors both
known and unknown through the actual measurements.
 Path loss models are used to estimate the received signal level as a
function of distance.
 With the help of this model we can predict SNR for a mobile
communication system.
 Path loss estimation techniques
o Log - Distance Path Loss Model
o Log - Normal Shadowing

43
Path Loss Models, cont.
Log-distance path loss model Path loss exponent for different environments
 Average large scale path loss is
d 
PL(dB)  PL(d 0 ) 10n log  
 d0 
 Where:

 PL: is ensemble average of all possible path loss


values for given value of d

 On log-log scale path loss is a straight line


with slope equal to 10 n dB/decade

44
Path Loss Models (cont.)

45
Path Loss Models
Log-Normal Shadowing Model

46
Path Loss Models
Outdoor Propagation
 We will look to the propagation characteristics of the three outdoor environments
o Propagation in macrocells
o Propagation in microcells
o Propagation in street microcells

Outdoor Propagation: Macrocells


 Base stations at high-points
 Coverage of several kilometers
 The average path loss in dB has normal distribution
 Average path loss is a result of forward scattering over a large number of obstacles each
contributing a random multiplicative factor. On changing to dB, it is a sum of random
variables
 Sum is normally distributed because of central limit theorem 47
Outdoor Propagation: Longley-Rice Propagation Prediction Model
 Point-to-point communication in frequency range 40 MHZ to 100GHz
 Also referred as irregular terrain model (ITM)
 Predicts median transmission loss, takes terrain into account, uses path geometry, calculates diffraction losses
 Inputs of computer program of Longley-Rice model :
o Frequency
o Path length
o Polarization and antenna heights
o Surface refractivity
o Effective radius of earth
o Ground conductivity
o Ground dielectric constant
o Climate

 Disadvantages

o Does not take into account details of terrain near the receiver

o Does not consider Buildings, Foliage, Multipath

 Original model modified by Okamura for urban terrain (include extra term called urban factor)

48
Outdoor Propagation: Okumura Model
 In early days, the models were based on emprical studies
 Okumura did comprehesive measurements in 1968 and came up with a model.
oDiscovered that a good model for path loss was a simple power law where the exponent 𝑛is a function of
the frequency, antenna heights, etc.
o It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas,
oValid for frequencies in: 150 MHz – 1920 MHz for distances: 1km – 100km

𝐿50(𝑑)(𝑑𝐵) = 𝐿𝐹(𝑑) + 𝐴𝑚𝑢(𝑓, 𝑑) – 𝐺(ℎ𝑡𝑒) – 𝐺(ℎ𝑟𝑒) – 𝐺area


• 𝐿50: 50th percentile (i.e. median) of path loss

• 𝐺area: gain due to different type of environment

• 𝐿𝐹 (𝑑): free space propagation path loss

• 𝐴𝑚𝑢(𝑓, 𝑑): median attenuation relative to free space

• ℎ𝑡𝑒: transmitter antenna height

• ℎ𝑟𝑒: receiver antenna height

• 𝐺(ℎ𝑡𝑒): base station antenna height gain factor

• 𝐺 ℎ𝑡𝑒 and 𝐺 ℎ𝑟𝑒 are determined for different antenna height 49


Outdoor Propagation Okumura Model (cont.)

50
Outdoor Propagation
Okumura Model (cont.)
 Advantage
 Okumuras’ model is considered to be among the simplest and
best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature
cellular and land mobile system in a cluttered environment.
 Disadvantage
 Low response to rapid changes in terrain

51
Outdoor Propagation, Hata Model

52
Outdoor Propagation Hata Model (cont.)
 For small to medium sized city:
 For large city:

 In sub urban areas, path loss is:


 In open rural areas, path loss is:

53
Outdoor Propagation Hata Model (cont.)
 No path specific corrections
 Suitable for large cell mobile system (d >1 km)
 Not suitable for Personal computer service (PCS)

54
Outdoor Propagation: PCS Extension of Hata Model

55
Path Loss Models: Microcells
Propagation differs significantly
 Milder propagation characteristics
 Small multipath delay spread and shallow fading imply the feasibility of higher
data-rate transmission
 Mostly used in crowded urban areas
 If transmitter antenna is lower than the surrounding building than the signals propagate
along the streets: Street Microcells
 Macrocells versus Microcells

Item Macrocell Microcell


Cell Radius 1 to 20km 0.1 to 1km
Tx Power 1 to 10W 0.1 to 1W
Fading Rayleigh Nakgami-Rice
RMS Delay Spread 0.1 to 10s 10 to 100ns
56
Max. Bit Rate 0.3 Mbps 1 Mbps
Path Loss Models: Street Microcells
 Most of the signal power propagates along the street
 The signals may reach with LOS paths if the receiver is along the same street
with the transmitter
 The signals may reach via indirect propagation mechanisms if the
receiver turns to another street

57
Path Loss Models: Street Microcells
D
Building Blocks

B C
A
Breakpoint

received power (dB) received power (dB)

A A n=2
n=2 Breakpoint 15~20d
B
C n=4 B
n=4~8 D
log (distance)
log (distance)
58
Indoor Propagation
 Indoor channels are different from traditional mobile radio channels in two
different ways:
• The distances covered are much smaller
• The variablity of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R
separation distances.
 The propagation inside a building is influenced by:
• Layout of the building
• Construction materials
• Building type: sports arena, residential home, factory, etc
 Indoor path loss models are less generalized
o Environment comparatively more dynamic
 Significant features are physically smaller
o Smaller propagation distances
 Less assurance of Far-field for all receiver locations and antenna types. 59
Path Loss Models, Indoor Propagation (cont.)
 Indoor propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, scattering, diffraction.
o However, conditions are much more variable
 Doors/windows open or not
 The mounting place of antenna: desk, ceiling, etc.
 The level of floors

 Indoor channels are classified as


o Line-of-sight (LOS)
o Obstructed (OBS) with varying degrees of clutter.
 Buiding types
o Residential homes in suburban areas
o Residential homes in urban areas
o Traditional office buildings with fixed walls (hard partitions)
o Open plan buildings with movable wall panels (soft partitions)
o Factory buildings
o Grocery stores
o Retail stores
o Sport arenas
60
Indoor propagation, Events and parameters
 Temporal fading for fixed and moving terminals  Indoor propagation Models
• oMotion of people inside building causes Ricean
Fading for the stationary receivers  Log-distance path loss model
• oPortable receivers experience in general:  Same floor partition losses
 Rayleigh fading for obstructed propagation paths • Hard partitions (cannot be moved) /soft partitions (can be
 Ricean fading for LOS paths. moved)
 Multipath Delay Spread • Internal walls & external walls

o Buildings with fewer metals and hard-partitions  Partition loss between floors
typically have small rms delay spreads: 30-60ns. • Determined by the dimensions/materials
 Can support data rates excess of several Mbps used/surroundings, including number of windows) /floor
without equalization attenuation
o Larger buildings with great amount of metal and  Ericsson multiple breakpoint model
open aisles may have rms delay spreads as large as
• Obtained by measurements in a multiple office building
300ns.
 Can not support data rates more than a few • Has 4 breakpoints and has upper & lower bound on the PL
hundred Kbps without equalization. • Model assumes 30 db attenuation at do=1m, for f=900Mhz,
unity gain antenna

61
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