Chapter 5 and 6
Chapter 5 and 6
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Outline
• Free space propagation
• Basic Propagation models
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
• Path Loss and Shadowing Models
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Wave Propagation
Radio, microwave, infrared and visible light portions of the spectrum can all be used to
transmit information
By modulating the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the waves.
The amount of information a wireless channel can carry is related to its bandwidth
Wavelength dictates the optimum size of the receiving antenna
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Characteristics of Radio Waves
Easy to generate
Can travel long distances
Can penetrate buildings
Used for indoor and outdoor communication
Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies (greater than
100MHz) using parabolic antennas (like satellite dishes)
Subject to interference from other radio wave sources
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Characteristics of Radio Waves(cont.)
Properties of radio waves are frequency dependent
At low frequencies, they can pass through obstacles , but the power falls
off sharply with increase in distance from the source
At high frequencies, they tend to travel in straight lines and bounce of
obstacles (they can also be absorbed by big objects)
LOS path
Reflected Wave
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Communication Channels
Wired Channel
o Stationary
o Predictable
Wireless channel
o Random
o Difficult to analyze
o Susceptible to noise, interference, other time varying channel impairments
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Channel models for Wireless Communication
Physical models: Considers exact profile of the propagation environment.
Modes of propagation considered: Free-space or LOS, reflection, and
diffraction.
Statistical models: Takes an empirical approach.
The model is developed on measuring propagation characteristics in a variety of
environments. They are easy to describe and use than physical models.
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Need for Propagation models
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Small-Scale and Large-Scale Fading
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Free-Space Propagation Model
Predict the received signal strength when transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS
path between them.
Ex: Satellite communication system, microwave LOSsystem
The received power decays as a function of Transmitter-Receiver separation raised to some power.
Free space power received by a receiver antenna is given by Friis free-space equation
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Free-Space Propagation Model (cont.)
The gain of an antenna G is related to its affective aperture Ae by G = 4Ae / 2 where
• Ae is related to the physical size of theantenna
• is related to the carrier frequency ( = c/f = 2c / c ) where
o f is carrier frequency in Hertz
o c is speed of light in meters/sec
o c is carrier frequency in radians per second
Isotropic radiator generally considered a reference antenna in wireless systems; radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic
antenna emits to produce peak power density in the direction of maximum antenna gain.
EIRP = PtGt
Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic antenna)
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What is Decibel (dB)
A logarithmic unit used to describe a ratio between two values of a physical
quantity (usually measured in units of power or intensity)
oThe ratio of two values 𝑃1and 𝑃2 in dB is
10 log (𝑃/ 𝑃2)dB
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dBm
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dBW
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Free-Space Path Loss
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Reference Distance, 𝑑0
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Radio propagation mechanisms
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Radio propagation mechanisms, cont..
Reflected waveform may interfere with the original signal constructively (Positively) or destructively
(Negatively)
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted
oPerfect dielectric:
Part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the
first medium
no loss of energy in absorption
o Perfect conductor:
All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium
No loss of energy.
The fraction that is reflected is described by the Fresnel equation and is dependent upon the incoming light's
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polarization and angle of incidence. (Reading assignment on Fresnel equation derivation )
Reflection (cont.)
Electromagntives waves are transmitted in two orthogonal dimensions, referred to as
polarizations. Two commonly used orthogonal sets of polarizations are
o Horizontal and Vertical polarization
• Vertical polarization is commonly used in terrestrial mobile radio communication. In
VHF band, vertical polarization produces a higher field strength near the ground. Also,
mobile antennas for vertical polarization are more robust and convenient to implement.
o Left-hand and right-hand circular polarization
• Often used in satellite communication. Can be used together for well-designed
communication links to double the transmission capacity in a given frequency band.
In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the Base Station and a mobile is
seldom the only physical means for propagation and the Free space propagation model is
inaccurate in most cases when used alone. Two-ray model is
• Based on geometric optics and it considers both the direct path and a ground reflected
propagation path
• Reasonably accurate for predicting the large scale signal strength over distances of several
kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers. 21
Ground Reflection Model (cont.)
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Ground Reflection Model (cont.)
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Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when radio wave is obstructed
by an impenetrable body or a surface with sharp
irregularities (edges)
Due to bending of radio waves it enables
communication between devices with no line-
of-sight path
Secondary waves are present throughout the
space including the space behind the obstacle
due to bending of waves around the obstacle.
Enables communication even when a line of
sight path does not exist between transmitter
and receiver.
At high frequencies, diffraction depends on the
geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude,
phase and polarization of the incident wave at the
point of diffraction
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Diffraction
Huygens’Principal
All points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for
producing secondary wavelets
Secondary wavelets combine to produce new wavefront in the
direction of propagation
Diffraction arises from propagation of secondary wave front into shadowed
area
Field strength of diffracted wave in shadow region = electric field
components of all secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle
Consider a transmitter-receiver pair in free space
Obstacle of effective height h with infinite width is placed between Tx and Rx
• distance from transmitter = d1
• distance from receiver = d2
LOS distance between transmitter & receiver is 𝑑 =𝑑1+𝑑2
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Diffraction (cont.)
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Diffraction Fresnel zones
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Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)
Fresnel Zones explains the concept of
diffraction loss as a function of path difference.
Secondary waves in successive regions
have a path length n/2 greater than LOS
path.
• nth region is the region where path length of
secondary waves is n/2 greater than that of
LOS path length
Regions form a series of ellipsoids with
attentions at Tx & Rx antennas
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Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)
2(d1 d 2 ) 2d1d2
v= h
d1d2 (d1 d 2 )
TX RX
d1 d2 d1 h d2
TX RX
If h = 0, then and v are 0
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Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)
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Diffraction Fresnel zones (cont.)
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Diffraction፡ Diffraction Loss
• Diffraction Loss is caused by blockage of secondary (diffracted) waves
Partial energy from secondary waves is diffracted around an obstacle
obstruction blocks energy from some of the Fresnel zones and only a portion of
transmitted energy reaches receiver
Received energy is vector sum of contributions from all unobstructed Fresnel zones
depends on geometry of obstruction
phase of secondary (diffracted) E-field is indicated by the Fresnel Zones
Obstacles may block transmission paths causing diffraction loss
construct a family of ellipsoids between TX & RX to represent Fresnel zones
join all points for which excess path delay is multiple of 𝜆 / 2
compare geometry of obstacle with Fresnel zones to determine diffraction loss (or
gain)
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Diffraction፡ Diffraction Loss (cont.)
Place ideal, perfectly straight screen between Tx and Rx
If top of screen is well below LOS path then
screen will have little effect
the Electric field at Rx = 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 (free space
value)
As screen height increases, Electric field will If (55 to 60)% of 1st Fresnel zone is clear
vary as screen blocks more Fresnel zones than further Fresnel zone clearing does not
The amplitude of oscillation increases until significantly alter diffraction loss
the screen is just in line with Tx and Rx For free-space transmission condit-
field strength = ½ of unobstructed field ions,1st Fresnel Zone is kept unblocked
strength
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Diffraction፡Knife Edge Diffraction Model
Diffraction Losses
estimating attenuation caused by diffraction over obstacles is
essential for predicting field strength in a given service area
not possible to estimate losses precisely
theoretical approximations typically corrected with empirical
measurements
Computing Diffraction Losses
for simple terrain: expressions have been obtained
for complex terrain: computing diffraction losses is complex
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Huygens
secondary
Diffraction source
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Diffraction
Knife Edge Diffraction Model (cont.)
The diffraction gain due to the presence of knife edge, as compared to
the free space E-field
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Diffraction: Knife Edge Diffraction Model (cont.)
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Diffraction
Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Bullington's model
owith more than one obstruction: compute total diffraction loss is by
replacing multiple obstacles with one equivalent obstacle
ouse single knife edge model
Disadvantage:
ooversimplifies problem
ooften produces overly optimistic estimates of received signal strength
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Scattering
Scattering occurs when obstacle size is less than or of the order of the
wavelength of propagating wave
Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
Occur due to small objects, rough surfaces, and other irregularities of the
channel.
Number of obstacles are quite large
Scattering follows the same principles as diffraction
Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted by
reflection/diffraction models alone
The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is scattered in
many directions and provides more energy at a receiver
Energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected to the receiver
o flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)
o rough surface → EM scattering (many directions) 40
Scattering (cont.)
Critical height for surface protuberances ℎ𝑐
for given incident angle
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Reflection, Diffraction, and Scattering
As a mobile moves through a region, these mechanisms have an
impact on the instantaneous received signal strength
In case LOS path exists between the devices, diffraction and
scattering will not dominate the propagation.
If device is at a street level without LOS path, then
diffraction and scattering will probably dominate the
propagation.
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Path Loss Models
Radio Propagation models are derived using a combination of empirical and
analytical methods.
These methods implicitly take into account all the propagation factors both
known and unknown through the actual measurements.
Path loss models are used to estimate the received signal level as a
function of distance.
With the help of this model we can predict SNR for a mobile
communication system.
Path loss estimation techniques
o Log - Distance Path Loss Model
o Log - Normal Shadowing
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Path Loss Models, cont.
Log-distance path loss model Path loss exponent for different environments
Average large scale path loss is
d
PL(dB) PL(d 0 ) 10n log
d0
Where:
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Path Loss Models (cont.)
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Path Loss Models
Log-Normal Shadowing Model
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Path Loss Models
Outdoor Propagation
We will look to the propagation characteristics of the three outdoor environments
o Propagation in macrocells
o Propagation in microcells
o Propagation in street microcells
Disadvantages
o Does not take into account details of terrain near the receiver
Original model modified by Okamura for urban terrain (include extra term called urban factor)
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Outdoor Propagation: Okumura Model
In early days, the models were based on emprical studies
Okumura did comprehesive measurements in 1968 and came up with a model.
oDiscovered that a good model for path loss was a simple power law where the exponent 𝑛is a function of
the frequency, antenna heights, etc.
o It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas,
oValid for frequencies in: 150 MHz – 1920 MHz for distances: 1km – 100km
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Outdoor Propagation
Okumura Model (cont.)
Advantage
Okumuras’ model is considered to be among the simplest and
best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature
cellular and land mobile system in a cluttered environment.
Disadvantage
Low response to rapid changes in terrain
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Outdoor Propagation, Hata Model
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Outdoor Propagation Hata Model (cont.)
For small to medium sized city:
For large city:
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Outdoor Propagation Hata Model (cont.)
No path specific corrections
Suitable for large cell mobile system (d >1 km)
Not suitable for Personal computer service (PCS)
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Outdoor Propagation: PCS Extension of Hata Model
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Path Loss Models: Microcells
Propagation differs significantly
Milder propagation characteristics
Small multipath delay spread and shallow fading imply the feasibility of higher
data-rate transmission
Mostly used in crowded urban areas
If transmitter antenna is lower than the surrounding building than the signals propagate
along the streets: Street Microcells
Macrocells versus Microcells
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Path Loss Models: Street Microcells
D
Building Blocks
B C
A
Breakpoint
A A n=2
n=2 Breakpoint 15~20d
B
C n=4 B
n=4~8 D
log (distance)
log (distance)
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Indoor Propagation
Indoor channels are different from traditional mobile radio channels in two
different ways:
• The distances covered are much smaller
• The variablity of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R
separation distances.
The propagation inside a building is influenced by:
• Layout of the building
• Construction materials
• Building type: sports arena, residential home, factory, etc
Indoor path loss models are less generalized
o Environment comparatively more dynamic
Significant features are physically smaller
o Smaller propagation distances
Less assurance of Far-field for all receiver locations and antenna types. 59
Path Loss Models, Indoor Propagation (cont.)
Indoor propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, scattering, diffraction.
o However, conditions are much more variable
Doors/windows open or not
The mounting place of antenna: desk, ceiling, etc.
The level of floors
o Buildings with fewer metals and hard-partitions Partition loss between floors
typically have small rms delay spreads: 30-60ns. • Determined by the dimensions/materials
Can support data rates excess of several Mbps used/surroundings, including number of windows) /floor
without equalization attenuation
o Larger buildings with great amount of metal and Ericsson multiple breakpoint model
open aisles may have rms delay spreads as large as
• Obtained by measurements in a multiple office building
300ns.
Can not support data rates more than a few • Has 4 breakpoints and has upper & lower bound on the PL
hundred Kbps without equalization. • Model assumes 30 db attenuation at do=1m, for f=900Mhz,
unity gain antenna
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