Dr/ Moayed Mohamed

of an
Process Operation
Manual operation
Observe
Compare
Decide
Act
 Automatic operation
Continuous Control
Measure
Compare
Decide
Act

LT LC
 On/Off Control

Min/max detector
Relay

Variables take a discrete number ON/OFF valve

of values or states and change
only at certain time instants
 Automatic operation
Desired values Changes Responses

Regulator Process
Act Measure

Closed loop operation

Block diagram
 Components of a Control loop
Variables
Desired to be controlled,
Manipulated
Values y, CV, PV
Variables u, MV, OP
w, SP

Regulator Actuator Process

y x
(EU)
Transmitter
Measured values
Temperature Control

We will focus on continuous control

 Index: Instrumentation
⚫ Control Systems: Terminology
⚫ Continuous / Discrete Control
⚫ Transmiters
– Definitions
– Level, Pressure, Flow, Temperature...
⚫ Actuators:
– Valves
– Pumps, compressors
 P&I Diagrams
Schematics where process
units and instruments are
represented using special
symbols

Control and
measurement
instruments are
LT LC
represented by 102
102
circles with letters
and figures
Connection lines
 Instruments
⚫ Indicators
Connected by :
⚫ Transmitters
•Pneumatic
⚫ Registers •Electric
⚫ Converters •Digital
⚫ Controllers lines
⚫ Actuators
⚫ Transducers
 Instruments in P&I Diagrams
Pneumatic signal
Panel LRC Field PT
128 014

Electric signal Process connection

FT FC
12 12

Same number in all instruments of a control loop

 Digital Instruments
LRC PT DCS controller,
128 014 microprocessor,...

Accessible to the Not accessible to the

operator (Configuration, operator
display…)

PLC, logic or secuential

control represented by
rhombus
 Digital Instruments
LRC

128

Computer Software or digital

Different from a DCS controller network connection
Several functions: DDC, register,
alarms,etc.
Access by network
1ª letter 1ª letter: measured variable
2ª letter: may qualify the first one
A analysis
D differential
D density
F proportion
E voltage
S safety
F flow
Q integration
I current
J power 3ª y sig: Function of the Instrument
L level I indicator
M moisture R register
P pressure C control
S speed T transmitter
T temperature V valve
V viscosity Y computation
H high
W weight
L low
Z position
 Instruments

PDT LRC PIC DT

FY FFC ST TDT
DV
Heat exchanger
MV TC TT
P/I 12 12

CV
 Transmitters
⚫ Sensor: Primary element with properties
sensitive to the physical variable
⚫ Transmitter: Converts, amplifies, conditions
and normalise the sensor signal in order to
send it to other instruments
⚫ Indicator: Shows the measured variable

Transmitter

Sensor
 Pressure transmitter

Piezoelectric
Sensor Normalised
signal

Electronic circuit
Pressure

Amplifier
Filter
Calibration
Power
Normalisation
 Transmitters (Signals)
⚫ Pneumatic: 0.2 - 1 Kg/cm2
3 - 15 psi
⚫ Electric: 4 - 20 mA
1 - 5 V cc, ....
⚫ Frecuency: pulses/time
⚫ Others: RTD, Contacts,...
⚫ Digital: HART, Fieldbus,
RS-232...
 Normalised signals
Actuator
w u y
Controller Process
4-20 mA
4-20 mA Transmitter

4-20 mA from
the transmitter
SP 45
PV 45.5 4-20 mA to the
actuator

M
V
38
 Controller
Controller
Actuator
w e  1  u y
+
-
u = K p e +  edt Process
 Ti 
y

Transmitter

Panel
mounting
 Control room (DCS)

Operation

4 – 20 mA

Field

Control cabinet, Enclosure

Operation

Typical
PID face

Typical
operator
screen
 Computer control
Power supply, Ethernet AI AO Controller DI DO

u(kT) Actuator

Microprocessor AO Process

y(kT)
AI
T sampling period T Transmitter
 4-20 mA
mA
Transmitter FC

•Current is the same at any point of the line

•A broken line can be identified as different from a
measurement in the bottom of the range
• A limited number of devices are allowed in the line
 Pulses/Frecuency

Transmitter Pulse FC
counter

The number of voltage pulses per

time unit is proportional to the value
of the variable
 Power supply

mA
220 V ac Transmitter

mA 24 V dc

Transmitter
 Conecting instruments

CV
XT Protection
Shielding Filter

MV
Other
XC Conditioning
devices

SP
 Shields
mA
Transmitter FC

Metal
envelop
 Conditioning / protecting
mA

Transmitter AI card

Optocoupler Filter I/R

Zener diode
Breaker
Safety Noise Conversion
 Wiring,...

Control Distance
room TT

FT

DT

Wiring costs
Noises
Calibration
Maintenance,...
 Field buses

PLC
Computer TT FT

Digital Bus 1101...

Microprocessor DT
A/D converter
Communications
 DCS
Control room

Room behind

4-20 mA
DeviceNet/Profibus

AS-i
H1

Field
 Smart Instrumentation
⚫ Incorporates a ⚫ It is based in a two-
microprocessor and way digital
digital communication system
communications ⚫ Gives new
⚫ This provides functionalities
computer power and
data storage
capability:
– Data of the instrument
– Dynamic data
 Fieldbus

PLC
Computer

Digital bus
1101...
•Less wires
•Less noise
•New functions: range adjustment, self-test, documentation,....
•Better information
•Different architectures and protocols
 Fieldbuses
⚫ Fieldbus Foundation (H1 and H2 levels)
⚫ Profibus DP, PA
⚫ WorldFIP
⚫ CAN
⚫ DeviceNet

⚫ .....
 Networks- Fieldbus
Process
Control FIELDBUS
• Foundation Fieldbus
Device Busses • WorldFIP
Type of • CAN • Profibus PA
Control • ControlNet
• DeviceNet
• LonWorks
Sensor Busses
• Profibus DP
• AS-i
• Interbus
Logic • LonWorks
Control • Seriplex

Simple Devices Powerful Devices

Device Functionality / Cost

 HART
LT 4-20 mA

1011.. HART
Unit RS-232

PT
Digital signals on top of a 4-20mA line
It allows having both systems at the
same time
FT
 Architectures

HART I/O DeviceNet/Profibus

AS-i
H1
Diagnosis, configuration
ConfigurationDownload
Control in the instruments

HART I/O DeviceNet/Profibus

AS-i
H1
 Wireless Instrumentation

PLC Base
Computer station

1101...

•Less wires
•Automatic routing
•Battery
•Today they are reliable enough
 Terminology (SAMA)
⚫ Range
⚫ Span
⚫ Dynamic error
⚫ Precision
⚫ Sensibility
⚫ Repetitiveness
⚫ Dead band / Histeresis
 Transmitters
Calibration:
20 mA
reading = f ( real value )

Zero and span

4 mA
mA = 0.2667 ºC - 1.3333

20 ºC 80ªC
ºC mA
Range: [ 20 , 80 ] ºC TT
Span: 80 - 20 = 60 ºC
 Transmitters / Calibration
In order to calibrate
mA
an instrument it is
Transmisor necessary to compare
its output signal with
the one of a reference
instrument under the
same conditions

There are instruments (calibrators) that provide

measurements with high precision, and are suitable for
this task
 Calibration
Calibration:
20 mA

Cero reading = f ( real value )

Zero and span

4 mA Span
mA = 0.2667 ºC - 1.3333

20 ºC 80ªC
 Transmitters
Accuracy:
Maximum error
20 mA due to non-
linearity,
reading
hysteresis, etc....
Dynamic error
4 mA % of span
% of reading
Direct value,...
20 ºC 80ªC Tolerance

Real value
 Transmitters
Sensitivity:
20 mA
Change in the
signal
Sensibility corresponding
to a unit
4 mA change in the
measured
variable
20 ºC 80ªC
% of span
1 unit
 Transmitters
Resolution:
Minimum change
20 mA in the input
required to
observe a change
in the output
resolution
4 mA
% of span
Direct value,...
20 ºC 80ªC

The whole measurement chain has to be considered

including the AI card of the DCS
 Resolution
mA
AI
Transmitter card

Digital
reading An AI card with 12 bits can distinguish
4096 = 212 different numbers
0011
0010 mA Resolution: 16/4096 mA
0000 0001

All signals in this interval will have

the same reading in the DCS
 Temperature Transmitters
⚫ Bulb
⚫ RTD (Pt100 0ºC 100 )
⚫ Thermistors (Semiconductors)
⚫ Thermopars E, J, K, RS, T
⚫ Pirometers (High temperature, radiation)
 Pt-100 0ºC 100
Electrical
resistance changes
with temperature
An electrical
bridge converts
changes of
resistance in
changes of voltage

Range: -200 500ºC Sensitivity: 0.4 /ºC

Accuracy: 0.2%
 Bridge

R R

Rt R

Pt100 In a balanced bridge left and right branches

have the same resistance, so V =0.
If Rt changes, V  0
 From + to – there are two
Many TT resistors and two wires in the
incorporate
a head with
3 wires left or right branch on the
circuit

4-20mA
output
R R

V
Pt100 +
Rt R -

The length of the connecting wires influences the measurement,

the third wire introduces the same resistance in each branch,
compensating the unbalance due to the wires.
 Thermopars
In the junction of certain
T2 T1 classes of metals, an e.m.f
appears if both ends are at
different temperatures.
I This e.m.f. depends on the
temperature difference
T
Measurement: A known
voltage is oposed to the
M one generated by the
Termopar termopar until a null
voltage is obtained at the
output of the differential
ampliflier.
 Thermopars
Kind Range Accuracy
T -200 250ºC 2%
J 0 750ºC 0.5%
K 0 1300ºC 1%
R/S 0 1600ºC 0.5%
W 0 2800ºC 1%
 Pressure Transmiters
⚫ Absolute Pressure
⚫ Manometric Pressure
⚫ Differential Pressure

Physical Principles:
•Displacement
•Strain Gauges
•Piezoelectricity
 Potentiometer

Displacement
sensors

Induction

Capacity
Pressure
 Piezoelectric Sensor

Force
+

Quartz crystal -

Metal Plate
Strain Gauges / Hall Effect
R changes
Strain gauges with
deformation

N
Hall effect Current

Force
S
Pressure Transmiters
 Level Transmiters
⚫ Displacement
– Floating devices
– Force: Archimedes Principle
⚫ Differential Pressure
⚫ Capacitives
⚫ Ultrasounds
⚫ Radar
 Level: Differential Pressure

Level is
proportional to the
differential pressure
Density is assumed
constant LT
Condensation in
pipes

(p0 + gh) - p0
 Electrical Capacity

S
C=
d A conderser is formed
between the electrode
S and the tank wall. Its
capacity depends on the
 fluid level

d
Level: Ultrasounds, radar

The elapsed time

between the emission
of the wave and its
reception is
proportional to the
fluid level.
 Flow Transmiters
⚫ Differential Pressure
⚫ Electromagnetic
⚫ Turbine
⚫ Vortex
⚫ Doppler
⚫ Mass Flow (Coriolis) …..
 Plates
P1 P2 Based on differential
Pressure

d D

2 D2 2g(P − P ) d
q=C 1 2
=
1−  4 4  D
Electromagnetic Flowmeters

N In a conductor
(liquid) flowing at
B a speed v within a
magnetic field B,
S an e.m.f. appears
that it is
proportional to the
N velocity
+
- V
S
 Vortex Flowmeters

When a fluid stream passes an obstacle, vortices are

alternatively shed on each side
The frequency at which vortices are shed is directly
proportional to the fluid velocity
v = 4.167 d frequency d = diameter of the obstacle
 Vortex flowmeters
Industrial vortex flowmeters have a
bluff body (obstacle) that generates
vortices.
Counting the number of vortices per
unit time: disturbances in pressure
sensors, capacitance, ultra sonic, etc.
v = 4.167 d frequency Valid for gases and liquids in a wide
range of conditions
Not valid for very low flows
 Coriolis Flowmeters

The pipe is forced to oscillate, but the U-shape

design induces (Coriolis) opposite forces in
both sides. There is a phase shift between
input and output sides that depends on the
mass flow. Magnetic sensors measure this
phase shift.
 http://www.flowexpertpro.com/

Choosing a transmitter

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http://www.yokogawa.com/fld/fld-top-en.htm
 Actuators
⚫ Final control elements. They change the
manipulated variable according to the signal
from the controller.
– Valves
– Motors
– Variable speed pumps
– Power amplifiers
– ....
 Valves
⚫ Devices that allow modifying the flow of
the fluid by means of a change in the
pressure drop in the line. Several types:
– Manual valves
– One way
– Safety
– On/Off
– Control
 Automatic control valves
⚫ Structure and operation
⚫ Types
⚫ Formulas
⚫ Static characteristics
⚫ Cavitation
⚫ Installed Characteristics
⚫ Valve dynamics
 Pneumatic valve (Globe)
3 -15 psi
Air
Diafragm
Servomotor
Spring
Pneumatic
Indicator Stem Electric
Packing
bonnet
Obturator
Flanges
Fluid Body

Seat
 Automatic valves
Air Globe
Double seated
Needle
Saunders
Ball
Butterfly
Camflex II
Fluid
2 -3 ways
•Sealed
•Maximum pressure
•Flow capacity
•Kind of fluid
Butterfly / Ball / Camflex

Butterfly

Camflex II
 Air open/close
Fail closed/ open
Air

Air
Air
Air closes opens

Air Air
opens closes
 I/P Converter
Air and electricity
4 - 20 mA I P
supply
Air 3-15 psi

Low accuracy in
the position of the
stem
Double seated valve

Air 3-15 psi

Force on the stem due to

the fluid
Positioner
Air

Air supply

Positioner
Control signal
4-20 mA

Stem position control system

Intelligent valves
Aire

FieldBus

Positioner + Data
Microprocessor Diagnosis
Alarms
Control blocks,
etc.
 Digital positioner

Non contacting
 Pressure drop

1
p v = 2 2 q 
2
a C

p pressure drop
q flow
a q
a opening
C coefficient
p1 p p2
 density
 p v
q = aC v

Formulas q gpm
p psi
Líquids

q m3/h aCv p v a q
p bars q=
 relative density 1.16  p1 p p2
a opening fraction
Cv flow coefficient
Saturated steam

q Tm/h aCv
p bars q= p v (p1 + p 2 )
72.4
a opening fraction

Viscosity corrections
 Static Characteristics
% of seat area
100% Linear
Equal percentage
% of max Flow Quick opening
in nominal Butterfly
conditions under Camflex
constant p
0%
% stem position
0% 100 %
Different
obturator
shapes
Static Characteristics
Quick
opening
Linear
Equal
percentage
0% Butterfly

0% 100 %
 Rangeability

máx. controlable flow

R=
mín. controlable flow

R= 100, 50...20

0%
% steam position
0% 100 %
Non controlable flow
 Cavitation / Flashing
The liquid will boil if its pressure
is below the saturation one
p1

p1 p2 Saturation pressure
Flashing p2

lenght
pressure p1 presión p1
p2 Cavitation p2

Saturation pressure Saturation

lenght pressurelenght
 Flashing
q=
aCv pv As pv increased q increases
1.16  until flashing appears which
will choke the flow

q
Critical flow (Choked flow)

pv

Máximum
Incipient
admisible p for controlling flow
Cavitation
 Flashing / Cavitation
Kc incipient
aCv pv cavitation
q=
1.16  Coefficient
pv  Kc (p1 − pv )
Critical flow
q
 pv 
p M = C f p1 − pv (0.96 − 0.28
2
)
 pc 
pM Maximum admisible pressure drop

pv Cf Critical flow

p Factor
Incipient pc critical point
M
Cavitation pressure
More precise formulas for gases
a C f C v p 1 (y − 0.148y 3 ) q Tm/h
q= gas
54.5 p bars
1.63 p v
y= y  1.5
Cf p1

aC f C v p1 (y − 0.148y3 )
q= saturated steam
83.7
aCf C v p1
q= critical flow
83.7
 Installed Characteristics
1 p0 − gh
q=
aCv pv 1.16  1 
q=  K L + 2 2 
1.16   a Cv 

p0 = pv + KLq 2 + gh

h
a q

p1 pv p2
p0
 Installed Characteristics
q= 1 p0 − gh
%q 1.16  1 
 KL + 2 2 
 a Cv 

% stem position
 Valve sizing
⚫ Critical for many control loops
⚫ Find the adequate Cv and type of valve
⚫ Commercial Software available

Fisher Masoneilan

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 Pumps
⚫ Positive displacement
⚫ Centrifugals
⚫ Installation
⚫ Power and efficiency
⚫ Characteristic curve
⚫ Cavitation
Positive Displacement
Shaft,. Membrane,…
 Centrifugal pumps

Mechanical Electrical
energy energy

Impeller
 Centrifugal pump

Energy increment = supplied energy - losses

(
p b =  aw 2 − bq 2 )

P = 36.022pbq P Supplied power P kw

q m3/h
P = W W Absorved power
p bars
 Characteristic curves
pb  2 > 1
2

1

q
 Operating point
p0 + p b = p v + K L q2 + gh =
1
p b = ( + K )q 2
+ gh − p 0
pb
L
a 2 C 2v

a q h

pb pv
p0
Variable speed pumps

M Frecuency 4 - 20 mA
converter


 Centrifugal Compressors

Surge line

pb 2 > 1
2

1

q
 Select commercial instruments for the implementation of the following control loop:

Exercise Maximum flow: 120 m3/h

Nominal flow: 60 m3/h
Max height: 4 m
LC Max Temperature: 80 ºC
Nominal temperarure: 50 ºC
Pipe diameter: 10 cm.
Select the Pressure in the pipe: 2 bar
Fluid: water
instrumentation LT

from a commercial
supplier and fill in
the form.
And fill in the following form:

Transmitter Valve
Type of measurement Kind of valve

Output signal Air open / close

Range Cv
Precision Diameter
Sensibility Kc
Linearity Rangeability
Max. temperature Max. Pressure
Process connection Process Connection
Manufacturer Manufacturer
Reference Reference