Mathematics in the Modern

Example 1: Use Deductive Reasoning to

World Establish a Conjecture
Use deductive reasoning to show that the
Inductive Reasoning following procedure produces a number that
is four (4) times the original number.
It is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples. Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply it by 8, add
6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
✓ Specific to General subtract 3. Solution:
Conjecture Let 𝑛 represent the original number. Multiply
the number by 8: 8𝑛
➢ This is the type of reasoning that
forms a conclusion based on the Add 6 to the product: 8𝑛 + 6
examination of specific examples.
➢ It may or may not be correct. Divide the sum by 2: 8𝑛+6 = 4𝑛 + 3
Example 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to 2
Predict a Number
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next Subtract 3: 4𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 4𝑛
number in each of the following lists.
We started with 𝑛 and ended with 4𝑛. The
a. 3,6,9,12,15, ? procedure given in this example produces a
b. 1,3,6,10,15, ? number that is four (4) times the original
number.
Solution:
Logic Puzzles
➢ Each successive number is 3 larger than Can be solved by using deductive reasoning
the preceding number. Thus, we predict and a chart that enables us to display the
that the next number on the list is 3 given information in a visual manner.
larger than 15, which is 18.
Example: Each of the four (4) neighbors, Sean,
Example 2: Observing a series of sunny Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different
days in a particular region. occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
Solution: From the following clues, determine the
occupation of each neighbor.
➢ After several weeks of sunny weather 1. Maria gets home from work after the
in a specific region, we can conclude banker but before the dentist.
that the climate in this region is
typically warm and dry. This conclusion 2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from
is based on the repeated observation of work, is not the editor.
sunny days, and we can infer that the 3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the
trend will likely continue. same time.
PROS of Inductive Reasoning 4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
1. Flexibility and adaptability Solution: From clue 1, Maria is not the banker
2. Idea generation or the dentist. In the following chart, write
3. Real-world relevance
4. Scientific discovery X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in
5. Accessibility the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s
CONS of Inductive Reasoning row.
1. Uncertain conclusions
2. Limited validity
3. Risk of bias
4. Lack of logical necessity
5. Challenges in complex systems

Deductive Reasoning
The process of reaching a conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures, or
principles. From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2
(ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of
✓ General to Specific Sarah’s row. We know from clue 1 that the
banker is not the last to get home, and we
Note: If the statement starts with “All” and know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
has “Therefore”, it’s already a deductive home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker.
reasoning.
Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah’s row.
 Example:
Major Premise: All men are mortal.
Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

PROS of Deductive Reasoning

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3
for this condition. There are now Xs for three 1. Certainty
2. Clarity
of the four occupations in Sarah’s row; 3. Applicability
therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a 4. Efficiency
in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of 5. Precision
the other three people can be the chef. Write
X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for CONS of Deductive Reasoning
three of the four occupations in Maria’s row; 1. Dependence on Premises
therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a 2. Limited Scope
to indicate that Maria is the editor, and 3. Rigidity
write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean 4. Complexity
nor Brian is the editor. 5. Potential for Circular Logic

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

One of the foremost recent mathematicians
to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1877-1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that
Polya advocated considered of the following
From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 four (4) steps.
for this condition. Since there are three Xs in
the Banker column, Sean must be the banker. 1. Understand the Problem
Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the a. This part of Polya’s four-step
dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are strategy is often overlooked.
3 Xs in the Dentist column, Brian must be the You must have a clear
dentist. Place a in that box. understanding of the problem.
2. Devise a Plan
a. Successful problem solvers use a
variety of techniques when they
attempt to solve a problem.
3. Carry out the Plan
a. Once you have devised a plan, you
must carry (execute) it out.
4. Review the Solution
a. Ensure that the solution is
consistent with the facts of the
problem.
Answer: Sean is the banker, Maria is the b. Interpret the solution in the
editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the context of the problem.
dentist. c. Ask yourself if there are
generalizations of the solution
that could apply to other
Deductive Reasoning with Premises problems.
Premises Example: Find the sum of the first 100 positive
even numbers.
➢ It is a statement or proposition that Understand the Problem - We need to find the
serves as the basis for making an sum of the first 100 positive even numbers.
argument or drawing a conclusion. The known quantity is that we are summing
➢ Premises are the foundational pieces of 100 even numbers.
information or evidence that are used
to support or justify a conclusion.
Major Premises - The major premise is the Devise a Plan - To find the sum of even
general statement or principle that provides numbers, we can use the formula for the sum
the overarching context for the argument. of an arithmetic series, which is Sn = n/2 * (2a
Minor Premises - The minor premise is a + (n-1)d), where Sn is the sum, n is the number
specific statement or fact that is related to of terms, a is the first term, and d is the
the major premise. It provides information common difference. In this case, a is 2, d is 2
about a particular case or situation. (because the numbers are even and the
difference between them is 2), and n is 100.
Carry Out the Plan - Apply the formula: Sn = called the second differences. The
100/2 * (2*2 + (100-1)*2). differences of the second differences are
called the third differences.
Sn = 50 * (4 + 198) = 50 * 202 = 10,100.
So, the sum of the first 100 positive even
numbers is 10,100.
That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to
produce the next first difference, 25. We
Review the Solution - Check your solution to then add this difference to the fifth term,
ensure it makes sense. In this case, it does, as 65., to predict that 90 is the next term in the
the sum is a positive number, and the method sequence. This process can be repeated to
used is appropriate for finding the sum of an predict additional terms of the sequence.
arithmetic series.

Problem Solving with Patterns

➢ An ordered list of numbers such as
5,14,27,44,65 … is called a sequence. First Differences
➢ A sequence in math is an ordered list of To find the first differences of a sequence,
objects or events that follow a you subtract each term from the term that
particular pattern or rule comes after it. If the first differences are
nth-Term Formula for a Sequence constant, then the sequence is linear. If the
first differences are not constant, then you
move on to the second differences.
➢ The “nth” term is a formula with “n” in
it which enables you to find any term
of a sequence without having to go up
from one term to the next. Second Differences
➢ “n” stands for the term number, so to To find the second differences of a sequence,
find the 50th term, we would just you subtract each first difference from the
substitute 50 in the formula in place first difference that comes after it. If the
of “n”. second differences are constant, then the
sequence is quadratic. If the second
differences are not constant, then you move
Example: 1,4,7,10, … This has a on to the third differences.
difference which is 3.
• Find the nth term by using this formula: Third Differences
• nth term = 𝑑𝑛 + (𝑎 − 𝑑)
To find the third differences of a sequence,
• Where 𝑑 is the difference between the you subtract each second difference from the
terms, 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑛 is the second difference that comes after it. If the
third differences are constant, then the
term number. nth term = 3𝑛 + (1 − 3) sequence is cubic. If the third differences are
• Which becomes nth term = 3𝑛 – 2 not constant, then the sequence is neither
linear, quadratic, nor cubic.
Difference Table
The difference table shows the differences
between successive terms of the sequence.

The differences in row (1) are called the first

differences of the sequence. Thus, if we use
the above difference table to predict the
next number in the sequence, we predict that
14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence.

The following is a difference table for the

sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

The first differences are not all the same. In

such a situation it is often helpful to compute
the successive differences of the first
differences. These are shown in row (2). These
differences of the first differences are