Chapter 1

Introduction

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 1.0 Technology Revolution
• 18th Century Mechanical systems
• 19th Century Steam Engine
• 20th Century Information
- gathering
- distribution
- processing
- creating
• 21st Century Networks
Human-to-Human, Machine-to-Machine
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 What is a Computer Network
◆A set of communication elements connected by
communication links
router
workstation
➭ Communication elements
server
● Computers, printers, mobile phones, … mobile
● Routers, switches, ...
local ISP
➭ Communication links
● optic fiber
● coaxial cable regional ISP
● twisted pair
● wireless (radio, microwave, satellite)

➭ Topologies
● Ring, Star, Bus, Tree, Mesh

company
network 3
 What is a Computer Network
◆ A software/hardware infrastructure
➭ Share resources
● data, files, computing power, video,…

➭ Information highway
● communication between geographically dispersed users

➭ Electronic Society
● Cyberspace
● Virtual global nation

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 Introduction
 Computer Network
– an interconnected collection of autonomous computers
Internet: “network of networks”
– loosely hierarchical
– public Internet versus private intranet
WWW a distributed systems run on the top of Internet
 Distributed System
– High degree of cohesiveness and transparency
– A software system built on top of a network

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1.1 Uses of Computer Networks

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues

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Business Applications of Networks
a. Resource sharing (hardware, software, information, …)
b. Providing communication medium (e-mail, videoconferenceing)
c. Doing business electronically (B2B, B2C, e-commerce)

A network with two clients and one server.

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Goals of Networks for Companies
 Resource sharing: equipment, programs, data
 high reliability
– replicated data
– hardware
 Saving money
– mainframe: 10 times faster, but 1000 times more
expensive than PC
– client-server model
 Scalability
– mainframe: replace a larger one
– client-server model: add more servers
 Communication medium for separated employees 8
Business Applications of Networks (2)
a. Two processes are involved
b. A communication network is needed

The client-server model involves requests and replies.

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Home Network Applications

• Access to remote information

• Person-to-person communication
• Interactive entertainment
• Electronic commerce

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 Networks for People
– Access to remote information
• e.g.: financial, shopping, customized newspapers,
on-line digital library, WWW
– Person-to-person communication
• email, video conference, newsgroup
– Interactive entertainment
• VOD, interactive movies or TVs, game playing

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 Home Network Applications (2)

In peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

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Home Network Applications (3)

Music sharing

Some forms of e-commerce.

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 Mobile Network Users
Wireless Mobile Applications

No No Desktop computers in offices

No Yes A notebook computer used in a hotel room

Yes NO Networks in older, unwired buildings

Yes Yes Store inventory with a handheld computer

Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing.

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 Social Issues
• Network neutrality
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act
• Profiling users
• Phishing

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 Network Hardware

• Personal area networks

• Local area networks
• Metropolitan area networks
• Wide are networks
• The internet

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 Network Hardware

Types of transmission technology

• Broadcast links
• Point-to-point links

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 Network Hardware
– Broadcast networks
• single communication channel shared by all
machines
• broadcasting or multicasting (via packets)
– broadcasting: a special code in address field
– multicasting: reserve one bit to indicate multicasting, the
remaining n-1address bits can hold a group number. Each
machine can subscribe to any groups
• used by localized networks (or satellites)
– point-to-point networks
• many hops
• routing algorithms: multiple routes are possible
• used by large networks 18
 Network Hardware

Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

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Personal Area Network

Bluetooth PAN configuration

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 Local Area Networks

Wireless and wired LANs. (a) 802.11. (b) Switched Ethernet.

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Local Area Networks (LANs)
· Characterics of LANs: (a) privated-owned, (b) small size,
(c) transmission technology, (d) topology
· Ethernets are most popular (up to 10 Gb/s)

Four broadcast networks

(a) Bus 802.3
(b) Ring 802.5
(c) Token Ring 802.4 22
(d) Wireless LAN 802.11
 Local Area Networks
 Characteristics
– small size
– transmission technology
• single cable (single channel)
• 10Mbps ~ 10Gb/s
• 10Gb/s : 10,000,000.000 bps
– topology:
• bus
– Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): 10 or 100 Mbps (10Gb/s)
• ring
– IBM token ring (IEEE 802.5): 4 or 16 Mbps
• Wireless broadcast
 Channel allocation of broadcast networks
– static: each machine has an allocated time slot
– dynamic 23
Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

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 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
·WANs are point-to-point networks
·WANs consist of two distinct components:
transmission lines (copper, fiber, microwave) and switches (electronics, optics)
 Store-and-forward or packet-switched subnet

Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet. 25

 Wide Area Networks

WAN that connects three branch offices in Australia

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Wide Area Networks

WAN using a virtual private network.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Wide Area Networks

WAN using an ISP network.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Network Topology

29
 Subnet (WANs)
Subnet (WANs) is consists of two components:
– transmission lines (circuits, channels, trunks)
• move bits between machines
– switching elements
• connect transmission lines
• Router: also called packet switching nodes,
intermediate systems, and data switching exchanges
• Operate in store-and-forward, or packet-switched
mode.

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 Wide Area Networks (2)

 Routing decisions are made locally·

 How A makes that decision is called the routing algorithm.
 Will be studied in detail in Chapter 6.

A stream of packets from sender to receiver. (virtual- circuit)

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9/17 End
 Network Software
• Protocol Hierarchies (Layer structure)
• Design Issues for the Layers
• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• The Relationship of Services to Protocols

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 Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
– a series of layers (levels)
– lower layer provides service to higher layers
– protocol:
• an agreement between the communication parties on how
communication is to proceed
– Peers:
• the corresponding layers on different machines.
– Network architecture: a set of layers and protocols
– Protocol stack:
• a list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per
layer
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 Network Software
Virtual
Protocol Hierarchies Communication

 Peer

Physical
Communication

Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

Network Architecture: A set of layers and protocols 34
Protocol Stack: A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer.
 Network Software
◆ Layering
➭ To make things simple: modularization container
➭ Different layer has different functions
➭ Create layer boundary such that
● description of services can be small
● number of interactions across boundary are minimized
● potential for interface standardized

➭ Different level of abstraction in the handling of data (e.g.,

syntax, semantics)
➭ Provide appropriate services to upper layer
➭ Use service primitives of lower layer
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 Protocol Hierarchies

The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.

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 Protocol Hierarchies
Message segmentation Encapsulation

Example information flow supporting virtual communication

37
in layer 5.
 Design Issues for the Layers
• Addressing (telephone number, e-mail address, IP
address,…)
• Error Control (error correction codes, ARQ,
HARQ,…)
• Flow Control (feedback-based, rate-based)
• Multiplexing (gathering several small messages
with the same destination into a single large
message or vice versa  Demultiplexing)
• Routing (directing traffic to the destination)

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 Design Issues for Layers
 Identify senders and receivers
– multiple computers and processes: addressing
 Data transfer
– simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex communication
– # of logical channels per connections, priorities
 Error control
– error detection
– error correction
 Sequencing of pieces

39
 Design Issues for Layers
 Flow control
– feedback from the receiver
– agreed upon transmission rate
 Length of messages
– long messages: disassemble, transmit, and reassmeble
messages
– short messages: gather several small messages
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
– when expensive to set up a separate connection
– needed in physical layer
 Routing: split over two or more layers
– High level: London -> France or Germany -> Rome
– Low level: many available circuits 40
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Services

Movie download

Voice over IP

Text messaging

Six different types of service.

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Service Primitives (operations) (1)

ACCEPT Accept an incoming connection from a peer

Six service primitives that provide a simple

connection-oriented service
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 Service Primitives (2)
If the protocol stack is located in the operating system,
the primitives are normally system calls.

Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a

connection-oriented network.
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 Services to Protocols Relationship
·The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users

·A service is a set of primitives that a layer provides to the layer above it.
·A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets which are
exchanged by the peer entities in the same layer.
Services related to the interfaces between layers;
 Protocols related to the packets sent between peer entities on different machine.
Service Users

Service Providers

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The relationship between a service and a protocol.
 Reference Models

• OSI reference model

• TCP/IP reference model
• Model used for this text
• Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
• Critique of OSI model and protocols
• Critique of the TCP/IP model

45
 The design principle of the OSI
reference model
• A layer should be created where a different
abstraction is needed
• Each layer should perform a well defined function
• The function of each layer can be chosen as an
international standard
• The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize
the information flow across the interfaces
• The number of layers should be not too large or not
too small (optimum)

46
 Reference Models

The OSI
reference
model.

47
 The functions of the seven layers
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel
• The data link layer performs flow control and also transforms a raw
transmission facility into a line that appears error free (ARQ)
• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, e.g. routing,
flow control, internetworking,…
• The transport layer performs assembling and disassembling,
isolates the upper layers from the changes in the network hardware,
and determines the type of services
• The session layer establishes sessions (dialog control, …)
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
• The application layer contains a variety of commonly used
protocols (e.g. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol for WWW, file
transfer, e-mail, network news,…)
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The TCP/IP Reference Models Layers

• Link layer
• Internet layer
• Transport layer
• Application layer

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The TCP/IP Reference Model (1)

The TCP/IP reference model

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 The TCP/IP Reference Model (2)

The TCP/IP reference model with some protocols we will study

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 The Model Used in this Book

The reference model used in this book.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Comparing OSI and TCP/IP Models
Concepts central to the OSI model
• Services: defines layer’s semantics
• Interfaces: tells the processes above it
how to access it.
• Protocols
Probably the biggest contribution of the OSI model is to make the
distinction between these three concepts explicit.

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A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols

Why OSI did not take over the world

• Bad timing
• Bad technology
• Bad implementations
• Bad politics

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 Bad Timing

investment
opportunity

right time
new
to make
discovery

The apocalypse of the two elephants.

55
 Bad Technology
• The choice of seven layers was political
- session and presentation layers are nearly empty
- Data and network layers are overfull
• The OSI model is extraordinarily complex
• Some functions e.g. addressing, flow control,
error control reappear again and again

56
 Bad Implementations
• Huge, Unwieldy, and Slow

Bad Politics
• Bureaucrats involved too much (European
telecommunication ministries, community, us
government)

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 A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model

Problems:
• Service, interface, and protocol not distinguished
• Not a general model
• Host-to-network “layer” not really a layer (is an interface)
• No mention of physical and data link layers
• Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to replace
(The virtual terminal protocol, TELNET, was designed
for mechanical teletype terminal)

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 Hybrid Model

The hybrid reference model to be used in this book.

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 Example Networks
• Internet
• ARPANET
• NSFNET
• Third-generation mobile phone networks
• Wireless LANs: 802.11
• RFID and sensor networks

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 The ARPANET

(a) Structure of the telephone system.

(b) Baran’s proposed distributed switching system. 61
 ARPANET (1969-1989)

 Original backbone of Internet

 Wide area network around which TCP/IP was developed
 Funding from Advanced Research Project Agency
 Initial speed 50 Kbps

62
The ARPANET (2)

The original ARPANET design.

63
 The ARPANET (3)

Growth of the ARPANET (a) December 1969. (b) July 1970.

(c) March 1971. (d) April 1972. (e) September 1972. 64
 NSFNET

The NSFNET backbone in 1988.

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 NSFNET (1987-1992)

 Funded by National Science Foundation

􀀀
 Motivation: Internet backbone to connect all scientists and engineers
􀀀
 Introduced Internet hierarchy
– Wide area backbone spanning geographic U.S.
– Many mid-level (regional) networks that attach to backbone
– Campus networks at lowest level
􀀀
 Initial speed 1.544 Mbps

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Architecture of the Internet

Overview of the Internet architecture

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 Internet Usage
Traditional applications (1970 – 1990)
• E-mail
• News
• Remote login
• File transfer
World Wide Web changed all that and brought millions of new,
nonacademic users.
Internet Service Providers (ISP) offer individual users at home
the ability to call up one of their machines and connect to
the Internet to access all kinds of services.
68
 Third-Generation Mobile
Phone Networks (1)

Cellular design of mobile phone networks

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Third-Generation Mobile
Phone Networks (2)

Architecture of the UMTS 3G mobile phone network.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Third-Generation Mobile
Phone Networks (3)

Mobile phone handover (a) before, (b) after.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Wireless LANs

(a) Wireless networking with a base station.

(b) Ad hoc networking.
72
Wireless LANs: 802.11 (1)

Multipath fading
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 Wireless LANs (2)

The range of a single radio may not cover the entire system.
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Wireless LANs (3)

A multicell 802.11 network.

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 Network Standardization

• Who’s Who in the Telecommunications World

• Who’s Who in the International Standards World
• Who’s Who in the Internet Standards World

76
 Standard Organizations
◆ Telecommunication
➭ International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
● Telecommunications Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
◆ International Standard
➭ International Standards Organization (ISO)
● ANSI (USA), ETSI (Europe)
● BSI (Great Britain)
● AFNOR(France)
➭ IEEE
◆ Internet Standard
➭ Internet Activities Board (IAB, 1983)
➭ Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
➭ Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
➭ Request for Comments (RFC)
● http://cache2.cis.nctu.edu.tw/Documents/rfc/
● ftp://ftp.merit.edu/internet/documents/rfc/
➭ Internet Draft Standard
➭ Internet Standard
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 ITU
• Main sectors
• Radiocommunications
• Telecommunications Standardization
• Development
• Classes of Members
• National governments
• Sector members
• Associate members
• Regulatory agencies
78
Network Standardization

• Who’s Who in telecommunications

• Who’s Who in international standards
• Who’s Who in internet standards

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Who’s Who in International Standards (1)

(WiFi)

The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked with *.
The ones marked with  are hibernating. The one marked with
† gave up and disbanded itself.
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 Metric Units

The principal metric prefixes.

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 History of Networking

◆ 1969: ARPANET
◆ 1970’s: ALOHA, Ethernet, DECNet, SNA
◆ 1980’s: Proliferation of LAN (Ethernet, Token Ring)
◆ 1987: High speed LAN/MAN (FDDI), BISDN (ATM)
◆ 1990: High speed WAN (NSFNET, 45 Mbps)
◆ 1993: High speed Ethernet (Fast Ethernet, EtherSwitch)
◆ 1996: Interent II (622Mbps)
◆ 1998: Gigabit Ethernet

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 History of Taiwan’s Network
◆ TANET
➭ 1991/12: 64Kbps
➭ 1992/12: 256Kbps
➭ 1994/10: 512Kbps
➭ 1995/12: T1
➭ 1997/5: T3
➭ Current Status:
● T3 to USA by the end of 1998 (Policy routing enforced)
● T3 backbone around the island
● Add a T3 from MOE to CCU
● Internet II (1999/6)

◆ HiNet (1994), SeedNet(數位聯合股份公司)

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