Fluid Mechanics I

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

2nd EDITION
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2010

Introduction
 Mechanics is the oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
 The branch of mechanics that deals with
bodies at rest is called statics, while the
branch that deals with bodies in motion
is called dynamics. The subcategory
fluid mechanics is defined as the
science that deals with the behavior of
fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion
(fluid dynamics), and the interaction of
fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries. Fluid mechanics is also
referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity (Fig. 1–
1). FIGURE 1–1 Fluid mechanics deals
with liquids and gases in motion or at
rest. © Vol. 16/Photo Disc .

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Introduction
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The
study of
 Hydrodynamics: the motion of fluids that are practically
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at
low speeds) is usually referred to as.
 A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with
liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
 Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through
nozzles at high speeds.
 Aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low
speeds.
 Some other specialized categories such as meteorology,
oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring
flows.

What is a fluid?
 A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as
a fluid.
 Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the
basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied
shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its
shape.
 A solid can resist an applied shear stress by
deforming, whereas a fluid deforms continuously under
the influence of shear stress, no matter how small.
 In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids
stress is proportional to strain rate. When a constant
shear force is applied, a solid eventually stops
deforming, at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid
never stops deforming and approaches a certain rate
of strain.

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 What is a fluid?
 Distinction between solid and fluid?
 Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming.
Stress is proportional to strain
 Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear.
Stress is proportional to strain rate

Solid Fluid

F F V
   
A A h

What is a fluid?
 Stress is defined as
the force per unit area.
 Normal component:
normal stress
 In a fluid at rest, the
normal stress is called
pressure
 Tangential
component: shear
stress

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What is a fluid?
 A liquid takes the shape of
the container it is in and
forms a free surface in the
presence of gravity
 A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of
the container and fills the
entire available space.
Gases cannot form a free
surface
 Gas and vapor are often
used as synonymous
words

What is a fluid?
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases. One
reason is that molecules in solids are closely packed together, whereas in
gases they are separated by relatively large distances
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

solid liquid gas

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Differences between liquid and gases

Liquid Gas

Difficult to compress and often Easy to compress – changes of

regarded as incompressible volume is large, cannot normally be
neglected and are related to
temperature
Occupies a fixed volume and will No fixed volume, it changes volume
take the shape of the container to expand to fill the containing
vessels

A free surface is formed if the Completely fill the vessel so that no

volume of container is greater than free surface is formed.
the liquid.

What is a fluid?
Macroscopic or classical approach: Does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to analyze engineering
problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach: Based on the
average behavior of large groups of individual molecules.

On a microscopic scale, pressure

is determined by the interaction of
individual gas molecules.
However, we can measure the
pressure on a macroscopic scale
with a pressure gage.

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Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
Almost everything in our world is either in contact with a fluid
or is itself a fluid. Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in
many areas of engineering and science. Examples are:

 Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries and veins
 Airflow in the lungs
 Flow of cerebral fluid

 Households
 Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage
 Piping and ducting network of heating and air-conditioning systems
 Refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, dish washer, washing machine, water
meter, natural gas meter, air conditioner, radiator, etc.

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

 Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
 Movements of air currents and water currents
 Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment,
pollution-control equipment, etc.
 Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets,
jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, the cooling
of electronic components, and the transportation of water,
crude oil, and natural gas.
 Civil Engineering
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
 Design of piping systems
 Flood control systems

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 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
 Chemical Engineering
 Design of chemical processing equipment
 Turbomachines: pump, turbine, fan, blower, propeller, etc.
 Military: Missile, aircraft, ship, underwater vehicle, dispersion of
chemical agents, etc.
 Automobile: IC engine, air conditioning, fuel flow, external
aerodynamics, etc.
 Medicine: Heart assist device, artificial heart valve, glucose monitor,
controlled drug delivery, etc.
 Electronics: Convective cooling of generated heat.
 Energy: Combuster, burner, boiler, gas, hydro and wind turbine, etc.
 Oil and Gas: Pipeline, pump, valve, offshore rig, oil spill cleanup,
etc.

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively in

the design of artificial hearts. Shown
here is the Penn State Electric Total
Artificial Heart.

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Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

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Continuum hypothesis
 Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced
in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to
disregard the atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with
no holes, that is, a continuum.

 The continuum idealization allows us to treat

properties as point functions and to assume the
properties vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.

Continuum hypothesis
 This idealization is valid
as long as the size of the
system we deal with is
large relative to the space
between the molecules.

 This is the case in Despite the relatively large

practically all problems. gaps between molecules, a
substance can be treated as
a continuum because of the
very large number of
molecules even in an
extremely small volume.

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Continuum hypothesis

 The continuum assumption is very good

provided that the flow length scale is larger
than the mean free path.
 It is characterized by the Knudsen number,
which is defined as Mean free path: average
distance that molecules travel
between successive collisions
𝐾 =
Flow length scale such
As diameter of pipe in
case pipe flow

Continuum hypothesis

If 𝐾 ≪ 1 Continuum
If 𝐾 ≫ 1 Free molecular flow
Otherwise Transitional

Gases - 𝜆 ≃ 100 𝑛𝑚
Liquids - 𝜆 ≃ 0.3 𝑛𝑚

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Continuum hypothesis
The length scale associated with most flows, such as
seagulls in flight, is orders of magnitude larger than the
mean free path of the air molecules. Therefore, here, and
for all fluid flows considered in this course, the continuum
idealization is appropriate.

No-slip condition
 No-slip condition: A fluid in
direct contact with a solid
``sticks'‘ to the surface due to
viscous effects
 Responsible for generation of
wall shear stress w, surface
drag D= ∫w dA, and the
development of the boundary
layer
 The fluid property responsible
for the no-slip condition is
viscosity
 Important boundary condition
in formulating initial boundary
value problem (IBVP) for
analytical and computational
fluid dynamics analysis

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No-slip condition
When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface, the
boundary layer can no longer remain attached to the
surface, and at some point it separates from the surface—
a process called flow separation. We emphasize that the
no-slip condition applies everywhere along the surface,
even downstream of the separation point.

Boundary layer:
The flow region
adjacent to the wall
in which the viscous
effects (and thus the
velocity gradients)
are significant.

A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics

Assignment 1

Describe brief history of Fluid

Mechanics.

Submit 1-2 page, written in your

own words

Last date: 16/02/2021

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A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics
 The interest in fluid behavior dates back to the ancient
civilizations.
 How spears and arrows could be propelled through the air
 The development of water supply and irrigation systems
 The design of boats and ships.
 These developments were of course based on trial and
error procedures without any knowledge of
mathematics or mechanics. However, it was the
accumulation of such empirical knowledge that formed
the basis for further development during the
emergence of the ancient Greek civilization and the
subsequent rise of the Roman Empire.

A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics

 Some of the earliest writings that pertain to modern
fluid mechanics are those of Archimedes (287–212
B.C.), a Greek mathematician and inventor who first
expressed the principles of hydrostatics and flotation.
 Elaborate water supply systems were built by the
Romans during the period from the fourth century B.C.
through the early Christian period, and Sextus Julius
Frontinus (A.D. 40–103), a Roman engineer,
described these systems in detail.
 However, for the next 1000 years during the Middle
Ages (also referred to as the Dark Ages), there
appears to have been little added to further
understanding of fluid behavior.

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A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics
 During middle ages, the elegant piston pumps were
developed for dewatering mines, and the watermill
and windmill were perfected to grind grain, forge
metal, and for other tasks.
 For the first time in recorded human history significant
work was being done without the power of a muscle
supplied by a person or animal, and these inventions
are generally credited with enabling the later industrial
revolution.
 The creators of most of the progress are unknown, but
the devices themselves were well documented by
several technical writers such as Georgius Agricola

A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics

 From the Renaissance period (about the fifteenth
century) a rather continuous series of contributions
began that forms the basis of what we consider to be
the science of fluid mechanics.
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) described through
sketches and writings many different types of flow
phenomena.
 The work of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) marked the
beginning of experimental mechanics. Following the
early Renaissance period and during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, numerous significant
contributions were made.

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A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics

 From the Renaissance period (about the fifteenth

century) a rather continuous series of contributions
began that forms the basis of what we consider to be
the science of fluid mechanics.
 Leonardo da Vinci 11452–15192 described through
sketches and writings many different types of flow
phenomena. The work of Galileo Galilei 11564–
16422marked the beginning of experimental
mechanics. Following the early Renaissance period
and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
numerous significant contributions were made.

A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics

 These include theoretical and mathematical advances
associated with the famous names of Newton,
Bernoulli, Euler, and d’Alembert.
 Experimental aspects of fluid mechanics were also
advanced during this period, but unfortunately the two
different approaches, theoretical and experimental,
developed along separate paths.
 Hydrodynamics was the term associated with the
theoretical or mathematical study of idealized,
frictionless fluid behavior, with the term hydraulics
being used to describe the applied or experimental
aspects of real fluid behavior, particularly the behavior
of water.

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A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics
 Further contributions and refinements were made to
both theoretical hydrodynamics and experimental
hydraulics during the nineteenth century, with the
general differential equations describing fluid motions
that are used in modern fluid mechanics being
developed in this period. Experimental hydraulics
became more of a science, and many of the results of
experiments performed during the nineteenth century
are still used today.
 At the beginning of the twentieth century, both the
fields of theoretical hydrodynamics and experimental
hydraulics were highly developed, and attempts were
being made to unify the two.

A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics

 In 1904 a classic paper was presented by a German
professor, Ludwig Prandtl 11875–19532, who
introduced the concept of a “fluid boundary layer,”
which laid the foundation for the unification of the
theoretical and experimental aspects of fluid
mechanics. Prandtl’s idea was that for flow next to a
solid boundary a thin fluid layer 1boundary
layer2develops in which friction is very important, but
outside this layer the fluid behaves very much like a
frictionless fluid. This relatively simple concept
provided the necessary impetus for the resolution of
the conflict between the hydrodynamicists and the
hydraulicists. Prandtl is generally accepted as the
founder of modern fluid mechanics.

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A Brief History Of Fluid Mechanics
 Also, during the first decade of the twentieth century,
powered flight was first successfully demonstrated
with the subsequent vastly increased interest in
aerodynamics. Because the design of aircraft required
a degree of understanding of fluid flow and an ability
to make accurate predictions of the effect of air flow
on bodies, the field of aerodynamics provided a great
stimulus for the many rapid developments in fluid
mechanics that took place during the twentieth
century.

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Classification of Flows
 We classify flows as a tool in making simplifying
assumptions to the governing partial-differential
equations, which are known as the Navier-
Stokes equations
 Conservation of Mass

 Conservation of Momentum

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Viscous vs. Inviscid Regions of Flow
 Regions where frictional
effects are significant
are called viscous
regions. They are
usually close to solid
surfaces.
 Regions where frictional
forces are small
compared to inertial or
pressure forces are
called inviscid

Internal vs. External Flow

 Internal flows are
dominated by the
influence of viscosity
throughout the flow
field
 For external flows,
viscous effects are
limited to the
boundary layer and
wake.

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Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow
 A flow is classified as incompressible
if the density remains nearly constant.
 Liquid flows are typically
incompressible.
 Gas flows are often compressible,
especially for high speeds.
 Mach number is a good indicator of
whether or not compressibility effects
are important.

Ma < 0.3 Incompressible flow

Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Ma = 1 Sonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow

Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow

 Laminar: highly ordered
fluid motion with smooth
streamlines.
 Turbulent: highly
disordered fluid motion
characterized by velocity
fluctuations and eddies.
 Transitional: a flow that
contains both laminar
and turbulent regions
 Reynolds number, Re=
rUL/ is the key
parameter in determining
whether or not a flow is
laminar or turbulent.

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Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
 A fluid flow is said to be natural
or forced, depending on how
the fluid motion is initiated.
 In forced flow, a fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such as
a pump or a fan.
 In natural flows, any fluid
motion is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy effect,
which manifests itself as the
rise of the warmer (and thus
lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser) fluid

Steady vs. Unsteady Flow

 Steady implies no change at
a point with time. Transient
terms in N-S equations are
zero
 Unsteady is the opposite of
Instantaneous image steady.
 Transient usually describes a
starting, or developing flow.
 Periodic refers to a flow which
oscillates about a mean.
 Unsteady periodic flows may
appear steady if “time-
averaged”
Time-averaged image

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One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

 A flow field is best characterized by its velocity

distribution.
 A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the
flow velocity varies in one, two, or three dimensions,
respectively.
 However, the variation of velocity in certain directions
can be small relative to the variation in other directions
and can be ignored.
 Lower dimensional flows reduce complexity of analytical
and computational solution
 Change in coordinate system (cylindrical, spherical, etc.)
may facilitate reduction in order.

One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

 Example: for fully-developed pipe flow, velocity V(r) is
a function of radius r and pressure p(z) is a function of
distance z along the pipe.
 The development of the velocity profile in a circular
pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in
the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops
and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).

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One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow may be approximated as two-dimensional when the aspect
ratio is large and the flow does not change appreciably along the
longer dimension.
For example, the flow of air over a car antenna can be considered
two-dimensional except near its ends since the antenna’s length is
much greater than its diameter, and the airflow hitting the antenna is
fairly uniform

System and Control Volume

 System: A quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study.
 Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
 Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
 The boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable.
 Systems may be considered to be
closed or open.

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System and Control Volume
 A closed system (known as
a control mass) consists of a
fixed amount of mass.
 An open system, or control
volume, is a properly
selected region in space. It
usually encloses a device
that involves mass flow such
as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.

System and Control Volume

 In general, any arbitrary region in space

can be selected as a control volume. There
are no concrete rules for the selection of
control volumes, but the proper choice
certainly makes the analysis much easier.

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Dimensions and Units
 Any physical quantity
can be characterized by
dimensions.
 The magnitudes
assigned to dimensions
are called units.
 Primary dimensions (or
fundamental
dimensions) include:
mass m, length L, time
t, and temperature T,
etc. By General Conference of
Weights and Measures

Dimensions and Units

 Secondary dimensions (derived dimensions) can be
expressed in terms of primary dimensions and include:
velocity V, energy E, and volume V.
 Unit systems include English system and the metric SI
(International System). We'll use both.

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 Dimensions and Units
Based on the notational scheme introduced in 1967,
 The degree symbol was officially dropped from the absolute
temperature unit,
 All unit names were to be written without capitalization even if they
were derived from proper names (Table 1–1).
 However, the abbreviation of a unit was to be capitalized if the unit
was derived from a proper name. For example, the SI unit of force,
which is named after Sir Isaac Newton (1647–1723), is newton (not
Newton), and it is abbreviated as N.
 Also, the full name of a unit may be pluralized, but its abbreviation
cannot. For example, the length of an object can be 5 m or 5 meters,
not 5 ms or 5 meter.
 Finally, no period is to be used in unit abbreviations unless they
appear at the end of a sentence. For example, the proper
abbreviation of meter is m (not m.).

Dimensions and Units

Some SI and English Units
 In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram
(kg), meter (m), and second (s), respectively. The respective
units in the English system are the pound-mass (lbm), foot
(ft), and second (s).

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Dimensions and Units
Force Units

We call a mass of 32.174 lbm 1 slug

Dimensions and Units

 Weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force
applied to a body, and its magnitude is
determined from Newton’s second law,

where m is the mass of the body, and g is the local

gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807 m/s2 or
32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 45° latitude).

 The weight of a unit volume of a substance is

called the specific weight g and is determined
from g= rg, where r is density.

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Dimensions and Units
 Work, which is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force
times distance; therefore, it has the unit “newton-meter (N . m),”
which is called a joule (J). That is,

 A more common unit for energy in SI is the kilojoule (1 kJ = 103 J).

In the English system, the energy unit is the Btu (British thermal
unit), which is defined as the energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68°F by 1°F.

 In the metric system, the amount of energy needed to raise the

temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C is defined as 1
calorie (cal), and 1 cal = 4.1868 J. The magnitudes of the kilojoule
and Btu are almost identical (1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ).

Dimensions and Units

 Dimensional homogeneity In engineering, all equations
must be dimensionally homogeneous. That is, every term
in an equation must have the same unit.

 It is a valuable tool in checking for errors. Make sure

every term in an equation has the same units.

 Keep in mind that a formula that is not dimensionally

homogeneous is definitely wrong, but a dimensionally
homogeneous formula is not necessarily right.

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Mathematical modeling of engineering problems
 An engineering device or process can be studied
either
 Experimentally (testing and taking measurements)
Advantage : deal with the actual physical system, and the
desired quantity is determined by measurement, within the
limits of experimental error.
Drawback: approach is expensive, time-consuming, and
often impractical. Besides, the system we are studying may
not even exist.
 Analytically (by analysis or calculations).
Advantage : fast and inexpensive
Drawback: the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of
the assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in
the analysis.
 In engineering studies, often a good compromise is
reached by reducing the choices to just a few by
analysis, and then verifying the findings
experimentally.

Mathematical modeling of engineering problems

 The Computational Fluid Dynamics has been emerged as a
third pillar for investigating the behavior of fluid. It is being
used in many field of science and engineering.

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 Mathematical modeling of engineering problems
Why do we need differential equations? The
descriptions of most scientific problems involve
equations that relate the changes in some key
variables to each other.
In the limiting case of infinitesimal or differential
changes in variables, we obtain differential
equations that provide precise mathematical
formulations for the physical principles and laws by
representing the rates of change as derivatives.
Therefore, differential equations are used to
investigate a wide variety of problems in sciences
and engineering.
Do we always need differential equations? Many
problems encountered in practice can be solved
without resorting to differential equations and the Mathematical modeling of
complications associated with them. physical problems.

Mathematical modeling of engineering problems

Complex model (very accurate)
vs.
Simple model (not-so-accurate)
Simplified models are often used in fluid
mechanics to obtain approximate
solutions to difficult engineering
problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is modeled by
a disk, across which is imposed a sudden
change in pressure. The helicopter's
body is modeled by a simple ellipsoid.
This simplified model yields the essential
features of the overall air flow field in the
vicinity of the ground.
The right choice is usually the simplest
model that yields satisfactory results.

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Problem-solving technique
 Using a step-by-step
approach, an engineer
can reduce the solution
of a complicated
problem into the
solution of a series of
simple problems.

The assumptions made while

solving an engineering problem
must be reasonable and
justifiable.

Problem-solving technique
 Step 1: Problem Statement
 Step 2: Schematic
 Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
 Step 4: Physical Laws
 Step 5: Properties
 Step 6: Calculations
 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion

31
Engineering software packages
 Engineering Equation Solver (EES) is a
program that solves systems of linear or
nonlinear algebraic or differential equations
numerically.
 FLUENT is a computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) code widely used for flow-modeling
applications.

Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits

Engineers must be aware of three principals that govern the proper
use of numbers.

1. Accuracy error : Value of one reading minus the true value.

Closeness of the average reading to the true value. Generally
associated with repeatable, fixed errors.
2. Precision error : Value of one reading minus the average of
readings. Is a measure of the fineness of resolution and
repeatability of the instrument. Generally associated with random
errors.
3. Significant digits : Digits that are relevant and meaningful.
When performing calculations, the final result is only as precise
as the least precise parameter in the problem. When the number
of significant digits is unknown, the accepted standard is 3. Use 3
in all homework and exams.

32
Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits
 A measurement or calculation can be very
precise without being very accurate, and vice
versa. For example, suppose the true value of
wind speed is 25.00 m/s. Two anemometers A
and B take five wind speed readings each:
Anemometer A: 25.50, 25.69, 25.52, 25.58, and
25.61 m/s. Average of all readings = 25.58 m/s.
Anemometer B: 26.3, 24.5, 23.9, 26.8, and 23.6
m/s. Average of all readings = 25.02 m/s.

Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits

In engineering calculations, the supplied information is not
known to more than a certain number of significant digits,
usually three digits.

33
Summary
In this chapter some basic concepts of fluid mechanics are introduced
and discussed.
 A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Fluid
mechanics is the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest or in motion and the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries.
 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface is external flow, and
the flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
 A fluid flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible,
depending on the density variation of the fluid during flow. The
densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of
liquids is typically incompressible.
 The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of
steady is unsteady, or transient.
 The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified
region.
 A flow is said to be one-dimensional when the velocity changes in
one dimension only.

Summary
 A fluid in direct contact with a solid surface sticks to the surface
and there is no slip. This is known as the no-slip condition, which
leads to the formation of boundary layers along solid surfaces.
 A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, and a system
that involves mass transfer across its boundaries is called an
open system or control volume. A large number of engineering
problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and are
therefore modeled as control volumes.
 In engineering calculations, it is important to pay particular
attention to the units of the quantities to avoid errors caused by
inconsistent units, and to follow a systematic approach.
 It is also important to recognize that the information given is not
known to more than a certain number of significant digits, and the
results obtained cannot possibly be accurate to more significant
digits.
The information given on dimensions and units; problem-solving
technique; and accuracy, precision, and significant digits will be
used throughout the entire text.

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Thank You

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