CHAPTER 1

Lesson 1: PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE

A: Nature of Mathematics
The word mathematics comes from the Greek word “máthēma” (noun) which
means "learning”. Mathematics has no universally accepted definition (Tobies, 2012).
According to Webster’s dictionary, “Mathematics is the science of number and their
operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations and abstractions and of
space configurations and generalizations.
Here are some definitions of mathematics from famous mathematicians:
 Mathematics is the science of quantity. – Aristotle
 Mathematics is the language in which god has written in the universe. -
Galileo
 The science of indirect measurement. - Auguste Comte
 Mathematics is the classification and study of all possible patterns. - Walter
Warwick Sawyer
 Mathematics is our one and only strategy for understanding the complexity of
nature. – Ralph Abraham
 Mathematics is a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying, and
exploiting patterns and relationships. - Stewart
It can be seen that the definition of mathematics changes according to specific lights.
Thus, mathematics maybe defined as the study of patterns which may be numerical,
logical or geometric. Mathematics as the study of patterns will be the focus of the
lesson.

B: PATTERNS IN NATURE
Mathematics shapes the world around us! One of the things about Mathematics
that we love the most is it’s uncanny ability to reveal hidden beautiful patterns in our
everyday life, the nature around us.
A pattern is an organized arrangement of objects in space or time. It must have
something that is repeated either exactly or according to recognizable
transformations. It is the opposite of chaos.
Natural patterns include symmetry, stripe, spot, crack, spiral, tessellation, foam,
wave, dunes and fractal.
Symmetry is when a shape looks identical to its original shape after being
flipped or turned. The two main types of symmetry are reflective and rotational.
Reflective, or line, symmetry means that one half of an image is the mirror image of
the other half (think of a butterfly's wings). Rotational symmetry means that the
object or image can be turned around a center point and match itself some number of
times (as in a five-pointed star).
Crack are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. The pattern of
cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. Some examples are old pottery
surface, drying inelastic mud, and palm trunk with branching vertical cracks.
Tesselation or tiling forms a class of patterns found in nature. The arrays of
hexagonal cells in a honeycomb or the diamond-shaped scales that pattern snake skin
are natural examples of tessellation patterns.
Fractal pattern is when an object exhibits self-similar shape or form at any scale
and repeat itself overtime. Trees are natural fractals, patterns that repeat smaller and
smaller copies of themselves to create the biodiversity of a forest.

C: NUMBERS IN NATURE
The natural world is full of sets of numbers. The Fibonacci sequence (0, 1, 1,
2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 and so on), that is, it follows a trivial logic in which the sum
of the later two numbers gives rise to the next number in the sequence. It is a simple
pattern, but it appears to be a kind of built-in numbering system to the universe.
An interesting fact is that the number of petals on a flower always turns out to be a
fibonacci number.
The unique properties of the Golden Rectangle provides another example.
This shape, a rectangle in which the ratio of the sides a/b is equal to the golden mean
(phi), can result in a nesting process that can be repeated into infinity — and which
takes on the form of a spiral. It's call the logarithmic spiral, and it abounds in nature.
Snail shells and nautilus shells follow the logarithmic spiral, as does the
cochlea of the inner ear. It can also be seen in the horns of certain goats, and the
shape of certain spider's webs

Lesson 2: The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio

A: Sequence
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers; the numbers in this ordered list are
called the elements or the terms of the sequence. The arrangement of these terms is
set by a definite rule. If a1, a2, a3, a4,……… etc. denote the terms of a sequence, then
1,2,3,4,…..denotes the position of the term.
A sequence can be defined based upon the number of terms i.e. either finite
sequence or infinite sequence. If a1, a2, a3, a4, ……. is a sequence, then the
corresponding series is given by
SN = a1+a2+a3 + .. + aN
EXAMPLES
 {1,2,3,4,…} is a very simple (sequence (and it is an infinite sequence)
 {20,25,30,35,…} is also an infinite sequence.
 {1,3,5,7} is the sequence of the first 4 odd numbers (and is a finite sequence)
 {1,2,4,8,16,32,…} is an infinite sequence where every term doubles
 {a,b,c,d,e} is the sequence of the first 5 letters alphabetically.
The two simplest sequences to work with are arithmetic and geometric
sequences.

1. Arithmetic Sequence
An arithmetic sequence is a list of numbers with a definite pattern.
If you take any number in the sequence then subtract it by the previous one, and the
result is always the same or constant then it is an arithmetic sequence.
The constant difference in all pairs of consecutive or successive numbers in
a sequence is called the common difference, denoted by the letter dd. We use the
common difference to go from one term to another. How? Take the current term and
add the common difference to get to the next term, and so on. That is how the terms
in the sequence are generated
Illustrative Example 1
Find the next term in the sequence below. 2, 5, 8,11,14, ___
We can see that the common difference of the sequence is 3, therefore the
next term will be 14 + 3 = 17
The answer is 17.
Illustrative Example 2
Find the common difference and the next term of the following sequence:
3, 11, 19, 27, 35, ...
To find the common difference, I have to subtract a successive pair of terms.
It doesn't matter which pair I pick, as long as they're right next to each other. To be
thorough, I'll do all the subtractions:
11 – 3 = 8
19 – 11 = 8
27 – 19 = 8
35 – 27 = 8
The difference is always 8, so the common difference is d = 8.
Five terms are given, so the sixth term of the sequence is going to be the very
next term. I find the next term by adding the common difference to the fifth term:
35 + 8 = 43
Then the answer is:
common difference: d = 8
sixth term: 433

2. Geometric Sequence
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is
found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the
common ratio.
A geometric sequence goes from one term to the next by always multiplying (or
dividing) by the same value. So 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,... is geometric, because each step
multiplies by two;
The number multiplied (or divided) at each stage of a geometric
sequence is called the "common ratio" r, because if you divide (that is, if you find the
ratio of) successive terms, you'll always get this common value.
Illustrative Example 3
Find the common ratio and the seventh term of the following sequence:
To find the common ratio, Divide a successive pair of terms. It doesn't matter
which pair you pick, as long as they're right next to each other. To be thorough, I'll
do all the divisions:

B: The Fibonacci Sequence

The exact origination of the Fibonacci sequence is unknown. It was believed the
contribution of the theory began in 200 BC by Indian mathematics whose studies
were based on Sanskrit prosody. Many sources claim it was first discovered or
"invented" by Leonardo Fibonacci. The Italian mathematician, who was born around
A.D. 1170, was originally known as Leonardo of Pisa. In 1202 Leonardo of Pisa
published the massive tome "Liber Abaci". "Liber Abaci" laid out Hindu- Arabic
arithmetic useful for tracking profits, losses, remaining loan balances and so on. In the
"Liber Abaci," Fibonacci poses this mathematical problem: if a pair of rabbits breeds
once a month, and each pair they produce can also breed new pairs at one month old,
how many pairs of rabbits will be bred in a year, starting with the one pair? The
answer is contained in a sequence that begins 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 and continues, working
out to 377 pairs by the end of the year. The principal of the sequence is that it is built
by adding two adjacent terms to get the next term to add to the series. Indian scholars
had already studied the sequence in the century before Fibonacci published the "Liber
Abaci" and he didn't claim it as his own, but because he introduced it to the West, the
sequence is associated with him. It was French mathematician Edouard Lucas who
named it the Fibonacci sequence in the late 1800s.

What is Fibonacci Sequence?

The Fibonacci sequence is a set of numbers that starts with a one or a zero, followed
by a one, and proceeds based on the rule that each number (called a Fibonacci
number) is equal to the sum of the preceding two numbers. If the Fibonacci sequence
is denoted F (n), where n is the first term in the sequence, the following equation
obtains for n = 0, where the first two terms are defined as 0 and 1 by
convention: F (0) = 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ...
In some texts, it is customary to use n = 1. In that case, the first two terms are
defined as 1 and 1 by default, and therefore:
F (1) = 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ...
The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it:

the 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1),

the 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),

the 5 is (2+3),

and so on!

The Fibonacci Spiral

The Fibonacci spiral also known as golden spiral has an association with the golden
mean, and it is based on the Fibonacci sequence. Fibonacci spiral is also reefed to as
golden spiral. In logarithm, it means a logarithmic spiral which gets wider by a factor
of ɸ after making a quarter turn. A Fibonacci spiral having an initial radius of 1 has a
polar equation similar to that of other logarithmic spirals Fibonacci spiral is based on
Fibonacci numbers, which are set of numbers arranged in integer sequences referred
to as the Fibonacci sequence. These numbers are characterized in such a way that
each of the numbers after the first two numbers represent the sum of two numbers
before it. The first two numbers in the sequence can either be 0 and 1 or 1 and 1. The
starting point notwithstanding, the subsequent number is always the sum of the two
numbers before it. The sequence of these numbers can be defined by what is termed
the Recurrence Relation.

Did You know that Fibonacci Sequence is Everywhere?

Fibonacci's sequence is all around us. In nature, the number of petals on a flower is
usually a Fibonacci number, the branches of the tress follows the Fibonacci sequence,
and the spiraling growth of a sea shell progresses at the same rate as the Fibonacci
sequence, in art, music and architecture

C: The Golden Ratio

Golden ratio, also known as the golden section, golden mean, or divine
proportion, in mathematics, the irrational number (1 + √5)/2, often denoted by the
Greek letter ϕ or τ, which is approximately equal to 1.61803 39887 49894 84820. In
the world of mathematics, the numeric value is called "phi", named for the Greek
sculptor Phidias.
It is the ratio of a line segment cut into two pieces of different lengths such
that the ratio of the whole segment to that of the longer segment is equal to the ratio
of the longer segment to the shorter segment. The origin of this number can be traced
back to Euclid, who mentions it as the “extreme and mean ratio” in the Elements.

The Equation form of the Golden Ratio is

where a is the longer segment and b is the shorter segment

What is the relationship of the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci

Sequence?
The relationship of the Fibonacci sequence to the Golden Ratio lies not in the actual
numbers of the sequence, but in the ratio of the consecutive numbers. Since a Ratio is
basically a fraction (or a division problem). The ratios of these numbers by dividing
the larger number by the smaller number that falls consecutively in the series.
Considering the numbers in the Fibonacci Sequence, the ratio will look like
this
2/1 = 2.0
3/2 = 1.5
5/3 = 1.67
8/5 = 1.6
13/8 = 1.625
21/13 = 1.615
34/21 = 1.619
55/34 = 1.618
89/55 = 1.618
Did You know that the Golden Ratio is Everywhere?
The famous Fibonacci sequence has captivated mathematicians, artists, designers, and
scientists for centuries. Also known as the Golden Ratio, its ubiquity and astounding
functionality in nature suggests its importance as a fundamental
characteristic of the Universe. The number of petals in flowers, spiraling patterns of
seeds like sunflower, pinecones, tree branches, shells, the spiraling patter of galaxies,
hurricanes, human face and fingers, animal bodies, and even the DNA molecules are
just few examples that exhibits the golden ratio (Dvorsky, 2013).
1.
Golden Ratio in Humans
The golden ratio is supposed to be at the heart of many of the proportions in the
human body. These include the shape of the perfect face and also the ratio of the
height of the navel to the height of the body. Indeed, it is claimed that just about every
proportion of the perfect human face has a link to the golden ratio. The body has
many possible ratios, lots of which lie somewhere between 1 and 2. If you consider
enough of them then you are bound to get numbers close to the value of the golden
ratio (around 1.618). Pictures below show some examples of golden ratio in the
human body.
2.
Golden Ratio in Architecture and Engineering
Architects keep the golden ratio in mind when it comes time to decide how a
building’s floor plan will flow. It’s used when determining features such as how to
properly determine a buildings layout, space out windows, and determine where a
door should be placed in a room. While these proportions are considered of secondary
importance to the building’s structural integrity, adherence to the ratio increases
chances that people will find the building aesthetically pleasing
3.
Golden Ratio in Arts and Design
The golden ratio has been used by artists to locate aesthetically pleasing areas to place
our subjects and distribute weight in our paintings. It appears to have been used in this
famous paintings by Michelangelo as well as the paintings of Leonardo the Vinci.
4.
Golden Ratio in Nature
Nature is filled with patterns – spirals, in particular, are especially noticeable in
species of plants and animals. Sunflowers seed are arranged in spiral pattern. Snail
shells, too, show growth rings that become gradually larger as they spiral away from
the shell’s center. Evergreen cones, heads of broccoli and cauliflower, and
tree branches all display noticeable iterations of this spiraling pattern.Scientists
speculate that plants that grow in spiral formation do so in Fibonacci numbers because
this arrangement makes for the perfect spacing for growth. In summary, Fibonacci
numbers are present throughout the world in which we live, and the patterns which
can be formed from them both astonish and perplex the mind. The Fibonacci numbers
are beautiful to study in and of themselves, but there is a higher beauty to them as
well. These numbers highlight the incredible order and mathematical complexity of
the world we live in.

Lesson 3: FUNCTIONALITY OF MATHEMATICS

A: Mathematics for Organization

What is the role of Mathematics in the development of the
society?
Mathematics has a vital and unique role in the human societies and represents a
strategic key in the development of the whole mankind. The ability to compute,
related to the power of technology and to the ability of social organization, and the
geometrical understanding of spacetime, that is the physical world and its natural
patterns, show the role of Mathematics in the development of a Society. The society
consists of its members (human being), who make government and organize the
natural resources to develop infrastructure. The human beings are the one who
develop the society. Therefore, we will discuss the role of mathematics in the
development of an individual as well as the development of the society. A lot of
events happen around us. For us to make sense of all available information, we need
mathematical tools to help us make sound analysis and better decisions. Mathematics
is well integrated into the technological, industrial, military, economic, and political
systems and that mathematics has been relying on these systems for the material bases
of its continuing progress. Mathematics is the solution for all the problems concerning
about the pattern, regularities, and numbers. All patterns were organized since the
beginning, and regularities are involved when revealed in the world. Thus, all living
things around us had patterns and regularities.

B: Mathematics for Prediction

How can we say that Mathematics can help predict the
behavior of nature and phenomena in the world? Using mathematical tools we
create models which correspond to what we can measure and observe in the
world of reality. Models that work really well, that predict behaviors in the
counterpart to the model which have not yet been observed, these are taken as
"laws of nature" Occasionally, the mathematics of laws describing phenomena not
considered related reveal surprising unanticipated relationships.Mathematics provides
the framework within which our observations of the physical world can be encoded. It
goes beyond being merely descriptive when it exposes relationships that integrate
disparate subjects. Mathematics can be used to explain how something recurs in
nature. Mathematics is used to explain why the Sun set, where it went, & why it
returned because it was easier to count these events in numbers than to put them into
words. Similarly, formulas became a way of using numbers to show how things in
nature happen together or oppose one another. Mathematics is helpful especially when
seeking to explain the limitless feeling one gets when contemplating the natural world
that exists outside ourselves. The logic of any idea that can be explained in words can
be reinforced mathematically to reach & persuade a larger audience about its
concurrency with natural phenomena, its economic applicability & it's business
potential.Predicting the size, location, and timing of natural hazards is virtually
impossible, but because of the help of Mathematics, we can forecast calamities
such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and landslides,
etc. Using mathematical tools, we create models which correspond to what we can
measure and observe in the world of reality.Weather forecasting is the
application of science and technology to predict the conditions of the atmosphere
for a given location and time. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather
informally for millennia and formally since the 19th century.
Mathematicians play an important role in this process, working with a set of equations
that describe the atmosphere, taking into the account temperature, pressure, and
humidity. Global Circulation Models (GCMs) describe the interactions between
oceans and atmosphere to look at what the average conditions could be in decades to
come.

C: Mathematics for Control

How can mathematics help us control nature for our own
ends?
Mathematics can help us control nature and occurences in the world for
our own good through mathematical modelling. By mathematical modelling,
we see the inputs to the events and their most likely outcomes. Mathematics could not
even predict these disasters, let alone control then or reduce the
damage. Knowing these inputs and seeing their consequences and establishing their
relationship defined quantitatively, we can prepare for untoward consequences, or
better yet, maybe we can stop them from happeningOccasionally, the mathematics of
laws describing phenomena not considered related reveal surprising unanticipated
relationship. Mathematics provide the framework within which our observations of
the physical world can be encoded. It goes beyond being merely descriptive when it
exposes relationship that integratedifferent subject. The body of knowledge and
practice known as mathematics is derived from the contributions of thinkers
throughout the ages and across the globe. Through the use of mathematics, man is
also able to exert control over himself and the effects of nature. The threat of climate
change and global warming has been the subject of much debate over the years. It is
believed that unless man changes his behavior, patterns are set to indicate that sea
levels could rise to catastrophic levels.
In summary, mathematics plays a huge role in the underpinnings of our world.
We have seen it in living creatures and natural phenomena. We have also looked at
examples of how mathematical concepts could be applied. Whether you are on your
way to becoming a doctor, an engineer, an entrepreneur, or a chef, a knowledge of
mathematics will be helpful. Logical reasoning and critical thinking are crucial skills
that are needed in any endeavor. As such, the study of mathematics should be
embraced as it paves the way for more educated decisions and in a way, brings us
closer to understand the natural world.
SUMMARY
Let us have a recap of what you learned in this module.
 The definition of mathematics changes according to specific lights.
 A pattern is an organized arrangement of objects in space or time.
 Natural patterns include symmetry, stripe, spot, crack, spiral, tessellation,
foam, wave, dunes and fractal.
 Symmetry is when a shape looks identical to its original shape after being
flipped or turned.
 Crack are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress.
 Tesselation or tiling forms a class of patterns found in nature.
 Fractal pattern is when an object exhibits self-similar shape or form at any
scale and repeat itself overtime
 The natural world is full of sets of numbers.
 A sequence is an ordered list of numbers; the numbers in this ordered list are
called the elements or the terms of the sequence.
 An arithmetic sequence is a list of numbers with a definite pattern. If you
take any number in the sequence then subtract it by the previous one, and the
result is always the same or constant then it is an arithmetic sequence.
 A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the
first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number
called the common ratio.
 The Fibonacci sequence is a set of numbers that starts with a one or a zero,
followed by a one, and proceeds based on the rule that each number (called a
Fibonacci number) is equal to the sum of the preceding two numbers.
 Golden ratio (ϕ), also known as the golden section, golden mean, or divine
proportion, is the ratio of a line segment cut into two pieces of different
lengths such that the ratio of the whole segment to that of the longer segment
is equal to the ratio of the longer segment to the shorter segment.
 The Golden ratio is the ratios of two consecutive numbers of the Fibonacci
series.
 Mathematics has a vital and unique role in the human societies and represents
a strategic key in the development of the whole mankind.
 Mathematics can help predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the
world.
 Mathematics help us control nature for our own ends.