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Recent Development in Casting Technology: A Pragmatic Review

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DOI: 10.18280/rcma.320206

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 Revue des Composites et des Matériaux Avancés-Journal
of Composite and Advanced Materials
Vol. 32, No. 2, April, 2022, pp. 91-102
Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/rcma

Recent Development in Casting Technology: A Pragmatic Review

Adekunle A. Adeleke1, Makanjuola Oki2, Ikechukwu K. Anyim2, Peter P. Ikubanni2, Adeolu A. Adediran2, Ayokunle
A. Balogun2, Thomas A. Orhadahwe3,4, Peter O. Omoniyi5,6*, Adebayo S. Olabisi7, Esther T. Akinlabi6,8
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 900001, Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran 251101, Nigeria
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo 211211, Nigeria
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200005, Nigeria
5
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin 240003, Nigeria
6
Department of Mechanical Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2092, South Africa
7
Department of Mechanical Engineering, William Tubman University, Harper 3570, Liberia
8
Pan African University for Life and Earth Sciences Institute (PAULESI), Ibadan 200005, Nigeria

Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.18280/rcma.320206 ABSTRACT

Received: 15 January 2022 More reliable and durable parts with high structural integrity are required to meet the
Accepted: 20 February 2022 increasing advancements in science and technology. This paper reviews five (5) different
casting techniques: squeeze casting, sand casting, investment casting, die casting, and
Keywords: continuous casting. Their respective cast products were examined, and their various
casting, foundry, manufacturing process, mold, mechanical properties were discussed. However, these different casting techniques
pattern involve a similar fundamental procedure: melting metal, pouring it into a mold, and
allowing it to solidify. However, they vary in their physical and mechanical properties,
durability, and surface finishing, making one technique more desirable than the other in
their application areas. Some techniques were found to be more advantageous and
effective than the other, which will aid foundrymen in making the best decision in
choosing a technique, considering parameters such as environmental friendliness and cost
implications. The appropriate implementation of these will help restructure and refine
foundries, improve the quality of cast products, and set the casting technology world on
course for the new age.

1. INTRODUCTION technique has its advantages and disadvantages as well as

areas of application. However, the quest to produce near net
Manufacturing processes are methods and techniques used shapes reduces the need for further machining, which may
in transforming raw materials into finish products [1, 2]. Any impact the material integrity after production. The need to
manufacturing process aims to churn out products with good optimize production by reducing waste generation makes it a
surface finish, quality, and excellent chemical and mechanical point of concern for academic scholars to reconsider and
properties. The choice of manufacturing technique depends on remodel the casting process vis-à-vis modern manufacturing
the desired outcome of the products, the area of application, trends like rapid prototyping and powder metallurgy [11, 12].
and the customers’ specifications. Casting is one of the major Several scholars have identified the pitfalls of casting
manufacturing processes in engineering with a massive techniques compared with other manufacturing processes. For
volume of product turnover. It is a proven liquid metallurgical instance, Yi et al. [13] established that the mechanical
process that has been used to synthesize quite a number of properties of cast aluminum alloys are inferior to those of
composites for different industrial applications [3-7]. Casting wrought aluminum. This suggests that certain efforts need to
is a fabrication technique used to produce materials with be put in place by researchers, especially those who favor
different shapes, eliminating the need for joining processes casting processes, to develop innovations that will revitalize
like welding, soldering, brazing, and adhesives. The process casting technology in terms of quality of product finish and
involves liquidizing the material to be cast (often time metals), mechanical and microstructural properties. This article
pouring the melt into a mold with the shape of the expected presents a review of the recent development in casting
output, and then allowing it to solidify. While in the molten technology with the primary goal of identifying specific areas
state, secondary particles can be added to produce composites. that require re-engineering and improvement. The inclination
Various casting techniques are used, including stir casting, of this research was provoked by the desire to observe the most
compost casting, die casting, investment casting, sand casting, recent applications of cast products in industries which are
centrifugal casting, plaster mold casting, and permanent mold depicted towards the conclusion. This article uncovers the
casting [8-10]. The techniques differ by the mode of producing future trends in casting such as in additive manufacturing, the
the melt and turning the melt into the preformed shape. Each automobile industry, automation, and the utilization of a

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stimulated environment. The various casting techniques were product's hardness. However, the pressures were extremely
discussed as well as their pros and cons, applications, and their high to be executed during subsequent production.
mechanical properties. Furthermore, the effect of ultrasonic vibration on squeeze
casting of silicon carbide (SiC) particles reinforced with
aluminum (Al) composite was investigated by Wang et al. [22].
2. CASTING AS A MANUFACTURING PROCESS It was observed that the dendrite spacing between the Al and
SiC particles increased more with an increased ultrasonic
Casting is one of the manufacturing processes. It involves vibration time hence improving the hardness of the alloy. The
subjecting a solid metal to an extreme temperature for a long results of Wang et al. [23] are comparable to Li et al. [24]
period until the metal reaches its fusion point. The molten experiment, with results showing an increased hardening
metal is poured into a mold containing a cavity having the effect as coarse reinforced Si particles were dispersed further
desired shape and allowed to solidify. Finally, the mold is across the aluminum matrix composite. Generally, pressure
removed, revealing the cast product that might require a plays a significant role in improving hardness during squeeze
surface finishing or be ready for use depending on the casting.
specification's technique and preference. The casting tree is
depicted in Figure 1 [14], which shows the various casting 2.2 Sand casting
techniques with respect to the mold used. The expendable
molds include the sand, plaster mold, evaporative and The sand casting technique is considered one of the most
investment casting while the non-expendable molds include ancient fabricating methods. The objective of this casting
die, centrifugal, squeeze and continuous casting. technique is to pour liquefied metal into a cavity and then
allow it to solidify. Products achieved through sand casting do
2.1 Squeeze casting not possess good surface finishing [24]. This is majorly caused
by the pattern used or quality of the molding sand. Hence, they
Squeeze casting or forming casting comprises the will require machining to get rid of inclusions. Typical
unification of casting and forging methods [15]. In this present-day sand casting cycle involves various phases, like
technique, the liquified metal is solidified under pressure liquefying, alloying, molding, pouring, hardening, and
inside isolated dies situated between the plates of a powered finishing [25, 26]. In sand casting, the sand is thrust about the
press. When contact is made between the liquified metal and pattern, which develops the shape of the mold. The mold
the die as pressure is applied, an accelerated spread of heat should have a tolerable sturdiness to withstand the molten
throughout the molten metal produces a pore-free fine grain metal. It should be adequately penetrable to allow for the easy
casting with intermolecular properties similar to that of a escape of gases while solidifying, after which the sand cast is
wrought material [16]. Because the liquified metal is to be taken out and used again [27]. Reusing the sand is a cost-
solidified with the application of high pressure, the cast metal effective advantage in sand casting techniques and, at the same
is therefore not subject to some of the expected casting time, environmentally friendly. However, in the past, when
deformities such as porosity and shrinkage holes [17-19]. sand casting was responsible for over 80% of cast material
Different authors have examined the effect of pressure. production, foundrymen spent a substantial amount in the
Dmitruk et al. [20] studied the effect of the magnitude of buying and disposal of used casting sand, which was
pressure on the solidification of liquified metals. They overlooked.
concluded that pressure of 1.7 MPa applied to a liquified Nevertheless, when other casting techniques such as
aluminum solution substantially reduced the microporosity of squeeze casting and investment casting were developed, there
the cast. Conversely, the reduction in porosity did not improve was an apparent reduction in the overall profit made from the
the mechanical properties of the cast because the pressure sand casting technique. The reduction in the economic
applied was remarkably lower than the 100 MPa. However, viability of sand casting is due to the high purchase and cargo
Wang et al. [21] posited that an increase in pressure would payment cost for used sand disposal. Presently, various
improve the product's properties. The molten metal was reclamation techniques have been developed over time to
subjected to pressures between 340 MPa and 690 MPa. This realize economic viability in the sand-casting technique [28].
experiment proved to have a considerable improvement in the

Figure 1. Casting tree [14]

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 In the mechanical sand reclamation technique, the sand 2.4 Die casting
adhesive properties are crushed to allow for the easy and rapid
flow of the sand to keep it moving during the foundry The die-casting technique involves pressing the melt into a
operations [29]. The wet sand reclamation technique mold cavity with a plunger at high pressure [47]. Metals with
eliminates sand coatings and natural matter [30]. The thermal low melting points are commonly used, accounting for the
sand reclamation technique, which ordinarily works at about hastened solidification process. It is a non-destructive
600℃, is convenient for non-ferrous foundries in the absence technique, unlike sand casting, because the mold can be reused
of clay [31]. The sand casting technique is responsible for over quite many times after casting [48, 49]. The die casting
60% - 70% of metal casting [25]. Therefore, the need for faster technique entails infusing the liquified metal into the die cavity
production is important for the market. Hence, additive using a plunger and applying pressure. Two fundamental
manufacturing (3D printing) has been implored to hasten methods used to achieve this are the hot and cold chamber die
production, resulting in a certain product and process casting [50]. These two techniques depend on the nature of the
characteristics improvements such as reduced shrinkages, material to be melted, geometry and size. In the hot chamber
making hybrid molding possible, and shortened lead time [32]. die casting process known as the gooseneck casting, the
Mohiuddin et al. [33] manufactured thin walls and intricate plunger mechanism is submerged into the liquid metal
components in automobile cylinder heads. However, Hodder container [51]. When pressure is applied, the melt is forced to
and Chalaturnyk [34] observed that although foundry sand flow through the gooseneck metal tube framework, which
could be cast using a 3D printer, it did not easily flow through plunges the liquified metal into the die cavity and solidifies
the recoater of the printer. This caused a non-uniformity in the [52]. This technique helps rapidly form zinc, magnesium, and
bed layers, resulting in less optimal cast products. copper parts. In the cold chamber die casting method, which is
quite akin to the hot chamber method, the melt is poured into
2.3 Investment casting the cold chamber while a pressurized plunger forces the melt
into the die cavity [53]. This technique eradicates the need for
Investment casting, also known as precision casting, is submerging the plunger into the molten container, thereby
considered one of the oldest casting techniques [35]. It minimizing corrosion of the plunger [54]. This technique is
comprises the production of a pattern with wax in the shape of applicable mainly for metals with higher melting points like
the desired part, which can be made manually or with the help aluminum and alloys [55]. Chen et al. [56] studied the effect
of additive manufacturing technology [36]. The wax pattern is of the injection velocity and plunger pressure on the porosity
then dipped or invested into a liquid ceramic slurry, sprinkled of a cast aluminum. At 0.24 m/s and 33.3 MPa injection
on with fine sand, and allowed to dry [37]. Before the molten velocity and plunger pressure, respectively, a low porosity
metal is poured into the mold, the wax is burned out by a flash percentage of 0.33% was obtained.
fire oven. Afterward, the mold is heated to a specific
temperature to prevent solidification of the melt before the 2.5 Continuous casting
mold is filled by pouring the liquified metal into the now
dewaxed mold. After the molten metal is cooled and solidified, Continuous casting is a casting process where the liquified
it is finally taken out of the mold [38]. When forming the metal is continually poured down through the mold. At the
ceramic shell, fine sand that acts as the binders and form same time, a cooling agent such as argon or water is sprayed
oxides that are highly resistant to heat help determine the on the mold, which mildly solidifies the outer surface of the
mold's physical and chemical properties [39]. In the recent past, melt [57]. The continuous pouring of the melt is uninterrupted,
ethyl silicates were the most widely recognized binders in the thereby producing cast metals of unbroken length which are
development of ceramic shells. Their application reclined due then cut to desired lengths by automatic gas burners, such as
to an ammoniating reaction which caused the alcohol-based oxy-acetylene or oxy-gas cutters. Depending on their sizes, the
binder to gelatinize and therefore increased the drying time of castings are billets, blooms, slabs, or ingots [58]. In recent
the shell [40]. When alumina-based binders were used for times, extensive advancements have been made in continuous
titanium castings [41], they generated a reaction with the casting technology to further improve the metal cast quality
molten titanium alloys in the solidification process, which and develop newer technology to manufacture products
were extremely hard. However, they included brittle requiring little or no machining or surface finishing.
intermolecular compounds, which consequentially • Electromagnetic Stirring (EMS): Electromagnetic
deteriorated the mechanical properties of the cast [42]. The stirring is an electric technique that brings about movement in
colloidal silica sol binders were structurally stable, capable of the liquified metal without any mechanical means. The
providing durability to the molecular structure of the ceramic purpose of stirring the melt is to minimize porosity, improve
slurry [43]. Due to their stable nature, they are inert and can melt homogeneity, and cause impurities to float to the surface.
withstand extremely high temperatures. Silica sol binders form The impurities are then sieved to avoid inclusions and enhance
excellent bonds, making the ceramic shell durable [44]. the casting quality, thereby minimizing flaws [59].
Moreover, colloidal silica sol binders offer a more secure, • Thin Slab Casting: Slabs produced through the
labor-saving casting and allow for greater precision in forming continuous casting technique always took the mold's shape and
intricate parts in castings. This has highly contributed to its size, which in most cases were thicker than necessary. In real
wide usage in today’s application in engineering [45]. applications, the slabs produced were not usable in making
Investment casting technique provides cast products with medical tables, automobile bodies, and roofing in buildings,
excellent precision, ease in the production of intricate and which had thinner dimensions [60]. The slabs were constantly
close molded parts (motor valves, turbine blades, pistons, subjected to further manufacturing processes to produce the
firearms), and a good surface finish, which in most cases required measurements increasing cost and labor force. The
eliminates the need for machining [46]. thin slab casting employed twin rollers in which the partially
solidified casts were made to pass through. The distance
between the two rollers determined the thickness of the slab

93
before it was completely solidified. The rollers helped in the Agricultural application. Due to the minimized degrees in
slab's cooling process and transporting the slab [61]. This porosity and the fine intermolecular formation during squeeze
process eliminated the need for further machining and casting, the technique accounts for higher strength and higher
manufacturing processes and the cost involved. corrosion-resistant properties [72]. Squeeze cast products are
employed in agricultural tools that are occasionally subjected
to rigorous work and moisture exposure.
3. COMPARISON OF CASTING PROCESSES
3.1.2 Sand casting
Casting processes for the manufacturing of various parts, Lead sheet for roofing. Despite being a dense material
like automobile components, aircraft parts, electrical compared to most typical metals, lead is delicate and moldable
components, medical devices, construction bars, agricultural and has a moderately low melting point of 621.4°F. They are
tools, will require a suitable casting process for manufacturing heavy but malleable as a sheet and in various patterns,
parts depending on their consequences in usage. For example, including bars, ingots, and powder [73]. Due to its low melting
in manufacturing aircraft parts, it is vital that the most point, lead sheets can readily be cast through the sand-casting
sophisticated and efficient technique, which would provide the techniques to the desired shape. Discharging the liquified lead
necessary mechanical properties under the specified on a sand bed and spreading the molten surface throughout the
conditions, is utilized to avoid failure or defects during their bed with the help of a strickle are the two primary phases in
operation. Several factors determine the casting technique that producing a lead sheet through the sand-casting technique [74].
will be used. For example, the appearance, durability, cost etc This procedure begins with setting up the desired shape of the
of each cast product differ with respect to the casting technique sand mold. The surface of the mold is smoothened with a
used. The advantages and limitations of the various casting strickle to help keep away any form of surface non-uniformity.
techniques are presented in Table 1 [62-69]. The liquified lead is then discharged through a container
situated at the head of the bed at a temperature of about 350℃.
3.1 Applications Simultaneously, the strickle is used to spread the streaming
molten lead across the bed, which shortly afterward is cooled
3.1.1 Squeeze casting and solidified into a sheet [75].
Automotive application. Several procedures are considered Automobile Engine Block. Due to the cooling rate in the
in choosing the appropriate casting technique in automotive course of the solidification process during the development of
applications. However, squeeze casting is a perfect choice an engine block, using cast iron as the melt has an indicative
when a recommended pressure level is applied to molten metal. influence on the mechanical properties of the cast. Cooling at
It improves and mitigates cast metals' porosity and poor an accelerated rate aids in cementite formation, which
adhesive nature. Thereby improving the material's mechanical increases the hardness of the cast, which is an essential
properties in terms of its strength, density, tribological requirement for engine block [76].
properties. These make squeeze casting appropriate for Cookware. Sand casting, which has been in use since 680
assembling light composite metal parts in enormous B.C, still stays the best and most economical technique in
production rates [70]. Unlike most other casting techniques, producing metal kitchen utensils [77]. The ability to develop
squeeze casting presents a more extensive scope of shapes for castings of different sizes, withstand metals having extremely
manufacturing components that are utilized in the production high refractive properties, and low cost of production has
of the automobile control arm [23], gear racks, and pulleys significantly increased its applicability in producing wares
[71]. ranging from spoons plates to frying pans, trays, and pots [78].

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of different casting techniques

Casting Technique Advantages Disadvantages References

• Good surface texture • Difficulty in achieving homogeneity
• Fine microstructures • No flexibility as tooling is for specific
Squeeze casting [62, 63]
• High strength components components
• Low level of porosity • High cost due to complex tooling
• High design flexibility (size and weight) • Low strength
• High complexity shapes • Low dimensional accuracy
Sand casting [64, 65]
• Wider material choice • Poor surface finish
• Low-cost tooling • Post-machining
• High precision is obtainable • Cast size limitation
• Intricate and complex shapes are • High cost of production
Investment casting achievable [66]
• Provides excellent surface finishing
• Little or no machining is required
• Thin wall parts can be cast • Gases can be trapped and cause porosity
• Close tolerance is possible • Cast size is limited
Die casting [67, 68]
• Excellent surface finishing • Not suited for high melting point metals
• Economical for mass production • Tooling cost is high
• Tools are durable • Requires high capital to set up
• Cast materials are uniformly dense • Only simple shapes can be formed
Continuous casting [69]
• Less labor-intensive • Not applicable for small production
• Improved production efficiency

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3.1.3 Investment casting shown in Table 2. At 1350℃, the corrosion resistance was at
Medical applications. The combination of investment its peak due to high concentrations of carbon content.
casting and fused deposition modeling, an additive However, as the temperature of the melt was increased to
manufacturing process, has a vast range of applications in the 1400℃, there was a decrease in carbon concentration. At
medical field. In developing the pattern of a biomedical 1500℃, the carbon content was minimum, indicating the
implant, the 3-dimensional shape and size of the implant can highest corrosion resistance.
be obtained from a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan,
which can be translated into a standard tessellation language Table 2. Carbide concentration at different temperature
(STL) file. The fused deposition modeling system can process levels [91]
this file format [79]. A precise and accurate pattern can be
developed, which can be forwarded to the investment casting S/N Melt Temperature (℃) Carbide quantity (%)
process [80, 81]. Furthermore, it improves the corrosion and 1 1350 17.03
wear resistance of metal components subjected to attrition 2 1400 12.07
from contacting surfaces [81]. 3 1450 6.28
4 1500 5.26
Turbine blades. Investment casting produces intricate and
complex parts with high precision and accuracy, resulting in
multiple degrees of freedom [82]. High dimensional accuracy 3.2.2 Cooling rate
has aroused its embrace by engineers. Gas turbine blades that The cooling rate of ADC12 aluminum alloy produced
always function at maximal and severe circumstances will through die casting was investigated [92]. The cooling rates
require extra consideration in their manufacture. Castings between 1.2 - 7.2℃ s-1 were observed. It was discovered that
from this technique provide a refined, smooth finish compared bigger grain sizes were formed at lower cooling rates, which
to other methods and, therefore, improve the turbine blade's were transformed into smaller and smaller finer grans as the
performance [46, 54]. cooling rate increased. The smaller grain sizes could impede
dislocation movement and, therefore, increase the alloy's
3.1.4 Die casting hardness.
Military application. At the 2nd World War, the need to
increase the speed and capacity of conveyed arsenal from 3.2.3 Type of mold
place to place became demanding. When the limitation of the Hao et al. [93] investigated the effect of the mold on the
early internal combustion engines was considered, the need to interfacial reaction of magnesium alloys in the investment
mitigate the aircraft's weight was considered [83]. The casting manufacturing process. The two molds ZrSiO4 and
stabilizer frames were constructed from magnesium AZ91B, a Al2O3 used were subjected to similar conditions in which the
combination of magnesium, aluminum, and zinc through die same binder was used, the same coating number, and the same
casting [84]. Today, due to the reusability of the die casting drying time. After pouring and solidification, it was observed
mold, economic importance, and cost-effectiveness, the die that there were black residues present on the surface of the
casting technique is utilized in manufacturing military-grade casting with ZrSiO4 mold. However, these residues increased
weapons [85]. Its common usage with metals having low substantially as the thickness of the cast was increased. On the
melting points has resulted in the wide usage of less dense other hand, there were no apparent residues on the surface of
metals in the production of aircraft components [86]. the cast having Al2O3 mold despite the increase in thickness.
Electronic components. Die casting provides the most Therefore, it was concluded that Al2O3 had excellent chemical
proficient method in manufacturing and assembling stability with molten magnesium alloy, producing a light,
sophisticated solid metal parts. It offers strong, dimensionally smooth, and brilliant surface quality.
stable, and heat resistant parts [87]. The use of die casting
eliminates the need for welding or screw. The strength of the 3.3 Mechanical properties of casting products
cast components depends on the alloy used. This accounts for
the use of the die casting technique to manufacture high- The various casting techniques' mechanical properties are
strength and lightweight, thin-wall housings for electrical discussed and depicted in Table 5.
components and junction boxes [88].
3.3.1 Squeeze casting of Aluminum alloys
3.1.4 Continuous casting Tensile strength. According to Gurusamy et al. [10], the
Building materials. Due to the uninterrupted casting process, tensile strength of the cast aluminum was a factor of the
any desired length for any specified purpose can be produced. temperature of the melt and that of the die. It was observed that
The molten metal poured through the mold continuously the maximum value of the ultimate tensile strength was
grants the casting a uniform structure, excellent strength, and attained when the melt was heated to a temperature of 850℃
other mechanical properties [89]. Continuous casting and the die at 350℃. However, when the temperature was
materials are used in structural framework designs such as raised to 900℃, the tensile strength decreased (Figure 2).
bridges, building rods, pipes, traffic and street light poles, Hardness. Figure 3 shows the variation with respect to the
masts, and construction equipment [90]. applied pressure during squeeze casting. The hardness of the
aluminum alloy increased with an increase in pressure. At
3.2 Influence of casting parameters on cast products different pressure levels, it was observed that the hardness of
the alloy was altered. Significant hardness level changes were
3.2.1 Melting temperature seen at certain pressure levels from 70 to 140 MPa, where the
Sabzi et al. [91] experimented using manganese steel in hardness was at its peak. At these pressure levels, fine
which the melt was varied at different temperatures of 1350, intermolecular grains were formed, and at the same time,
1400, 1450, and 1500℃. It was observed that the melt porosity was eliminated, which gave rise to the increased
temperatures affected the corrosion resistance of the metal as hardness. There was no notable increase in its hardness [94].

95
These parameters were achieved as the die and melt increased the percentage elongation. At 200℃, a tensile
temperatures were maintained at 225℃ and 725℃, strength of 371 MPa and elongation of 3.3% were achieved.
respectively. At a higher temperature of 225℃, there was a reduction in
tensile strength to 287 MPa and elongation up to 11.9%. The
effects of the different temperatures on the strength and
elongation of the Mg alloy are presented in Figure 4.
Hardness. The hardness of the magnesium alloy was studied
through heat treatment techniques. The as-cast Mg alloy in the
study had a hardness of 62 HBN, but after a solution heat
treatment, at a temperature of 535℃ for 48 hours, the hardness
was increased to 75 HBN. Precipitation hardening at a
temperature of 150℃ further increased the hardness to 106
HBN, but at a further increase in temperature to 180℃, the
hardness decreased to 103 HBN [98].
Figure 2. Effect of temperature on the tensile strength [10]
3.3.3 Investment casting of Aluminum alloy
Tensile strength. Pattnaik [99] compared the tensile strength
of aluminum alloy with varying conditions of certain
parameters using the investment casting technique. The
temperature of the (A) pre-heated shell, (B) firing temperature,
(C) pouring temperature, and (D) the firing time affected the
(E) linear shrinkage and (F) volumetric shrinkage of the cast,
which were the major determinants of the resulting (G) tensile
strength. The experiment was carried out nine times, and the
results were recorded, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Tensile strength of Al alloys through investment

casting [99]
Figure 3. Variation of hardness with respect to pressure [94]
A B C D E F G
S/N
Density. The temperature of the molten aluminum and the (℃) (℃) (℃) (h) (%) (%) (MPa)
die does not affect the density of the cast. The presence of 1 200 700 600 5 0.43 1.55 113
pores on the cast reduces its density. However, when the 2 200 800 650 6 0.54 1.71 104
pressure on the die was increased to 140 MPa, porosity was 3 200 900 700 7 0.48 1.64 107
4 300 700 700 6 0.63 1.83 97
eliminated, which increased the aluminum density to 2.75
5 300 800 600 7 0.47 1.57 111
g/cm3. There was no increase in the density at higher pressure 6 300 900 650 5 0.58 1.76 103
[95]. 7 400 700 650 7 0.61 1.79 99
Percentage elongation. There was an increase in elongation, 8 400 800 700 5 0.65 1.89 96
according to Hassasi et al. [96]. The pressure of the die was 9 400 900 600 6 0.52 1.68 106
increased from 90 to 120 MPa due to the partial solidification
of the aluminum melt. At further pressure increases, necking The maximum tensile strength achieved through the
sets in, leading to deformation. experiments was 113MPa at 200℃ shell temperature, 700℃
firing temperature, 600℃ pouring temperature for 5 hours of
firing time. The cast experienced a 0.43% linear shrinkage and
a 1.55% volumetric shrinkage.
Hardness. In determining the hardness of Al alloys through
investment casting, Kumar et al. [81] measured the micro-
hardness of the alloy using the Vickers hardness tester using a
load of 0.1 kg was applied for a period of 10s. The experiment
was replicated three times at different points for each specimen.
The maximum hardness value is 242 HV.
Percentage elongation. The percentage elongation of an Al
alloy cast through investment casting was investigated by
Pattnaik [99], and the elongation results are in Table 5. The
shell was pre-heated at different temperatures of 200℃,
Figure 4. Effect of temperature on the tensile strength and 300℃, and 400℃ and poured 600℃, 650℃, and 700℃
percentage elongation [97] respectively. Elongation increased from 2.1% at the shell with
the pre-heat temperature of 400℃ and pouring temperature of
3.3.2 Sand casting of magnesium alloys 700℃ to 3.3% at 200℃ shells pre-heat temperature and 600℃
Tensile strength & Percentage elongation. Wang et al. [97] pouring temperature.
conducted a precipitation hardening heat treatment technique
on the GW63 (Mg alloy) at three different temperatures: 200, 3.3.4 Die casting of Magnesium alloy
212, and 225℃. It was observed that there was a decrease in Tensile strength. The tensile strength of the as-cast Mg alloy
the tensile strength as the temperature increased, which produced through die casting was determined according to

96
Zhang et al. [100] to be 357 MPa. A strain rate tensile test was through continuous casting varied with a change in the casting
carried out at different levels of stress which showed a speed, as shown in Figure 5. The melt poured at the gravity
decrease in tensile strength as the strain rate increased. casting (GC) speed achieved a tensile strength of 200 - 250
Hardness/Density. The stirring speed was factored in by MPa. Increasing the pouring speed improved the tensile
Anbuchezhiyan et al. [67] as an input parameter in strength of the cast product. At 1 mm/s, the tensile strength
determining the mechanical properties of a die cast Mg was improved to 270 – 390 MPa, and at 4 mm/s, the maximum
product. The effect of different stirring on the hardness and tensile strength was attained at 480 MPa. A further increase in
density of the Mg was obtained, as depicted in Table 4. The casting speed reduced the tensile strength [69]. The same trend
liquid melt was stirred at speeds of 450, 500, and 600 rpm at was observed for the hardness of the Mg alloy. The maximum
different times. It was observed that an increase in spinning hardness was reached as the casting speed increased from the
speed also resulted in increased porosity. Increased porosity gravity casting to 4 mm/s.
reduced the density of the cast but gave rise to an increase in
the hardness.

Table 4. Effect of spinning speed on the hardness and density

of Mg alloys [67]

Spinning speed Porosity Hardness Density

(RPM) (%vol) (HB) (g/cm3)
450 3.78 76.9 1.62
500 19 113.1 1.51
600 28 140.9 1.42

3.3.5 Continuous casting of magnesium alloy Figure 5. Variation of tensile strength and hardness due to
Tensile strength/Hardness. The tensile strength of Mg alloys casting speed [69]

Table 5. Mechanical properties of metals of different casting techniques

Casting technique Material Tensile strength (MPa) Hardness (HB) Density (g/cm3) Percentage Elongation (%) Reference
Squeeze Al alloy 174.00 95.00 2.75 9.70 [10, 94-96]
Sand Mg alloy 329.00 106.00 - 7.60 [22, 64, 98]
Investment Al alloy 113.00 229.90 - 3.30 [35, 99]
Die Mg alloy 357.00 140.90 1.42 - [67, 100]
Continuous Mg alloy 480.00 159.00 - - [69]

4. FUTURE TRENDS IN CASTING aluminum, zinc, and magnesium are chosen in transportation
applications due to their cost, density, and material properties
Without a doubt, casting technology as a manufacturing that they offer. However, due to the gradual decline in the
process over the years has been of an unquantifiable benefit to relevance of internal combustion engines, there is a need for
the world at large. However, the need to modify casting die casting foundries to conform to these inevitable changes.
methods cannot be overemphasized in a fast-changing world As hybrid electric vehicles permeate the automobile markets,
driven by innovations. Several areas for improvement are the need and demand for lightweight components and
hereby discussed. structural parts will dramatically escalate, minimizing the
overwhelming effect on foundries [102].
4.1 Additive manufacturing (ATOS 3d digitizer)
4.3 Automation
One of the major problems in casting technology is
determining the precise and accurate pattern measurement. One of the fundamental guidelines in workshops and
Since the pattern determines the design and dimensional industries is safety. Despite the brilliant design and
accuracy of the cast product, the mode in which the pattern is maintenance of foundries, working in foundries could still be
produced should therefore be put into great consideration. very hazardous due to the constant handling and operation of
With the utilization of the ATOS 3d digitizer, a high- materials having highly high temperatures. Automation of
resolution optical scanner, the issue of the loss of dimensional casting operations relieves the workers of intensive labor and
accuracy is eliminated, the cost of labor is economical, and the increases the unlikelihood of accidents. Automation puts more
time rate in determining the measurements is cut down to a time in the hands of the workers, which can be spent on
high degree. The optical scanner eliminates the need for carrying out various tests on the product and implementing
manual measurements [101]. product design. Kinev et al. [103], for instance, proposed the
use of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) device in automating
4.2 Automobile industry the casting of an aluminum melt using a stationary mixer. The
set-up comprised a casting trough inside the cores used as the
Among the various casting techniques, die casting has been MHD pump for the aluminum melt. The windings of the MHD
the most utilized technique in automobile parts and aerospace were connected in such a way as to dose the melt using a
components because their high demand matches the control system that is automatically operated. The windings
techniques of a high production rate. Nonferrous metals like created an electromagnetic field connected to an inductor

97
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