Functional Testing :( Frond End (UI) +Backend Testing (Database Testing))

- Behavior coverage
- Input domain coverage
- Error handling coverage
- Service level coverage
- Calculation based Coverage
- Backend Coverage(Database coverage/Database Testing)

Backend coverage testing / database testing

• Validating all frond end operations are stored in database
• Front end operation or data entered in the front end is stored in the database or
backend
• As a tester, we check or validate, whenever data has been entered in the front end that
data has been stored in the database or not (validating front end with backend)
• We check or validate data can be fetched or not
• So, we simply fire the SQL queries & we get response in the form of table (rows &
column), where we check whether data is stored or not
Or
• SQL query is used to fetch data or to check stored data

Web Based application:

Ex.1: Sign Up Form: (First Name, Last Name, Email, Mob, & Address): If we have to check
on UI == to check if signup is success. We can check for success message.
Customers_Sign_up table:
- Validate Existence of the values in the database table
- Validate Correctness of the values in the database table
- Validate Completeness of the values in a database table

Database Systems:
Database: Storage Location: Collection of related data.
- Structured Data- IRCTC, Facebook, Flipkart, Amazon, MSEB Board, MPSC
- Unstructured Data- Random Data—Social Media Post- Data can not be stored
 in db in the form of Database.

Database Management Systems (DBMS):

- To perform any operations on the data we need the database management systems
- SQL Server,MySQL,Oracle,DB2,MongoDB
When we deal with structured data we use RDBMS.
SQL

1. SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to perform operations on the records stored
in the database such as updating records, deleting records, creating and modifying
tables, views, etc.
2. SQL is just a query language; it is not a database. To perform SQL queries, you need
to install any database, for example, Oracle, MySQL, MongoDB, PostGre SQL, SQL
Server, DB2, etc.

What is SQL?

1. SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

2. It is designed for managing data in a relational database management system
(RDBMS).
3. It is pronounced as S-Q-L or sometime See-Qwell.
4. SQL is a database language, it is used for database creation, deletion, fetching rows, and
modifying rows, etc.

• All DBMS like MySQL, Oracle, MS Access, Sybase, Informix, PostgreSQL, and SQL
Server use SQL as standard database language.

Why SQL is required?

SQL is required:

1. To create new databases, tables and views

2. To insert records in a database
3. To update records in a database
4. To delete records from a database
5. To retrieve data from a database
 What SQL does?

o With SQL, we can query our database in several ways, using English-like statements.
o With SQL, a user can access data from a relational database management system.
o It allows the user to describe the data.
o It allows the user to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
o It allows the user to create and drop database and table.
o It allows the user to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
o It allows the user to set permission on tables, procedures, and views.

SQL Syntax

SQL follows some unique set of rules and guidelines called syntax. Here, we are providing
all the basic SQL syntax.

o SQL is not case sensitive. Generally SQL keywords are written in uppercase.
o SQL statements are dependent on text lines. We can place a single SQL statement on
one or multiple text lines.

o You can perform most of the action in a database with SQL statements.

SQL statement

SQL statements are started with any of the SQL commands/keywords like SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP etc. and the statement ends with a semicolon (;).

Example of SQL statement:

1. SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name";

Why semicolon is used after SQL statements:

Semicolon is used to separate SQL statements. It is a standard way to separate SQL
statements in a database system in which more than one SQL statements are used in the same
call.

SQL Commands

These are the some important SQL command:

o SELECT: it extracts data from a database.

o UPDATE: it updates data in database.
o DELETE: it deletes data from database.
o CREATE TABLE: it creates a new table.
o ALTER TABLE: it is used to modify the table.
o DROP TABLE: it deletes a table.
o CREATE DATABASE: it creates a new database.
o ALTER DATABASE: It is used to modify a database.
o INSERT INTO: it inserts new data into a database.
o CREATE INDEX: it is used to create an index (search key).
o DROP INDEX: it deletes an index.

SQL Commands
o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is also
used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the table,
modify the table, and set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a
table, etc.

o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the
changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of
changes in the database.

o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all
the changes in the database. They can be rollback.
Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE

3. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

Database Tables

A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Sign
Up" or "Login Credentials" or “Orders” or “Employ Info”). Tables contain records (rows) with
data.

Table Name- Sign Up

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

The table above contains five records (one for each user) and 6 columns (ID, FN, LN, MobNo,
EmailId, & City).
 1. SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database / table.

The following SQL statement selects or fetch all the records in the "SignUp" table:

The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "SignUp" table:

SELECT Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp;

Output / Result

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

The following SQL statement selects or fetch the particular column data / records in the
"Sign Up" table:

The following SQL statement selects the "FN" and "LN" columns from the "SignUp" table:

Syntax

SELECT column1, column2,...

FROM table_name;
Example

SELECT FN, LN
FROM SignUp;

Output / Result

FN LN
1 Rahul Gandhi

2 Arvind Kejriwal

3 Anna Hajare
4 Sharad Pawar

5 Soniya Gandhi
 2. DISTINCT

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return / show only distinct (different) values or
unique values in the particular column.

Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes you only want to
list the different (distinct) values.

The following SQL statement selects only the DISTINCT values from the "LN" column in the
"SignUp" table:

Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,...

FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT DISTINCT LN
FROM SignUp;

Output / Result

LN
1 Gandhi

2 Kejriwal
3 Hajare

4 Pawar

SELECT Example Without DISTINCT

The following SQL statement selects all (including the duplicates) values from the "LN" column
in the "SignUp" table:
Syntax

SELECT Column1
FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT LN
FROM SignUp;

Output / Result

LN
1 Gandhi

2 Kejriwal

3 Hajare

4 Pawar

5 Gandhi

The following SQL statement lists the number of different (distinct) LN:

Syntax

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT column1, column2,...)

FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT LN)

FROM SignUp;

Output / Result

Number of Records-4
 3. TOP

It is used to specify the number of records to return.

It is a SQL statement it used to show / display the top records in a particular column.

It is a SQL statement use to select top values in a particular table

The following SQL statement selects the first three records from the "Signup" table (for SQL
Server/MS Access):

Syntax

SELECT TOP value / number * FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT TOP 3 * FROM SignUp;

Output

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune
The following SQL statement selects the first 50% of the records from the "Sign Up" table (for
SQL Server/MS Access):

Syntax

SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM SignUp;

Output

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

 4. ORDER BY

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.

The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records in
descending order, use the DESC keyword.

It is a SQL statement it used to display the records by ascending & descending order from
selected column.

The following SQL statement selects all SignUp from the "SignUp" table, sorted by the "FN"
column:

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

ORDER BY column1;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

ORDER BY FN;

Output

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

ORDER BY DESC Example

The following SQL statement selects all SignUp from the "SignUp" table, sorted DESCENDING
by the "FN" column:

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

ORDER BY column1 DESC;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUP

ORDER BY FN DESC;

Output

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

2 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

1 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

3 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

4 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

5 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

 5. Where Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statements, it is also used
in UPDATE, DELETE, etc.!

The following SQL statement selects all the SignUp from the City "Pune", in the "SignUp" table:

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Condition or Column Name=Value;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE City='Pune';

Output

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

3 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Condition;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE ID=1;

Output

ID FN LN MobNo EmailId City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

Syntax

SELECT Column1, Column2

FROM table_name
WHERE Condition;

Example

SELECT EmailId
FROM SignUp
WHERE City=’Pune’;

Output

Email Id
1 [email protected]
2 [email protected]
3 [email protected]
Types of Where Clause

1. OR

2. AND

The WHERE clause can be combined with AND & OR operators.

The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition:

• The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND are TRUE.
• The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE.

1. OR 1 1=1 1 0 =1 0 1=1 0 0=0

It is a SQL statement use to select records when both condition are true or one condition is true.

It is a SQL statement use to select records either one condition must be true then output will be
true.

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "SignUp" where FN is "Rahul" OR LN is
"Gandhi":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Condition1 OR Condition 2;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN=’Rahul’ OR LN=’Gandhi’; 1 1 = 1 0 1=1
Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Syntax

SELECT Column1, Column2

FROM table_name
WHERE Condition1 OR Condition 2;

Example

SELECT Email Id
FROM SignUp
WHERE FN=’Rahul’ OR LN=’Gandhi’;

Output

Email Id
1 [email protected]
2 [email protected]
 2. AND

It is a SQL statement in that select record when both the condition must be true then output will
be true.

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "SignUp" where FN is "Rahul" AND LN is
"Gandhi":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE condition1 AND condition2

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN=’Rahul’ AND LN=’Gandhi’; 1 1 =1

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

Syntax

SELECT Column1, Column2

FROM table_name
WHERE Condition1 AND Condition 2;

Example

SELECT Mob. No
FROM SignUp
WHERE FN=’Rahul’ AND LN=’Gandhi’;
Output

Mob. No
1 1111

6. LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

• The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters

• The underscore sign (_) represents one, single character

The following SQL statement selects all SignUp with a FN starting with "A":

➢ For Starting with Specific alphabets

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE pattern;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN LIKE “A%”;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

2 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

Syntax

SELECT column1,column2,...
FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE pattern;

Example

SELECT LN
FROM SignUp
WHERE FN LIKE “A%”;

Output

LN
1 Kejriwal

2 Hajare

➢ For Ending with Specific alphabets

The following SQL statement selects all SignUp with a FN ending with "d":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE pattern;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN LIKE “%d”;
Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

2 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

Syntax

SELECT column1,column2,...
FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE pattern;

Example

SELECT LN
FROM SignUp
WHERE FN LIKE “%d”;

Output

LN

1 Kejriwal

2 Pawar

Select all records where the value of the FN column does NOT start with the letter "A".

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column NOT LIKE Pattern;
Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN NOT LIKE “A%”;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

3 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Select all records where the value of the column starts with the letter "A".

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE “A%”;

Select all records where the value of the column ends with the letter "a".

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE “%a”;

Select all records where the value of the column starts with letter "A" and ends with the
letter "b".

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE “A%b”;
Select all records where the value of the column contains the letter "a".

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE “%a%”;

Select all records where the value of the column does NOT start with the letter "A".

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column NOT LIKE “A%”;

For Starting with alphabets ABC

The following SQL statement selects all Sign Up with a FN starting with "A", "B", or "C":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE “[ABC]%”;

For Ending with alphabets ABC

The following SQL statement selects all Sign Up with a FN ending with "A", "B", or "C":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE “%[ABC]”;
LIKE Operator Description
WHERE Column LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that start with "a"
WHERE Column LIKE '%a'
Finds any values that end with "a"

WHERE Column LIKE '%or%' Finds any values that have "or" in any position
WHERE Column LIKE '_r%'
Finds any values that have "r" in the second
position

WHERE Column LIKE 'a_%'

Finds any values that start with "a" and are at
least 2 characters in length

WHERE Column LIKE 'a %' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at
least 3 characters in length
WHERE Column LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that start with "a" and ends
with "o"
 7. WILDCARD

A wildcard character is used to substitute one or more characters in a string.

Wildcard characters are used with the LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used in
a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

The following SQL statement selects all SignUp with a FN starting with any character, followed
by "ahul":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Column LIKE Specified pattern;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN LIKE ‘_ahul’;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune
 8. IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

It is used to fetch one or more data from the table.

It is use to select those records which specify in query.

The following SQL statement selects all SignUp that are Present in "Rahul", "Soniya":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Column IN ('Value1', 'Value2', 'Value3'…)

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN IN ('Rahul', 'Soniya');

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

The following SQL statement selects all Sign Up that are NOT present in "Rahul", "Soniya":

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Column NOT IN ('Value1', 'Value2', 'Value3'…);

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE FN NOT IN ('Rahul', 'Soniya');

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

2 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

3 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

 9. BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be numbers,
text, or dates.

The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.

It is a SQL statement use to select value between ranges which specified.

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Column_name BETWEEN Value 1 AND Value 2;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE ID BETWEEN 2 AND 4;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

2 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

3 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE Email Id BETWEEN ‘[email protected]’ AND ‘[email protected]’;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

Example

SELECT * FROM Sign Up

WHERE FN BETWEEN Arvind AND Soniya;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

2 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

3 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

4 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

NOT BETWEEN Example

To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

It is a SQL statement use to select value between range which specified.

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

WHERE Column_name NOT BETWEEN Value 1 AND Value 2;

Example

SELECT * FROM SignUp

WHERE ID NOT BETWEEN 2 AND 4;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

 10. INSERT IN TO

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:

1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,…)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify the column
names in the SQL query. However, make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the
columns in the table. Here, the INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

The following SQL statement inserts a new record in the "SignUp" table:

Syntax

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example

INSERT INTO SignUp

VALUES (6,“Jayant”, “Patil”, 6666, [email protected], “Sangli”);
 Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

6 6 Jayant Patil 6666 [email protected] Sangli

It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.

The following SQL statement will insert a new record, but only insert data in the "FN", "LN",
and "MobNo" columns (Sr.No will be updated automatically):

Syntax

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,…)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example

INSERT INTO SignUp(FN,LN,Mob.No)

VALUES (“Amit”,”Deshmukh”,7777);

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

 5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

6 6 Jayant Patil 6666 [email protected] Sangli

7 Amit Deshmukh 7777

Did you notice that we did not insert any number into the Sr.No field?
The Sr.No column is in auto-increment field and will be generated automatically when a new
record is inserted in to the table.

11. UPDATE

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

The following SQL statement updates the FN with a new Mob.No, Email Id & City.

Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;

Example

UPDATE SignUp
SET Mob.No = 0000, Email Id = [email protected], City = Delhi
WHERE FN = Rahul;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 0000 [email protected] Delhi

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

 3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Update Warning!

Be careful when updating records. If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will be updated!

Example

UPDATE SignUp
SET Mob.No = 0000, Email Id = [email protected], City = Delhi

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 0000 [email protected] Delhi

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 0000 [email protected] Delhi

3 3 Anna Hajare 0000 [email protected] Delhi

4 4 Sharad Pawar 0000 [email protected] Delhi

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 0000 [email protected] Delhi

Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If
you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!

12. DELETE

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

It is a SQL Statement used to delete the particular row in to the table.

The following SQL statement deletes the Mob.No "2222" from the "SignUp" table:
Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example

DELETE FROM SignUp WHERE Mob.No = 2222;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Delhi

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the DELETE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If you
omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!

Delete All Records

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:

Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement deletes all rows in the "SignUp" table, without deleting the table:
Example

DELETE FROM SignUp;

Output

Delete all the records only

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

13. SELECT IN TO

The SELECT INTO statement copies data from one table into a new table.

Syntax

SELECT * INTO newtable FROM oldtable;

Example

SELECT * INTO Register FROM SignUp;

Output

Table Name- Register

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

 14. ALIAS

It is a SQL statement it is used for to change the temporary column name & table name without
changing in database.

SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.

Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.

An alias only exists for the duration of that query.

An alias is created with the AS keyword.

Alias Column Syntax

SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name;

Alias Table Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Alias for Columns Examples

The following SQL statement creates two aliases, one for the FN column and one for the LN
column:

Example

SELECT FN AS FirstName, LN AS LastName

FROM SignUp;
Output

Table Name- SignUp

ID FirstName LastName Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Alias for Columns & Table Examples

Example

SELECT FN AS FirstName, LN AS LastName

FROM SignUp AS Register;

Output

Table Name- Register

ID FirstName LastName Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

Aliases can be useful when:

• There are more than one table involved in a query

 • Functions are used in the query
• Column names are big or not very readable
• Two or more columns are combined together

15. UNION

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.

• Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
• The columns must also have similar data types
• The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order

UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Example

Table Name- Sign up

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City Seats

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune 45

2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai 49

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune 45

4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati 55

5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune 49

Table Name- Register

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City Seats

1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune 45

2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai 49

3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune 45

4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati 55

5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune 49

6 Sanjay Raut 66666 [email protected] Mumbai 53

7 Uddhav Thakre 7777 [email protected] Mumbai 54

8 Rohit Pawar 8888 [email protected] Baramati 56

9 Dhiraj Deshmukh 0000 [email protected] Latur 57

Example

SELECT LN FROM SignUp

UNION
SELECT LN FROM Register;

Output

LN

1 Deshmukh

2 Gandhi

3 Hajare

4 Kejriwal

5 Pawar

6 Raut

7 Thakre
Example
SELECT Seats FROM SignUp
UNION
SELECT Seats FROM Register;

Output

Seats
1 45

2 49

3 53

4 54

5 55

6 56

7 57

UNION ALL

The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values,
use UNION ALL:

Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Example

SELECT LN FROM SignUp

UNION ALL
SELECT LN FROM Register;
Output

LN
1 Gandhi

2 Kejriwal

3 Hajare

4 Pawar

5 Gandhi

6 Gandhi

7 Kejriwal

8 Hajare

9 Pawar

10 Gandhi

11 Raut

12 Thakre

13 Pawar

14 Deshmukh
 16. CREATE TABLE

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);

The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.

The data type parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g. varchar, integer,
date, etc.).

Example

The following example creates a table called "SignUp" that contains six columns: ID, FN, LN,
Mob.No, Email Id and City:

CREATE TABLE SignUp

(
ID int,
FN varchar(255),
LN varchar(255),
Mob.No int,
Email Id varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
The ID, Mob.No, column is of type int and will hold an integer.

The FN, LN, Email Id and City columns are of type varchar and will hold characters, and the
maximum length for these fields is 255 characters.

The empty "Sign Up" table will now look like this:

Output

Table name- SignUp

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

17. DROP

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.

It is used to delete both the structure & records stored in the table

Syntax

DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

DROP TABLE SignUp;

Output

Delete both the structure & records stored in the table

Note: Be careful before dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of complete
information stored in the table!
 18. TRUNCATE

The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but not the table
itself.

It is used to delete all the rows from the table means to records stored in the table & the structure
remain same. Not delete the structure of the table.

Syntax

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example

TRUNCATE TABLE SignUp;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

 19. ALTER

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.

The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on an existing
table.

ALTER TABLE - ADD Column

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:

The following SQL adds an "Address" column to the "SignUp" table:

Syntax

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;

Example

ALTER TABLE Signup

ADD Address varchar(255);

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City Address

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't
allow deleting a column):

The following SQL deletes the "Address" column from the "SignUp" table:

Syntax

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;

Example

ALTER TABLE SignUp

DROP COLUMN Address;

Output

ID FN LN Mob. No Email Id City

1 1 Rahul Gandhi 1111 [email protected] Pune

2 2 Arvind Kejriwal 2222 [email protected] Mumbai

3 3 Anna Hajare 3333 [email protected] Pune

4 4 Sharad Pawar 4444 [email protected] Baramati

5 5 Soniya Gandhi 5555 [email protected] Pune

ALTER TABLE - ALTER/MODIFY COLUMN

To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:

SQL Server / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype;

My SQL / Oracle (prior version 10G):

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;

Oracle 10G & Later:

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY column_name datatype;

Example

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY Date of Birth year/int;

Notice that the "Date of Birth" column is now of data type year and is going to hold a year in a
two- or four-digit format.

Output

"Date of Birth" column is now of data type year and is going to hold a year in a two- or four-
digit format.
 20. CONSTRAINTS

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.

This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between
the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.

Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column, and
table level constraints apply to the whole table.

Syntax
CREATE TABLE T.N.
(
C.N.1 datatype constraint,
C.N 2 datatype constraint,
datatype constraint, ....
);

Example
CREATE TABLE VCTC
(
Sr No int Primary Key,
Fname varchar(255) Not Null,
Lname varchar(255) Not Null,
Mockresult int Check (Mockresult < 10),
Location varchar(255) Default “Punevctc”
Mobileno int Unique
);
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

1. NOTNULL

Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.

SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype NOT NULL,
column2 datatype NOT NULL,
column3 datatype NOT NULL,
....
);

The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "FN", "LN", “Mob. No”, “Email Id” and “City”
columns will NOT accept NULL values when the "SignUp" table is created:

Example

CREATE TABLE SignUp

(
ID int NOT NULL,
FN varchar(255) NOT NULL,
LN varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Mob.No int NOT NULL,
Email Id varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255) NOT NULL
);
 2. UNIQUE KEY

Ensures that all values in a column are different

Unique Constraint allow only one NULL value.

Each table can have more than one / multiple Unique Constraint / value.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype NOT NULL UNIQUE,
column2 datatype NULL,
column3 datatype NOT NULL,
Column4 datatype NOT NULL UNIQUE,
....
);

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" & “Mob. No” column when the
"SignUp" table is created:

Example

CREATE TABLE SignUp

(
ID int NOT NULL/UNIQUE,
FN varchar(255) NOT NULL,
LN varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Mob.No int NOT NULL/ UNIQUE,
Email Id varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255) NOT NULL
);
 3. PRIMARY KEY

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record (rows) in a table.

A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in a table

Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.

A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can consist of single
or multiple columns (fields).

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype NOT NULL UNIQUE,
column2 datatype NOT NULL,
column3 datatype NOT NULL,
column4 datatype NOT NULL UNIQUE,
PRIMARY KEY (column)
....
);

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column when the "SignUp" table is
created:

Example

CREATE TABLE SignUp

(
ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
FN varchar(255) NOT NULL,
 LN varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Mob.No int NOT NULL/ UNIQUE,
Email Id varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

4. FORGIEN KEY

A forgien key is SQL constraints use to link two tables together

Foreign key can accept multiple null value.

We can have more than one foreign key in a table.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the PRIMARY
KEY in another table.

The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the primary key is
called the referenced or parent table.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column2 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column3 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column4 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
FOREIGN KEY (column)
....
);
Example

CREATE TABLE UIDAI

AADHAR NO int(25),

FIRSTNAME varchar(256) NOT NULL,

LASTNAME varchar(256),

MOBILE int(20) UNIQUE,

EMAIL ID varchar(256) UNIQUE,

PAN CARD varchar(25) UNIQUE,

CITY varchar(25),

PRIMARY KEY (AADHAR NO)

CREATE TABLE ICICI

FIRSTNAME varchar(256),

LASTNAME varchar(256),

BALANCE int (20),

ACCOUNT NO int (20),

AADHAR NO int (20),

FOREIGN KEY (AADHAR NO) REFERENCE UIDAI (AADHAR NO)

)
CREATE TABLE IDBI

AADHAR NO. int (20),

BALANCE int (20),

FOREIGN KEY (AADHAR NO) REFERENCE UIDAI (AADHAR NO)

Notice that the "AADHAR NO" column in the "ICICI", "AADHAR NO" column in the "IDBI"
table points to the "AADHAR NO" column in the "UIDAI" table.

The "AADHAR NO" column in the "UIDAI" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "UIDAI" table.

The "AADHAR NO" column in the "ICICI" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "ICICI" table.

The "AADHAR NO" column in the "IDBI" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "IDBI" table.

5. DEFAULT

Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the "City" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column2 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column3 datatype NOT NULL/NULL DEFAULT “Enter Name/City”,
column4 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
....
);

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Latur'

);

Output

Table Name- Persons

ID LastName FirstName Age City

1 20 Latur
2 22 Latur
3 23 Latur
 6. CHECK

Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on
values in other columns in the row.

SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column2 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column3 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
column4 datatype NOT NULL/NULL,
CHECK (column) <, >, = Value
....
);

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int NOT NULL,
CHECK (Age>21)
);
Output

Table Name- Persons

PersonID LastName FirstName Age

1 22

2 23

Difference between Primary key, Foreign key & Unique Key

Primary Key Foreign Key Unique Key

The PRIMARY KEY A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link The UNIQUE
constraint uniquely identifies two tables together. A FOREIGN KEY constraint ensures
each record in a table. is a field (or collection of fields) in one that all values in a
Primary keys must contain table that refers to the PRIMARY KEY column are different.
UNIQUE values in another table.
Primary key cannot have a Foreign key can accept multiple null Unique Constraint
NULL value. value. may have a NULL
value.
Each table can have only one We can have more than one foreign key Each table can have
primary key. in a table. more than one
Unique Constraint.
 21. JOIN

Joins are statements use to joint two or more tables on primary key & foregin key

Join is an SQL statement it is used to join the two or more tables based on the basic of
relationship between the primary key & foregin key

Types of JOIN

1. INNER JOIN

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.

Inner join is a SQL statement which is use to show records in columns which are related to
common values

Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

or

SELECT Table1.Column1
Table1.Column2
Table2.Column1
FROM Table1 INNER JOIN Table2
ON Table1.PK = Table2.FK;
Example
Table1- UIDAI
Aadhar (PK) First Name Last Name City
1 Sharad Pawar Baramati
2 Ajit Pawar Pune
3 Sanjay Raut Mumbai

Table2- IDBI
Account No Balance Aadhar(FK)
1234 50000 2
5898 40000 3
9872 30000 2
8796 90000 5

Example
SELECT UIDAI. First Name
UIDAI. Last Name
IDBI. Balance
FROM UIDAI INNER JOIN IDBI
ON UIDAI. Aadhar = IDBI. Aadhar;

Output

First Name Last Name Balance

Ajit Pawar 50000
Ajit Pawar 30000
Sanjay Raut 40000
 2. LEFT JOIN

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matching
records from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from the right side, if there is no
match.

Syntax

SELECT Table1.Column1
Table1.Column1
Table2.Column1
FROM Table1 LEFT JOIN Table2
ON Table1.PK = Table2.FK;

Example

SELECT UIDAI. First Name

UIDAI. Last Name
IDBI. Balance
FROM UIDAI LEFT JOIN IDBI
ON UIDAI. Aadhar = IDBI. Aadhar;
Output

First Name Last Name Balance

Sharad Pawar
Ajit Pawar 50000
Ajit Pawar 30000
Sanjay Raut 40000

3. RIGHT JOIN

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the matching
records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the left side, if there is no match.

Syntax

SELECT Table1.Column1
Table1.Column1
Table2.Column1
FROM Table1 RIGHT JOIN Table2
ON Table1.PK = Table2.FK;
Example

SELECT UIDAI. First Name

UIDAI. Last Name
IDBI. Balance
FROM UIDAI RIGHT JOIN IDBI
ON UIDAI. Aadhar = IDBI. Aadhar;

Output

First Name Last Name Balance

Ajit Pawar 50000
Ajit Pawar 30000
Sanjay Raut 40000
90000

4. FULL JOIN

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left (table1) or
right (table2) table records.

Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.
Syntax

SELECT Table1.Column1
Table1.Column2
Table2.Column1
FROM Table1 FULL JOIN Table2
ON Table1.PK = Table2.FK;

Example

SELECT UIDAI. First Name

UIDAI. Last Name
IDBI. Balance
FROM UIDAI FULL JOIN IDBI
ON UIDAI. Aadhar = IDBI. Aadhar;

Output

First Name Last Name Balance

Sharad Pawar
Ajit Pawar 50000
Ajit Pawar 30000
Sanjay Raut 40000
90000
 22. GROUP BY

The GROUP BY statement group’s rows that have the same values into summary rows.

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT (), MAX (), MIN
(), SUM (), AVG ()) to group the result-set by one or more columns.

Table Name- ICICI

Account No Withdrawal
1 6000
2 7000
1 7000
3 6000
1 2000
2 4000
3 9000
4 3000

Syntax

SELECT AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (Column) FROM table_name

GROUP BY Column;

Example

SELECT SUM (Withdrawal) FROM ICICI

GROUP BY Account No.;
Output

Withdrawal
15000
11000
15000
3000

Syntax
SELECT Column, AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (Column) FROM table_name
GROUP BY Column;

Example
SELECT Account No., SUM (Withdrawal) FROM ICICI
GROUP BY Account No.;

Output

Account No Withdrawal
1 15000
2 11000
3 15000
4 3000
23. HAVING

It is a SQL statement use to satisfy the given condition & it is use with the aggregate
function.

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be used
with aggregate functions.

Syntax

SELECT AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (Column) FROM table_name

GROUP BY Column;
HAVING AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (Column) >, <, =, Value;

Example

SELECT SUM (Withdrawal) FROM ICICI

GROUP BY Account No.;
HAVING SUM (Withdrawal) <= 12000;

Output

Withdrawal
11000
3000
Syntax
SELECT Column, AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (Column) FROM table_name
GROUP BY Column;
HAVING AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (Column) >, <, =, Value;

Example
SELECT Account No., SUM (Withdrawal) FROM ICICI
GROUP BY Account No.;
HAVING SUM (Withdrawal) <= 12000;

Output

Account No Withdrawal
2 11000
4 3000
 24. AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS

-Its returns the single value based on the particular column

-An aggregate function performs calculations on set of values and returns a single value.

-To perform calculation on multiple rows of a single column and return single value.

Table-Students Marks

Sr.No FN LN Marks
1 Virat Kohli 65
2 Rohit Sharma 75
3 Ravindra Jadeja 95
4 Shikhar Dhawan 85
5 Rishabh Pant 55

FIRST():
- Will returns first value in the selected column except NULL
- Returns first value of a numeric column

Syntax:
SELECT FIRST(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT FIRST(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output
FIRST(Marks)
1 65
LAST():
- Will returns last value in the selected column except NULL
- Returns last value of a numeric column
Syntax:
SELECT LAST(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT LAST(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output:
LAST(Marks)
1 55

MIN():
- Will returns minimum value in the selected column except NULL
- Returns minimum value of a numeric column
Syntax:
SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT MIN(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output:
MIN(Marks)
1 55
MAX():

- Will returns Maximum value in the selected column except NULL

- Returns Maximum value of a numeric column

Syntax:
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT MAX(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output:
MAX(Marks)
1 95

SUM():

- Sum of all Non-Null Values of a numeric column.

- It returns the total sum of a numeric column

Syntax:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT SUM(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output:
SUM(Marks)
1 375
AVG():
- This function returns average value of a numeric column
- It will apply for Non-Null Values
- AVG=SUM(column_name)/COUNT(column_name);

Syntax:
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT AVG(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output:
AVG(Marks)
1 75

COUNT():
- Returns total number of records
- Return Non-Null Values of a column

Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name;
Example:
SELECT COUNT(Marks)
FROM Student Marks;
Output:
COUNT(Marks)
1 5
Find the highest Salary
Table Name – Employ Info
Id. No FN LN Salary
1 Virat Kohli 1000
2 Rohit Sharma 2000
3 Ravindra Jadeja 3000
4 Shikhar Dhawan 4000
5 Rishabh Pant 5000
6 Suryakumar Yadav 6000
7 Ishan Kishan 7000
8 Hardik Pandya 8000
9 Jasprit Bumrah 9000
10 Bhuvneshwar Kumar 10000

To show 2nd max salary / How to get the 2nd max salary

• Syntax

SELECT MAX (Column) FROM table_name

WHERE Column NOT IN (SELECT MAX (Column) FROM table_name);

• Example

SELECT MAX (Salary) FROM Employ Info

WHERE Salary NOT IN (SELECT MAX (Salary) FROM Employ Info);

To show 2nd min salary / How to get the 2nd min salary

• Syntax

SELECT MIN (Column) FROM tabale_name

WHERE Column NOT IN (SELECT MIN (Column)) FROM table_name);

• Example

SELECT MIN (Salary) FROM Employ Info

WHERE Salary NOT IN (SELECT MIN (Salary)) FROM Employ Info);

How to get nth highest salary by using TOP

• Syntax

SELECT TOP 1 Column

FROM (SELECT TOP N Column FROM table_name

ORDER BY Column DESC)

ORDER BY Column ASC;

To show 3rd max salary / How to get the 3rd max salary

• Syntax

SELECT TOP 1 Column

FROM (SELECT TOP 3 Column FROM table_name ORDER BY Column DESC)

ORDER BY Column ASC;

 • Example

SELECT TOP 1 Salary

FROM (SELECT TOP 3 Salary FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary DESC)

ORDER BY Salary ASC;

Or

SELECT TOP 1 Salary FROM (SELECT TOP 3 Salary FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary DESC)

ORDER BY Salary ASC;

Other Way to Find Highest & Lowest Salary

To show 7th highest salary / How to get the 7th highest salary

• Syntax

SELECT MIN (Column) FROM table_name

WHERE Column IN (SELECT TOP 7 Column FROM table_name

ORDER BY Column DESC);

• Example

SELECT MIN (Salary) FROM Employ Info

WHERE Salary IN (SELECT TOP 7 Salary FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary DESC);

To show 7th min salary / How to get the 7th min salary

• Syntax

SELECT MAX (Column) FROM table_name

WHERE Column IN (SELECT TOP 7 Column FROM table_name

ORDER BY Column);

• Example

SELECT MAX (Salary) FROM Employ Info

WHERE Salary IN (SELECT TOP 7 Salary FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary
By using RONUM to find highest & lowest salary

//Highest salary

• Syntax

SELECT MAX(Column) FROM table_name;

• Example

SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employ Info;

//Lowest Salary

• Syntax

SELECT MIN(Column) FROM table_name;

• Example

SELECT MIN(Salary) FROM Employ Info;

//2nd Highest Salary

• Syntax

SELECT MAX(Column) FROM table_name

WHERE Column NOT IN(SELECT MAX(Column) FROM table_name);

• Example

SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employ Info

WHERE Salary NOT IN(SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employ Info);

//2nd Lowest Salary

• Syntax

SELECT MIN(Column) FROM table_name

WHERE Column NOT IN(SELECT MIN(Column) FROM table_name);

• Example

SELECT MIN(Salary) FROM Employ Info

WHERE Salary NOT IN(SELECT MIN(Salary) FROM Employ Info);

//Nth Highest Salary

• Syntax
SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM table_name
ORDER BY Column DESC) WHERE ROWNUM<=N) ORDER BY Column) WHERE
ROWNUM<=Value;

• Example (3rd Highest Salary)

SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary DESC) WHERE ROWNUM<=3) ORDER BY Salary) WHERE
ROWNUM<=1;

Execution

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary DESC;

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

WHERE ROWNUM<=3;

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary;

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

WHERE ROWNUM<=1;
//Nth Lowest Salary

• Syntax
SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM table_name
ORDER BY Column) WHERE ROWNUM<=N) ORDER BY Column DESC) WHERE
ROWNUM<=Value;

• Example (3rd Lowest Salary)

SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM (SELECT*FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary) WHERE ROWNUM<=3) ORDER BY Salary DESC) WHERE
ROWNUM<=1;

Execution

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary;

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

WHERE ROWNUM<=3;

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

ORDER BY Salary DESC;

SELECT*FROM Employ Info

WHERE ROWNUM<=1;
SQL Questions

1. Explain DML and DDL?

2. How many Aggregate functions are available in SQL?
3. What is the difference in BETWEEN and IN condition operators?
4. What is the difference between the HAVING clause and WHERE clause?
5. What is the difference between DELETE, TRUNCATE & DROP?
6. What are different Clauses used in SQL?
7. What are different SQL constraints?
8. What is the difference between UNIQUE key, PRIMARY KEY & FORGIN KEY constraints?
9. What are different JOINS used in SQL?
10. How to write a query to show the details of a student from Students table whose name start
with K?
11. What is the syntax to add a record to a table?
12. What is the syntax of GROUP BY in SQL?
13. Define the SQL DELETE statement.
14. Write a SQL SELECT query that only returns each name only once from a table?
15. Write an SQL query to get the first maximum salary of an employee from a table named
employee_table.
16. Write an SQL query to get the second maximum salary of an employee from a table named
employee_table.
17. Write an SQL query to get the third maximum salary of an employee from a table named
employee_table.
18. Write an SQL query to fetch unique values from a table?
19. Write an SQL query to fetch data from table whose name start with Vipul & Krishna?
20 Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers whose SALARY lies between 100000 and
500000.
21. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers who have joined in Feb’2014.
22. Write an SQL query to fetch the count of employees working in the department ‘Admin’.
23. Write an SQL query to fetch worker names with salaries >= 50000 and <= 100000.