The Art of Problem Solving

Math 479 - Dr. Monks

Contemplation within activity is a million times better

than contemplation within stillness. – Hakuin

1 The Way of Problem Solving

• Art: Problem solving is an art. Like any art it requires proper attitude, practice,
creativity, and passion to master. Like any artist the problem solver creates works
of wonder and surprise and sublime aesthetic value.
• Beauty: A correct solution is better than no solution. A massive straightforward slog
(a.k.a. dumb-assing) that gets the correct answer is better than no solution at all. But
a clever correct solution is better than a straightforward or obvious solution. All else
being equal, the shorter the solution, the better. A solution that does not require a
calculator or computer is better than one that does. A solution that does not require
algebra is better than one that does.
• Fellowship: As with any art form, we can benefit from interacting with other artists.
By aspiring to learn from those who are more experienced, by cooperating with our
peers, and by assisting those who are less experienced, everyone benefits. Several
minds can produce several perspectives on the same problem. As with any group of
artisans, problem solvers naturally bond together into a community of people who
share a common interest.

The life of Zen attainment is not like standing on a river-

bank watching the current and appreciating the water or
landscape as a witness; it is jumping into the current and
becoming one with it. – Leggett

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1.1 Problems vs Exercises

Zeitz distinguishes between a problem and an exercise.
Some Characteristics of a Good Problem
• Your first impression is “This is impossible!”.
• You are surprised, or delighted by the question itself.
• It is simple to state, but hard to answer.
• You’ve never seen a question just like it before.
• You don’t know immediately how to solve it.
• It is addictive. You want to know the answer.
• It has an obvious, straightforward, ugly, messy, lengthy solution, but also a clever,
ingenious, short, elegant solution.
• It has some symmetry, or a story, or a pattern or picture that is aesthetically pleasing.
• It only requires only very elementary mathematics, but is quite challenging nonethe-
less.

1.2 Some Problem Solving Terminology and Folklore

• Crux move: Zeitz calls a key insight or key step in the solution to a problem a crux
move. It is the key realization that allows you to solve the problem, all other parts
of the solution being more or less straightforward. A problem can have more than
one crux move. It refers to the most difficult, tricky, or creative step or steps in a
solution.
• Fence post error: Probably the number one killer of otherwise perfectly good so-
lutions is being off by one when counting something. This gets its name from a
problem similar to this one.
A fence is constructed of ten foot sections consisting of two horizontal bars
supported by posts at each end. How many fence posts are needed to construct
a straight fence of this type that is 100 ft long?
If your answer is ten, then you have committed the fence post error. We say a
proposed solution is “off by a fence post” to mean that the solution is wrong because
something was counted incorrectly and the count came out to be either one to high
or one two low. As you solve many problems you will learn to have a healthy hatred
of fence posts.
• Pwn: refers to dominating of an opponent, or something great or ingenious applied
to methods or objects. This term is used by problem solvers to indicate a great
ingenious solution to a problem, one that dominates and completely solves the
problem in the best possible manner.
• Spoilers: it is traditional in problem solving, just as with movies or puzzles, to
respect other’s rights and desire to enjoy a problem to its fullest. Therefore it is

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important not to provide a “spoiler” to someone who is working hard on a problem

by revealing the solution or giving them a big hint unless they ask you for it first.
Also it is much more rewarding to solve a problem if you only have a little hint than
if someone just tells you the solution. A good problem solver respects their fellow
problem solvers need to enjoy the solution and will devote some thought to giving
“just the right hint” if someone requests it so as not to spoil their fun.

1.3 Why Problem Solving?

• For Pure Mathematicians: the closest activity in mathematics to problem solving is
mathematical research. In both research and problem solving the mathematician
must learn how to solve problems whose solution is not immediately apparent. All
of the same strategies, tactics, tools, skills, and attitudes that are used by the problem
solver can also be used effectively by the researcher. Problem solving provides an
excellent training ground for research in a more well-defined environment in which
the problems are known to have a solution and are meant to be solved in only a few
hours rather than over several months or years.
• For Applied Mathematicians: the applied mathematician or scientist benefits from
a problem solving background by practicing to be accurate, careful, creative, and
confident when faced with a problem. The applied mathematician is often faced
with a complicated or ill defined problem and must use his skills as a problem solver
to come to a deeper understanding of the problem and solve it. Just as in problem
solving, an efficient solution to a problem is often substantially more valuable than
an inefficient one.
• For Math Teachers: problem solving has its roots in mathematics competitions starting
at the 4th grade level and continuing on up through the Putnam exam. Mathemat-
ics teachers who have a problem solving background gain a substantially deeper
understanding of the topics they must teach and gain the ability to coach students
who wish to participate in mathematical competitions.

1.4 The Problem Solving Mindset

If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is

necessary that at least once in your life you doubt,
as far as possible, all things. – Descartes

There are several attitudes or psychological perspectives that are needed to be a successful
problem solver.
• Concentration: it is easy to get distracted or frustrated by a difficult problem.
Problem solving requires sometimes lengthy, intense, focused concentration on a
single topic.

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• Confidence: it is important to believe that you will eventually be able to solve a

problem, even if you have no idea how to do it at first. Even if you are a beginner at
problem solving, you should approach a problem with a confident attitude. Don’t
worry that you might not remember a key theorem or an important fact. Every
problem has to be solved with what you already know.
• Creativity: a problem solver must always remain open to all and any ideas that may
come to mind and always on the lookout for new ways to approach a problem. A
change of perspective, a reinterpretation of the question, a nonstandard approach
to a otherwise familiar situation can have tremendous benefits. It can also be a dead
end. But if even one idea in ten is fruitful, that may be the only one you need to
solve the problem.
• Peripheral vision: when looking at the night sky we can see fainter objects by not
looking directly at them. The receptors on the sides of our eyes are more sensitive to
faint light than those in the center. Similarly, when solving a problem, we should not
always think about solving the problem itself directly, but rather allow ourselves to
ponder things that are perhaps only vaguely related to the problem. This is similar
to a smell or gut instinct or intuition that leads you in a certain direction without
being 100% certain why you think you ought to go that way. The more you practice,
the more reliable your instincts will become.
• Thinking on your feet: problem solvers strive to develop the ability to think on
their feet with the minimal amount of assistance possible. A solution that does not
require a calculator or computer is better than one that does. A solution that does not
require a pencil and paper is better than one that does. A short elementary solution
that does not require any advanced theorems or previously proven results is better
than one that does. The problem solver solves problems in the shower, while lying
in bed before going to sleep or right after waking up, while running or biking or
hiking or driving in the car. The problem solver may actually look forward to time
in the waiting room at the doctor’s office or dentist as it provides uninterrupted time
to work on their problems.
• Stay loose: The mind is a more flexible and fluid canvass than pencil and blank
paper. We can manipulate ideas freely in our mind. Putting something down on
paper tends to make it more concrete and cast in stone. The more you practice, the
better you will become at not needing paper and pencil to do mathematics. As you
do you will sometimes find that you have more success solving difficult problems
if you don’t use paper than if you do! Especially at the beginning, when you first
approach a problem, it is important to stay loose and flexible. Working mostly in
your head is often the best way to do that. Once you have an epiphany and see the
crux move, it may then be time to break out the paper or calculators.
• Be careful: without accuracy and care, stupid mistakes can easily turn an otherwise
correct solution into an incorrect one. Also some problems may be easy to solve if
you do them correctly but a hideous nightmare if you make a small mistake. The

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problem solver must also strive to be sure that every case has been considered and
that there is no omission in the solution that could catastrophic.

2 Master Zeitz’s Threefold Path

If you do not follow the right path, you will be lost.

– The Buddha

The experienced problem solver operates on three different levels:

1. Strategy: mathematical and psychological ideas for starting and pursuing problems.
2. Tactics: Diverse mathematical methods that work in many different settings.
3. Tools: Narrowly focused techniques and “tricks” for specific situations.

3 Strategies
Zeitz identifies the following strategies.

Get Oriented

Read the problem! – Monks

Get Oriented: Take time to understand exactly what the question is asking. Notice every
word and make a mental inventory of everything you are given, and exactly what you are
asked. Words and phrases like “positive” or “at most” or “integer” or “unique” can be
crucial. Also be aware of what the question does not say. Don’t assume anything that isn’t
stated in the question and don’t ignore anything that is.
Common pitfalls: It is very easy to interpret a question the wrong way by skipping a
single word, or incorrectly identifying it as another similar question that you are more
familiar with.

PROBLEM

Suppose 12a + 10b = 1020. Find a

5
+ 6b .

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Discussion: In a question like this it is as important to realize what it is not asking as

what it is asking. It is not asking you to determine the values of a and b. How can that
help?

Get Your Hands Dirty

Practice until concepts have become so obvious, so intu-

itive, that you could handle them without thinking – in
your sleep. You must see them in your eye, have them
right in your fingers. – Benoit Mandelbrot

Get Your Hands Dirty: Try some sample computations. Do some experiments. Draw
some pictures. Build models. Play with the “toys” that are given to you in the question.
Muck around. If the question asks you to prove something for all natural numbers n,
try it for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Playing and computing and doing sample calculations and
experimenting can build insight into what is actually going on. If you are very lucky,
sometimes a few sample computations are all that is needed to solve the problem.

PROBLEM

Suppose 12a + 10b = 1020. Find a

5
+ 6b .

Discussion: How can we get our hands dirty in such a problem? Can it be helpful?

PROBLEM

Find all prime numbers that are the sum of four consecutive prime numbers.

Discussion: How can we get our hands dirty in this problem?

Consider the Penultimate Step

Consider the Penultimate Step: It is often helpful to consider what the next to last step
in the solution could be in order to solve the question. This is “working” backwards from
the desired goal. This can be generalized by considering the step before the penultimate

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step, and so on, working backwards from the goal and forwards from the hypotheses in
the hope of meeting up somewhere in the middle.
Common Pitfalls: Note that often there is more than one penultimate step possible, and
you should remain open to all possibilities rather than committing yourself to the first plan
of attack that comes to mind, which may inevitably prove to be impossible or unwieldy.

PROBLEM

In triangle △ABC, point D on BC is equidistant from the vertices A, B, and C. Prove

that |AB|2 + |AC|2 = |BC|2 .

Discussion: Where have we seen this kind of equation before? What penultimate
step would suffice to prove such an equation?

Consider a Simpler Problem

If the given problem is too hard, solve an

easier one. – Zeitz

Consider a Simpler Problem: Another way to gain an insight into a difficult problem
is to try solving a simpler problem that is similar to the difficult one. This may involve
solving the same problem with fewer variables, or smaller numbers.

PROBLEM

How many ordered triples of positive integers sum to 20?

Discussion: What is problems can you think of that are similar to this one, but seem
to be simpler? Can solving the simpler problem help?

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Wishful Thinking

Good, obedient boys and girls solve fewer problems

than naughty and mischievous ones. – Zeitz

Wishful Thinking: It is sometimes helpful to consider something that is blatantly false

that you wish were true because it would make the problem much easier to solve. In
addition to giving some glimpses of how the problem might be solved, understanding
why the thing you wish to be true is false is often essential to understanding the key
difficulty in the problem.

PROBLEM

The product of five consecutive integers is 2441880. What is the largest of the five
integers?

Discussion: How can we attack this with wishful thinking? Can you solve it cleverly
without a calculator and with the minimum amount of arithmetic (i.e., without dumb-
assing it)?

Common Strategies for Proofs

If it is a Miracle, any sort of evidence will answer,

but if it is a Fact, proof is necessary. – Mark
Twain

Informally, a proof is just an explanation that logically guarantees the correctness of a

statement. More formally, a proof is a sequence of statements that are either (a) a definition
(b) a previously proven statement or (c) follow from previous statements in the proof by
logical rules of inference. A simple example of formal proofs are the statement-reason
proofs that you did in high school geometry.
In a problem solving, most proofs are not written in that statement-reason two column
format but rather are written informally as careful detailed explanation that leads the
reader inexorably to the desired conclusion with no ambiguity. But even though the style

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of informally written proofs differs from that of a formal proof, the content is exactly the
same: every claim in your proof must follow from previous statements by the rules of
logic or must be a previously proven result, definition, or a fact given in the statement of
the problem. Thus, you should strive to give reasons for every claim you make in a proof
and show why it follows from what you have said previously.
There are several very common arguments used in proofs that every problem solver must
be familiar with.
1. Proving a Conditional statement: To prove a statement of the form "If P then Q"
where P and Q are statements, you should assume P is true and then prove that Q
is true under that assumption.
2. Proving a Contrapositive: To prove a conditional statement like "If P then Q" it is
sometimes easier to prove the equivalent statement "If not Q then not P" by assuming
that Q is false and showing that P is false under that assumption.
3. Proof by Contradiction: To prove a statement P sometime it is useful to assume P is
false and then show that that assumption leads to a contradiction, i.e., that you can
prove both some statement and its negation.
4. Proof by Cases: If you know that either P or Q is true, and want to show R, you
can prove R by considering separate cases. In the first case, assume P and prove R.
In the second case assume Q and show R. Since one of P or Q is known to be true,
R must be true as well. This method also generalizes to situations where you have
more than two cases to consider.
5. Proof of Univerality: To prove that a statement is true about every element in some
set, let x be an arbitrary, unspecified element of that set and prove that the statement
is true about x.
6. Proof of Existence: To prove that a mathematical object with certain properties
exists, either make an example of such an object (i.e., construct one), or show that if
it didn’t exist there would be a contradiction (i.e., use proof by contradiction).
7. Proof by Induction: Let P (n) be a statement about an unspecified natural number
n. To prove that P is true for all natural number values of n, show P (0) is true, then
let k be a natural number and assuming P (k) is true, show that P (k + 1) is also true.

PROBLEM

The plane is divided into regions by finitely many straight lines. Show that it is
always possible to color the regions with two colors so that adjacent regions are
never the same color (like a checkerboard).

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4 Tactics
Zeitz identifies the following tactics, which apply to a wide range of problems.

Symmetry

Look for harmony and beauty, whenever you in-

vestigate a problem. If you can do something that
makes things more harmonious or more beauti-
ful, even if you have no idea how to define these
two terms, then you are often on the right track.
– Zeitz

Tactic: When a problem has symmetry, try to use it. Try to maintain that symmetry
while solving the problem. If a problem doesn’t have symmetry, but you wish it did,
try to introduce symmetry into the situation if possible.

A mathematical object (shape, expression, system of equations, etc.) is symmetric with

respect to some action or operation if it is unchanged by the action or operation. The
actions that do this are called the symmetries of the object.

PROBLEM

(MATHCOUNTS 2002 Workout 8, number 8) The points A, B and C lie in a plane and
have coordinates (6, 5), (2, 1) and (0, k), respectively. What value of k makes the sum
of the lengths of segments AC and BC the least possible value?

Examples of Symmetry
Groups
A group is a set together with an associative binary operator on that set that has an identity
element and inverses for every element in the set. The set of symmetries of an object often
forms a group.
The set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} is unchanged by permuting its elements. The set of all permutations
of {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} is called the symmetric group Sn .

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Geometric Symmetry
Plane geometric figures which are unchanged by reflection across a line, or rotation
through a certain angle, or inversion in a circle, or translation by a fixed vector, etc. are
said to be symmetric with respect to that line, rotation, inversion, translation, etc.
The set of all isometries (bijections from the plane to itself that preserve distance) which
map a given figure to itself is called the symmetry group for that figure.

Symmetric Functions and Polynomials

A function f is called a symmetric function in n variables if


f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = f xσ(1) , xσ(2) , . . . , xσ(n)

for permutation σ of {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} and any values of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . If f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is a

polynomial in x1 , x2 , . . . , xn we say f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is a symmetric polynomial. e.g. here
are some symmetric polynomials in two variables:

x+y
x2 + y2
x2 y + xy2
x3 + x2 y + xy2 + y3

System of Equations
A system of equations in n variables is a symmetric with respect to its variables if permut-
ing the variables leaves the system unchanged. For example,

x+y = z
x+z = y
y+z = x

In such situations it is usually in your best interest to try to maintain the symmetry in
whatever algebraic operations you do, i.e., do the same thing to all three equations at once
rather than operating on one equation at a time. For example, find x + y + z if x, y, and z
satisfy the above system of equations. Similar situations can arise with inequalities.

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PROBLEM

(Friendly Competition P1989-3) Show that the area of the shaded triangle formed by
the side-trisectors of a triangle (as shown) is 1/7 of the area of the whole triangle.

The Extreme Principle

Tactic: Whenever possible put the elements of your problem in some order. Focus
on the largest and smallest (i.e., extreme) elements in this order as they may be
constrained in interesting ways.

A poset (or partially ordered set) is a pair (A, R) where A is a set and R is a relation on A
that is reflexive, transitive, and antisymmetric.
1. (reflexive) ∀a ∈ A, aRa
2. (transitive) ∀a, b, c ∈ A, aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc
3. (antisymmetric) ∀a, b ∈ A, aRb and bRa ⇒ a = b
Note that a poset might not have a largest or smallest element.
A poset (A, R) is well-ordered if and only if it satisfies these two conditions:
1. (totally ordered) ∀a, b ∈ A, aRb or bRa
2. Every nonempty subset of A has a least element.
The most common orderings and partial orderings encountered in problems include:
• < and ≤ on sets of real numbers
• ⊆ and ⊊ on sets of sets
• alphabetical and lexicographic ordering on strings and tuples
• ordering polynomials by degree
• ordering complex numbers by absolute value

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Note that you can often order your elements in more than one way, so that you should use
the strategy of staying loose when considering orderings as one particular ordering might
be more useful than another.
One ordering principle that can be very helpful when dealing with sets of natural numbers
is actually an axiom of the natural numbers:
Well Ordering Principle: Every set of natural numbers has a least element.

PROBLEM

(Zeitz problem 1.1.4) I invite 10 couples to a party at my house. I ask everyone

present, including my wife, how many people they shook hands with. It turns out
that everyone questioned – I didn’t question myself, of course – shook hands with a
different number of people. If we assume that no one shook hands with his or her
partner, how many people did my wife shake hands with? (I did not ask myself any
questions.)

PROBLEM

Given that 7 distinct positive integers add up to 100, prove that some three of them
add up to at least 50.

PROBLEM

Given 2n + 2 points in the plane, no three collinear, prove that two of them determine
a line that separates n of the points from the other n.

The Pigeonhole Principle

Tactic: When you need to prove something exists but don’t care what it is, consider
using the Pigeonhole Principle

l m
n
Pigeonhole Principle: If you have n pigeons in k holes some hole contains at least
j k k
pigeons and some hole contains at most nk pigeons.

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This is more powerful than it looks. Note that the pigeonhole principle does not tell you
which hole contains the number of pigeons indicated, nor that any hole contains exactly
that number of pigeons. It is just tells you that some hole satisfies the condition given.

PROBLEM

Given n + 1 positive integers prove that there are two of them whose difference is
divisible by n.

PROBLEM

Show that if there are n people at a party, then two of them know the same number
of people (among those present, assuming "knowing" is symmetric).

PROBLEM

Show that if five distinct points are placed inside an equilateral triangle of side length
two, there are two distinct points that are a distance less than or equal to one apart.

PROBLEM

Prove that there exist integers a, b, c not all zero and each of absolute value less than
one million such that √ √
a + b 2 + c 3 < 10−11

Invariants and Monovariants

Tactic: When there are too many things to keep track of, look for an invariant or
monovariant.

An invariant is any quantity or property that remains the same under some operation or
is the same for all elements of a set.
Parity and congruence are common invariants.

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Example: Consider a point P = x, y on the unit circle. As P moves around the circle its x
and y coordinates change, but the value of x2 + y2 is always 1.
Example: For example, the operations f (n) = 3n + 1 always maps an integer to another
integer having the same parity after two iterations.

PROBLEM

There is one stone at each vertex of a square. We are allowed to change the number of
stones according to the following rule: We may take away any number of stones from
any vertex and add twice as many stones to the pile at one of the adjacent vertices.
Is it possible to get 2004, 2003, 2005, and 2004 stones at consecutive vertices after a
finite number of moves?

PROBLEM

Let there be nine lattice points in a three-dimensional Euclidean space. Show there is
a lattice point on the interior of one of the line segments joining two of these points.

PROBLEM

Is it possible to start with a knight in some corner of a chessboard and reach the
opposite corner by a sequence of legal moves that pass through every square exactly
once?

A monovariant is any quantity that strictly increases or strictly decreases under some
operation.
A monovariant often has positive integer values and is strictly decreasing, so that after
finitely many steps it is zero.
Example: In the stone-and-square problem above, the total number of stones on all four
corners is a monovariant. It goes up by one for each stone removed.

PROBLEM

At a round table are 2004 girls, playing a game with a deck of n cards. Initially one
girl holds all the cards. At each turn, if at least one girl holds at least two of these
cards, one of these girls must pass a card to each of her two neighbors. The game
ends when, and only when each girl is holding at most one card. Prove that the game
will end if and only if n < 2004.

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5 Crossover Tactics

Graph Theory

A graph is a is a pair of sets (N, E) where E is a set of one or two element subsets of N. A
directed graph (or digraph) is a pair of sets (N, E) where E ⊆ N × N. The elements of N
are called nodes and the elements of E are called edges.
Graphs and digraphs are usually represented pictorially by
drawing the nodes as points
and connecting nodes x and y with an arrow whenever x, y or a curve if x, y is an edge.
The positioning of the nodes and the shapes of the edges drawn is irrelevant.
Graphs vs. Relations: Since every relation on N can be represented as a subset of N × N,
the set E in any digraph is a relation on N. Similarly, given a relation R on N we can
construct the digraph of that relation. Thus both are just different representations of the
same mathematical concept. Symmetric relations can be represented by a graph instead
of a digraph. This explains why graph theory is a crossover tactic!

Graph mini-lexicon
• If N is finite we say the graph or digraph (N, E) is also finite. The number of nodes
in a finite graph or digraph is called the order of the graph.
• A graph or digraph is simple if it has no edges from a point to itself.
• (N′ , E′ ) is a subgraph of graph (N, E) if (N′ , E′ ) is a graph and N′ ⊆ N and E′ ⊆ E.
• A path from x1 to xn in a graph is a sequence of nodes x1 , x2 , . . . , xn having an edge
between any two consecutive terms in the sequence (these edges are said to be in
the path) where no edge is in the path more than once. In the case where x1 = xn we
say the path is a cycle.
• A graph having a path between every two vertices is a connected graph.
• A connected graph with no cycles is called a tree.
• The degree of a node in a finite graph is the number of edges connected to that node.
In a finite digraph we have the out-degree and in-degree of each node which is the
number of edges leaving and entering the node, respectively.
• A bipartite graph is a graph whose nodes can be partitioned into two subsets U and
V such that every edge connects an element of U to an element of V.

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• An Eulerian path is a path in a graph that contains every edge.

• A Hamiltonian path is a path in a graph that contains every vertex.
• A graph is complete if there is an edge connecting every pair of nodes. A bipartite
graph is complete if there is an edge between every pair (u, v) with u ∈ U and v ∈ V.

Playbook Facts about Graphs

Connected components: The relation "there is a path from x to y" partitions a graph into
a disjoint union of connected subgraphs. These are called the connected components of
the graph.
Handshake Lemma: In any finite graph the sum of the degrees of the nodes is twice the
number of edges.
Existence of Eulerian paths and cycles: A graph has an Eulerian path if and only if it is
connected and the number of nodes of odd degree is either two or zero. A path has an
Eulerian cycle if and only if it is connected and every vertex has even degree.
Existence of Hamiltonian cycles - Dirac’s Theorem: A simple graph with n nodes has an
Hamiltonian cycle if the degree of every node is at least n/2.
Existence of Hamiltonian cycles - Ore’s Theorem: A simple graph with n nodes has an
Hamiltonian cycle if whenever two nodes are not connected by an edge the sum of their
degrees is at least n.

PROBLEM

There are 59 people at a party. Prove that someone shook hands an even number of
times.

PROBLEM

Show that in any group of six people there are either three who are mutual friends
or three who are mutual strangers.

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PROBLEM

There are n people at a party. For any two people at the party who are not friends,
the sum of the number of people at the party that each is friends with is at least n.
Prove everyone at that party can be seated at a round table so that nobody sits next
to anyone who is not their friend. (You may assume that nobody is their own friend.)
Note: this is actually the proof of Ore’s Theorem in disguise!

Complex Numbers


Let C = R2 . For each (x, y) ∈ C we formally write

x, y = x + yi. This form, x + yi, is called
the standard form of the complex number x, y .
Let x + yi, a + bi ∈ C.
1. x + yi = x p
− yi. (This is called the complex conjugate.)
2. x + yi = x2 + y2 . (This is called the complex norm.)
3. Arg(x + yi) = the angle in [0 . . . 2π) of (x, y) in polar form (not defined for x = y = 0).
(This is called the Argument of x + yi.)
4. Re(x + yi) = x. (This is called the real part of x + yi.)
5. Im(x + yi) = y. (This is called the imaginary part of x + yi.)
6. (x + yi) + (a + bi) = (x + a) + (y + b)i. (This is the definition of addition in C.) 7.
(x + yi)(a + bi) = (xa − yb) + (ya + xb)i.(This is the definition of multiplication in C.)

Notation. We can abbreviate 0 + yi as yi, x + 0i as x, x + 1i as x + i, and x − 1i as x − i with

no ambiguity in the above definitions. With this notation i = (0, 1) and i2 = −1. It is easy
to verify that the usual laws of addition and multiplication (associative, commutative,
distributive, identity, etc.) hold for the complex numbers as well.
Let θ ∈ R. Then eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
Let x + yi ∈ C − {0}. The standard polar form of x + yi is reiθ where r = x + yi and
θ = Arg(x + yi).
The distance between two complex numbers z, w is denoted d(z, w) and is defined to be
d(z, w) = |z − w|.

Theorem 1. Let θ, γ ∈ R.
1. eiθ eiγ = ei(θ+γ) .
2. eiθ = 1.

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3. eiθ = ei(−θ) .

Theorem 2. Let z, z1 , z2 ∈ C.
1. |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |
2. z1 z2 = z1 z2 , i.e., the conjugate of a product is the product of conjugates.
3. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , i.e., the conjugate of a sum is the sum of the conjugates.
4. z z = |z|2
5. |z| = z
6. If z = reiθ in polar form, then z = rei(−θ)
A transformation of a set S is a bijection from S to S.

Remark. In other branches of mathematics a transformation of S is often called a permu-

tation of S.

Useful Geometric Transformations

Let w ∈ C and θ, k ∈ R.

Transformation Description

T(z) = z + w Translation by w
T(z) = eiθ z Rotation by θ radians counterclockwise about the origin
T (z) = z Reflection across the x-axis
T(z) = kz Homothety by positive factor k with respect to the origin
T(z) = 1
z
Inversion1 with respect to the unit circle

Remark. You can compose these functions to obtain many useful transformations!

PROBLEM

(Arithmetic) Prove that if an integer can be written as a sum of two squares, then so
can any positive integer power of that integer.

PROBLEM

(Algebra) Factor z5 + z + 1 (as a polynomial with integer coefficients).

1
Inversion is a transformation of the extended complex plane C+ = C∪ {∞} with 1
0 = ∞ and 1
∞ = 0.

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PROBLEM

(Trigonometry) Express cos(5θ) in terms of cos(θ).

PROBLEM

(Geometry) Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral and construct a square on each side
lying outside of the quadrilateral. Show that the two line segments connecting the
centers of the two pairs of opposite squares are the same length and perpendicular
to each other.

Generating Functions

A generating function is a clothesline on which

we hang up a sequence of numbers for display.
– Herbert Wilf (Generatingfunctionology)

The generating function of a sequence of integers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . is the formal power series

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn + · · ·

Remark. A generating function defines a function

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn + · · ·

defined for all x for which the series converges.

X
∞
a n n
Remark. Variations such as x are sometimes useful.
n=0
n!

Geometric Series: 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = 1
1−x

Manipulating ordinary generating functions

X
∞ X
∞
Let A(x) = an x and B(x) =
n
bn xn
n=0 n=0

1. A(x) = B(x) if and only if an = bn for all n.

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 The Art of Problem Solving
A(x) P∞ Pn

2. (1−x) = n=0 k=0 ak xn
P Pn
n
3. A(x)B(x) = ∞ n=0 k=0 ak bn−k x
P
4. xA′ (x) = ∞
n=0 nan x
n
R P an−1 n
5. A(x) dx = C + ∞ n=1 n x

Partial Fraction Decomposition: If p(x) ∈ R [x] has degree less than k+2m and l1 (x) · · · lk (x) ∈
R [x] are irreducible linear polynomials and q1 (x) · · · qm (x) ∈ R [x] are irreducible quadratic
polynomials then there exist real numbers A1 , . . . , Ak , B1 , . . . , Bk , C1 , . . . , Ck such that

p(x) A1 Ak B1 x + C1 Bm x + Cm
= + ··· + + + ··· +
l1 (x) · · · lk (x)q1 (x) · · · qm (x) l1 (x) lk (x) q1 (x) qm (x)

P∞ f (n) (0) n
Taylor Series: f (x) = n=0 n!
x

PROBLEM

Let a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence of positive integers satisfying a0 = 1 and an = 2an−1 + 3n

for n ≥ 1. Find a closed formula for an .

PROBLEM

Prove the hockey stick identity using generatingfunctionological methods.

! ! ! ! !
k k+1 k+2 n n+1
+ + + ··· + =
k k k k k+1

PROBLEM

Let Cn be the number of ways to distribute n cookies to three children so that no child
has fewer than two cookies or more than four cookies, and there is no shortage of
cookies or cookies left over after the distribution. Compute Cn for all n.

5.1 Tools
Thinking on your feet: Mental Arithmetic
Problem solvers become adroit at mental arithmetic. It is something that is developed
over time as you practice. Along the way you will learn and develop many tricks for

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doing arithmetic in your head. Here is a list of a few common ones. There are plenty
more! We will go over them in class.

Prime Factorization is your best friend!

The problem solver often prefers to think of a positive integer as a product of primes, not
as its base ten representation.
• Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic: Every positive integer n can be written
uniquely as a product of prime powers in increasing order of the primes, i.e., there
is a unique sequence of nonnegative integer exponents e1 , e2 , . . . such that

n = 2e1 3e2 5e3 7e4 · · ·

• Divisibility Tests: are very useful for finding the prime factorization of small num-
bers
• Modular Arithmetic: divisibility tests also give the remainder for integer division.
The sum of the remainders is the remainder of the sum and the product of remainders
is the remainder of the product.
• Primality Criteria: a positive integer p is prime if it is not divisible by any prime n
such that n2 ≤ p.
• Applications to Arithmetic: multiplying fractions, reducing fractions, computing
gcd and lcm, modular arithmetic. It is often useful to leave numbers in their prime
factorization form when doing arithmetic rather than multiplying the prime factor-
ization out to get the base ten representation.
• Cancel, cancel, cancel: when multiplying fractions always cancel first!
• Primes are Good Luck!: always check if your phone number, home address, runner
number, lotto number, etc. is prime. They are good luck!

Memorization: not fun, but useful

There is no doubt that memorization is required to be good at mental arithmetic. Everyone
memorizes their times tables for example. There are some other things that come up a lot
and can be quite valuable to a problem solver. Of course, the list is not limited to these
items, and anything you do beyond this list is certainly going to be of value to you. But
these are some of the common things that problem solvers memorize.
• Squares
• Cubes
• Factorials
• Powers of two
• Decimal representations of fractions

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• Prime numbers
• Useful Prime Factorizations √ √ √
• Decimal approximations of π, e, 2, 3, 5, . . . , ln(2), ln(3), . . . etc.
• Pythagorean triples

Specific tricks
There are also a host of specific tricks that only apply to a limited situation, but that
situation comes up often enough to make the tricks worthwhile.
• Decimal Representations of Sevenths
• Powers of eleven
• Squaring two digit numbers that end in five
• Squaring numbers that are close to a number whose square you know
• Multiplying by a number that ends in 9 or 1
• Left to right operations, especially subtraction
• Fractions are usually easier than decimals
• Famous numbers like 105 and 1001
• Converting eventually repeating decimals to fractions

No, seriously, read the problem! – Leong

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