Mu’tah University

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Eng. Depart.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
CHAPTER 2
Mathematical Models of Systems
Dr. Khaled Alawasa
2nd Semester 2015 1
 CHAPTER OUTLINES
 Background
 Differential Equations of Physical Systems
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
 Block Diagram Models
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

2
 Background
• Mathematical models of physical systems are key elements in the
design and analysis of control systems.
• To understand and control complex systems, one must obtain
quantitative mathematical models of these systems, and analyze the
relationships between the system variables.
• The systems under consideration are dynamic in nature. Their dynamic
behavior is generally described by ordinary differential equations.
• If these equations can be linearized, then the Laplace transform can be
used to simplify the method of solution.
• In practice, the complexity of systems and our ignorance of all the
relevant factors necessitate the introduction of assumptions concerning
the system operation.

3
Background-Dynamic System Modeling
The approach to dynamic system modeling can be
summarized :
1) Define the system and its components.
2) Formulate the mathematical model and fundamental
necessary assumptions based on basic principles.
3) Obtain the differential equations representing the
mathematical model.
4) Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5) Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6) If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system.

4
The Design Process

5
 Definition- Differential Equations
• What is an Differential Equation?
– An equation that consists of derivatives is called a
differential equation.
• Differential equations are of two types
– Ordinary differential equation (ODE)
– Partial differential equations (PDE).
• An ordinary differential equation is that in
which all the derivatives are with respect to a
single independent variable such as:
d2y dy d3y d2y dy
2  y 0 3
 3 2  5  y  sin x,
dx 2
dx dx dx dx
6
 Differential Equations Of Physical
Systems
• Mathematical models for many systems can
be derived from first principles/laws:
– Using Newton’s Laws of motion for mechanical
systems and
– Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws for electrical
systems (KCL and KVL)
• Many physical systems are inherently
continuous-time, and thus their models would
involve systems of differential equations.
7
 Differential Equations Of Physical
Systems- Torsional spring
• Suppose we want to measure the
torque transmitted to the mass (m).
• Since the spring is massless, the sum
of the torques acting on the spring
itself must be zero.
• the external torque applied at the
end of the spring is transmitted Ta( t ) - Ts ( t) 0

through the torsional spring we refer

Ta( t ) Ts ( t )
to the torque as a through-variable
• The angular rate difference is w( t ) ws ( t ) - wa( t)

measured across the torsional spring Ta( t ) = through - variable

element and is referred to as an angular rate difference = across-variable

across-variable. 8
 Variables of Dynamic Systems
• A summary of the through- and across-variables
of dynamic systems is given in Table 2.1

9
Differential Equation for ideal
Elements (1)

d
w
dt

10
Differential Equation for ideal
Elements (2)

11
 Mathematical Models Example
• Mechanical systems
System shown in is described by
Newton’s second law of motion.

Force=M*accelatartion

Summing the forces acting on M and utilizing

Newton’s second law yields

where k is the spring constant of the ideal

spring and b is the friction constant.
Equation is a second-order linear constant-
coefficient differential equation
12
 Mathematical Models Example
• Electrical System RLC circuit
A

KCL   I At Node (A)  0

Utilizing Kirchhoff’s current law. Then we obtain the

following integrodifferential equation

13
 Mathematical Models Example
• Question: What is the final value of the v(t) ?
• the signal reach its final value ( or steady state
value) when the time approaches to infinite (
where no change all the derivative is ZERO)

t 

Try to plot it in MATLAB

14
 Linear Systems
• A system is defined as linear in terms of the
system excitation and response
• A linear system satisfies the properties of
superposition and homogeneity.
• The principle of superposition.
– When the system at rest is subjected to an excitation x1(t), it
provides a response y1(t)
– Also When the system at rest is subjected to an excitation x2(t), it
provides a response y2(t)
– For a linear system, it is necessary that the excitation x1(t) +x2(t)
result in a response y1(t)+ y2(t)

15
 Linear Systems
• Homogeneity (scale factor)
– consider a system with an input x(t) that results in an
output y(t).
– Then the response of a linear system to a constant
multiple α of an input x must be equal to the response to
the input multiplied by the same constant so that the
output is equal αy.
• A system characterized by the relation y = x2 is not linear,
because the superposition property is not satisfied.
• A system represented by the relation y = mx + b is not
linear, because it does not satisfy the homogeneity
property.
16
 Linear Systems - Exercise
• is y  5x  1 a linear function ? Check !!
• is y  x 2 a linear function ? Check !!

• If the system is nonlinear we need to linearize

it to enable us to build Transfer function
• The relationship of the two variables is written
as

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 LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS OF
PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
• If the system is nonlinear we need to linearize it
to enable us to build Transfer function
• The (y=ax+b) system may be considered linear
about an operating point xo,yo for small changes
∆x and ∆ y.
• When x = Xo + ∆ x and y = yo + ∆ y, we have
The relationship of the two variables is written as
∆y=m∆x
or
Therefore, ∆ y = m ∆ x, which satisfies the necessary conditions.
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 Linear Approximations Of Physical
Systems-Exercise
• The normal operating point is designated (xo)
Because the curve (function) is continuous
over the range of interest, a Taylor series
expansion about the operating point may be
utilized

The slope at the operating point

Is a good approximation to the curve over a small range of (X-Xo) 19

 The Laplace Transform
• The ability to obtain linear approximations of physical
systems allows the analyst to consider the use of the
Laplace transformation.
• The Laplace transform method substitutes relatively
easily solved algebraic equations for the more difficult
differential equations .The time-response solution is
obtained by the following operations:
1. Obtain the linearized differential equations.
2. Obtain the Laplace transformation of the differential
equations.
3. Solve the resulting algebraic equation for the
transform of the variable of interest
Laplace transform is

inverse Laplace transform is

20
 The Transfer Function of
Linear Systems
• The Transfer Function (T.F). of a linear system
is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of the output variable to the Laplace
transform of the input variable, with all initial
conditions assumed to be zero.
• The transfer function of a system (or element)
represents the relationship describing the
dynamics of the system under consideration

21
 The Transfer Function Of Linear
Systems
• A transfer function may be defined only for a
linear, stationary (constant parameter) system.
• A nonstationary system, often called a time-
varying system, has one or more time-varying
parameters, and the Laplace transformation may
not be utilized.
• Furthermore, a transfer function is an input–
output description of the behavior of a system.
Thus, the transfer function description does not
include any information concerning the internal
structure of the system and its behavior.

22
The Laplace Transform

23
The Laplace Transform

24
 Transfer function Examples
• EXAMPLE #1 Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
• EXAMPLE #2 Transfer function of RC-network
• EXAMPLE #3 Transfer function of a system
• EXAMPLE #4 Transfer function of the DC motor

25
 The Transfer Function Of Linear
Systems - Spring-Mass-Damper
• The transfer function of the spring-mass-
damper system is obtained from the original
Equation below, rewritten with zero initial
conditions as follows:

R(s) is the input

Y(s) is the output

Then the transfer function is

26
 The Transfer Function Of Linear
Systems – RC network
• The transfer function of the RC network
shown in Figure below is obtained by writing
the Kirchhoff voltage equation, yielding
1
The output voltage is v(t )   i(t ).dt
C
Apply KVL

FIGURE An RC network. 27
 The Transfer Function Of Linear
Systems – RC network

• The transfer function is obtained as the ratio

V2(s)/V1(s)

• where   RCthe time constant of the network

Other way to solve the circuit
is a voltage divider
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 EXAMPLEs
Solution of a differential equation
• Consider a system represented by the
differential equation Study the steady-state response of y(t)
under !!

The Laplace transform yields

29
 EXAMPLEs
Solution of a differential equation
• The partial fraction expansion yields
Laplace transformation

• The response is the response is

• The steady-state response is

Note: Can you find the steady state under

a step input without these steps??!!
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 EXAMPLEs
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
• The operational amplifier (op-amp) belongs to an
important class of analog integrated circuits
commonly used as building blocks in the
implementation of control systems and in many
other important applications.
• Op-amps are active elements (that is, they have
external power sources) with a high gain when
operating in their linear regions.
• A model of an ideal op-amp is shown in Figure
next slide
31
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
• The operating conditions for the ideal op-amp
are and
The input–output relationship for an ideal op-amp is :

where the gain K approaches infinity

In our analysis, we will

assume that the linear
op-amps are operating with
high gain and under idealized
conditions.

32
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
• Consider the following inverting amplifier:
Apply KCL at Node 1

Now by choosing the value of R1 and R2 we can get the following:

1. R1>R2 : act as inverter and (reduced)-amplifier( Vo<Vin)
2. R1=R2 : act as inverter (Vo= -Vin)
3. R1<R2 : act as inverter and (increased)-amplifier ( Vo>Vin)
33
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit

Try to exercise
them

34
 Question !!
Transfer function of a cascaded op-
amp circuit

System 1 System 2

Find the transfer function of the given system( i.e., V2(s)/V1(s))

35
 EXAMPLE 2.4 Transfer function of a
system
• Consider the mechanical system shown in Figure
2.16 and its electrical circuit analog
• shown in Figure 2.17. The electrical circuit analog
is a force–current analog as outlined in Table 2.1.

FIGURE 2.16
Two-mass FIGURE 2.17
mechanical system. Two-node electric
36
circuit analog
DC motor

37
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of the DC motor
• As an example, let us obtain the transfer function of an
important electrical control component. The DC motor, from
the control prospective, is a power actuator device that
delivers energy to a load, as shown in

How many variables?

38
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of the DC motor
• Key Equations:
• The air-gap flux of the motor is proportional to the field
current, provided the field is unsaturated, so that

• The torque developed by the motor is assumed to be

related linearly to ϕ and the armature current as follows:

• It is clear from Equation above that, to have a linear

system, one current must be maintained constant while the
other current becomes the input current

39
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of the DC motor
• First, we shall consider the field-current controlled
motor, which provides a substantial power amplification.
Then we have, in Laplace transform notation,

• Where K1 is a constant armature current, and km is

defined as the motor constant. The field current is
related to the field voltage as

40
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of the DC motor
• The motor torque is equal to the torque
delivered to the load. This relation may be
expressed as
• The load torque for rotating inertia
TL (s)  Jsw(s)  bw(s) w ( s) 
TL (s)
Js  b
w ( s)  s ( s)

• Rearranging the previous Equations

41
 T.F. EXAMPLES
Transfer function of the DC motor

Ignore Td(s) for now, the transfer function is

We can express the above

T.F in terms of time
constants of the motor.

42
 EXAMPLE 2.5 Transfer function of the
DC motor
• The armature-controlled (controlling the motor
speed/position by armature voltage) DC motor uses the
armature current, if this case fix the field current.

FIGURE 2.20 Armature-controlled DC motor.

the transfer function is :

43
Transfer function of other systems
• Potentiometer, voltage control:

• Tachometer, velocity sensor:

• DC amplifier:

44
 Block Diagram Models
• The importance of this cause-and-effect
relationship is evidenced by the facility to
represent the relationship of system variables by
diagrammatic means.
• The block diagram representation of the system
relationships is prevalent in control system
engineering.
• Block diagrams consist of unidirectional,
operational blocks that represent the transfer
function of the variables of interest.
45
 Block Diagram Models
• A block diagram of a field-controlled DC motor
and load is shown in Figure below.

FIGURE
Block diagram of a
DC motor.

FIGURE General block representation of two-input, two- output system

46
 Block Diagram Example
• Obtain the Block diagram of the following
transfer functions :
R1(s) and R2(s) are inputs
Y1(s) and Y2(s) are outputs

•These system is called interconnected system

has two input variables and two output

variables

47
 Block Diagram-Reduction
• The block diagram representation of a given system often
can be reduced to a simplified block diagram with fewer
blocks than the original diagram. Since the transfer
functions represent linear systems, the multiplication is
commutative.

R(s) G(s) Y(s)

48
 Block Diagram
Block Diagram Transformations (1)

49
 Block Diagram
Block Diagram Transformations (1)

50
 Feedback System
R(s) + Y(s)
G
-

FIGURE 2.25 Negative feedback control system.

This negative feedback control system is described by the equation for the actuating
signal, which is

Because the output is related to the actuating signal by G(s),we have

Rearrange the equation:

Therefore, the transfer function relating

the output Y(s) to the input R(s) is 51
 Block Diagram-Reduction
EXAMPLE
H2

R(s) -
+ + + Y(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4
- +

H1

H3

R(s) + Y(s)
G
- R(s) Y(s)
G_All
H

52
 Block Diagram-Reduction
EXAMPLE …

Transfer function of an interacting sys

53
 Block Diagram-Reduction
EXAMPLE …
• The easiest way is to more the summing point and pickoff
point H2

R(s) -
+ + + Y(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4
- +

H1

H3

1
H2 G4

R(s) -
+ + + Y(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4
- +

H1
Positive feedback

H3

54
 Block Diagram-Reduction EXAMPLE …
Negative feedback
H2
G4

R(s) - G3 G 4
+ G1
+ G2
Y(s)
- 1 - G3 G 4 H 1

G2G5 1
G6 
1  G2G5 H 4 H3

Negative feedback
2 3
H4 R(s) + Y(s
G1 G6
-
R(s) -
+ + Y(s)
G1 G2 G5 H3
-

H3
4
5
R(s) G1G2G3G4 Y(s) R(s) G 1G 6 Y(s)
1 - G3G4 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3G4 H3 1  G 1G 6 H 3
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Final Simplified block
 TF and Block diagram Home Exercise
• Consider the electrical circuit below.
1. Write down the equations b/w voltages and currents
2. Obtain the block diagram and the simplified TF of V 3 (s)
V 1 (s)

1
G
R V 3 (s) 1/ (3RC )
T (s )  
V 1 (s) s  2 / (3RC ) 56
 Signal-Flow Graph Models
• Block diagrams are adequate for the representation of
the interrelationships of controlled and input
variables.
• However, for a system with reasonably complex
interrelationships, the block diagram reduction
procedure is cumbersome and often quite difficult to
complete.
• An alternative method for determining the
relationship between system variables has been
developed by Mason and is based on a representation
of the system by line segments
57
 Signal-Flow Graph Models
Block diagram Signal-Flow Graph

58
Mason’s Gain

59
 Signal-Flow Graph (SFG)
• A few useful terminologies in Mason s gain formula
Have to be defined related to an SFG
– The input and output points or junctions are called nodes
– The summation of all signals entering a node is equal to
the node variable
– A path(P) is a branch or a continuous sequence of
branches that can be traversed from one signal (node) to
another signal (node).
– A loop (L) is a closed path that originates and terminates
on the same node
– Two loops are said to be nontouching if they do not have a
common node

60
 Mason’s Gain Formula
• The gain formula is often used to relate the output variable Y(s) to
the input variable R(s) and is given in somewhat simplified form as :
n
Y ( s)  k Pk  k P11  P2  2  P3 3  ....  Pn  n
T ( s)   
R( s )  
where n: total number of
Forward paths between
Pk : gain of forward paths Input and output
 k : Cofactor of the determinan t along a path
 : the determinan t of the system

61
 Mason’s Gain Formula
Example- Find TF
• Forward paths:

Forward Path 1

Forward Path 2
There are four self-loops:

Loops L1 and L2 do not touch L3 and L4 Therefore, the determinant is

62
 Mason’s Gain Formula
Example
• The cofactor of the determinant along path x is evaluated
by removing the loops that touch path x from Δ .

– The cofactor of the determinant along path 1

– Similarly, the cofactor for path 2 is

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

63
 Mason’s Gain Formula
Example
• Transfer function of a multiple-loop system
H2

R(s) -
+ + + Y(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4
- +

H1

H3

Forward path:
Loops:
There is non-touching Loops ( i.e., all the loops touch each others) : Therefore, the
determinant is
  1 - L1 - L2 - L3
1  1 64
 Mason’s Gain Formula
Transfer function of a complex system

Forward path: ??

Loops: ??

65
 Mason’s Gain Formula
Transfer function of a complex system

Forward path:

Loops:

66
Transfer function of a complex system

 substitute and get the final expression of the transfer function.

67
 Mason’s Gain -Example

A forward path is a path from R(s) to C(s) that does not cross the
same point more than once.
There are four loop gains:

68
Mason’s Gain -Example

69
 Mason’s Gain –Example2

L2 L4
L1
L3

There are two forward-path gains: •Four loop gains

Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any nodes in common.

loop G2(s)H1(s) does not touch loops G4(s)H2(s), G4(s)G5(s)H3(s),
and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s). n
Y (s ) k Pk  k
T (s )    ......
R (s )  70
 Mason’s Gain -Example

• Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any

nodes in common.
• loop G2(s)H1(s) does not touch loops G4(s)H2(s),
G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s).

71
 Mason’s Gain Formula
Summery
• Step 1: Find the number of forward paths (P) ( forward
movement from the input to the output)
• Step 2: determine the number of the closed loops (L)
• Step 3: Find the determinate of the system(Δ)
• Step 4: Calculate the cofactor for each path(Δk)
• Step 5:apply Manson’s formula:
n
Y ( s)  k Pk  k P11  P2  2  P3 3  ....  Pn  n
T ( s)   
R( s )  
• Finally, simplify the T(s) ….

72
 Mathematical Modelling
Steps
• Step#1 : Understand the system and its
components,
• Step#2 : Extract the key equations and
relationships between the variables,
• Step#3 : have the equation in Laplace domain,
• Step#4 : connect the related variables together ,
obtain , and build the block diagram
• Step#5 : Simplified the block and get the
simplest T.F
73
 DESIGN EXAMPLES
• Students are encouraged to study the “Section
2.8 Design example” as a self-reading.
• EXAMPLE 2.17 Design of a low-pass filter. It
is simple !! Try it
The Simulation of Systems Using Control Design
Software

• Some examples and will be exercised in

MATLAB/Simulink software during the
computer Lab session.
74
 DESIRED OUTCOMES !!!
• Upon completion of Chapter 2,students
should:
Recognize that differential equations can describe
the dynamic behavior of physical systems.
Be able to : extract the key equations for a given
system and formulate the linear system.
Understand the application of Laplace transforms
and their role in obtaining transfer functions.
 Be aware of block diagrams (and signal-flow
graphs) and their role in analyzing control systems.

75