DETERMINANT

1. 3.
DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX OF ORDER TWO AND THREE
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
a1 b1
Expansion of two order: = a1b2 − b1a2
a2 b2 (i) The value of a determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are
a1 b1 c1 interchanged.
b2 c2 a c2 a b2 (ii) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign
Expansion of three order: a2 b2 c2 = a1 − b1 2 + c1 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3 of determinant changes.
a3 b3 c3
(iii) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, then the value
of determinant is zero.

2. (iv) If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a

constant k, then its value gets multiplied by k.
SARRUS RULE a1 b1 c1 (v) If some or all the elements of a row or column of a determinant are
∆ = a 2 b2 c2 expressed as a sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be
a 3 b 3 c3 expressed as a sum of two (or more) determinants.

a1 b1 c1 (vi) If the equimultiples of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are
added to each element of any row or column of a determinant, then the
a2 b2 c2 value of the determinant remains the same.
a3 b3 c3 (vii) |AT |=|A|, where AT= transpose of A
a3b 2c1 a1b 2c3
+ a1 b1 c1 + (viii) If A = [aij]3×3, then |kA| = k3 |A|.
a1b 3c2 a2b 3c1
+ a2 b2 c2 + (ix) The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
a2b 1c3 a3b 1c2 respective determinants, i.e., |AB|=|A||B|, where A& B are square matrices
N P of same order
(x) a1 b1 c1 a1 0 0 a1 0 0
⇒∆=P–N
0 b 2 c 2 = a 2 b 2 0 = 0 b 2 0 = a1b 2 c 3
0 0 c3 a 3 b 3 c3 0 0 c3

4.
USE OF DETERMINANTS IN CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
a1 b1 c1
x y 1 (iv) If three lines arx + bry + cr = 0 are concurrent, then a 2 b 2 c 2 = 0.
1 1 1
(i) Area of triangle, whose vertices are (xr, yr)∆ = x 2 y 2 1 a3 b 3 c3
2x y 1
3 3
(v) If ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a pair of straight
(ii) If arx + bry + cr = 0 are the sides of a triangle, then the area =
a h g
a1 b1 c1
2 line then h b f = 0
1 g f c
a 2 b2 c2 c1, c2, c3 are cofactors of c1, c2, c3.
2c1c 2 c3 a b c
3 3 3
(vi) The equation of circle through three non-collinear points (xr, yr) is
(iii) Equation of a straight line passing through two points
x 2 + y2 x y 1
x y 1
x12 + y12 x1 y1 1
(x1, y1) & (x2, y2) is x1 y1 1 = 0 = 0.
x 2 y2 1 x 22 + y 22 x 2 y 2 1
x 32 + y32 x 3 y3 1

5. 6.
MINOR AND COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT OF A DETERMINANT ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
Minor: The determinant that is left by cancelling the row and a11 a12 a13   A11 A 21 A 31 
column intersecting at a particular element of a determinant is where Aij is the
If A = a 21 a 22 a 23  , then adjA =  A12 A 22 A 32  ,
called the minor of that element of the determinant. Minor of an a    cofactor of aij
 31 a 32 a 33   A13 A 23 A 33 
element aij of a determinant is denoted by Mij.
If A be any given square matrix of order n, then A(adj A)=
Cofactor: The cofactor of an element aij of a determinant is
(adj A A=|A|I where I is the identity matrix of order n.
denoted by Aij (or Cij) and is equal to (-1)i+j Mij .

7. 8.
PROPERTIES OF ADJOINT OF A MATRIX SINGULAR AND NON-SINGULAR MATRICES
If A be any given square matrix of order n, we can define the following: A square matrix A is said to be singular
• A(adj A) = adj A) A = AI, where I is the identity matrix of order n if |A| = 0, otherwise it is called
non-singular matrix.
• For a zero matrix 0, adj(0) = 0
If A & B are non-singular matrix of same
• For an identity matrix I, adj(I) = I order, then AB & BA are also non-singular
• For any scalar k, adj(kA) = kn–1 adj(A) matrices of same order.
• adj(AT) = (adj A)T
• det(adj A), i.e. |adj A| = (det A)n–1 9.
• If A is an invertible matrix and A–1 be its inverse, then : adj A = (det A)A–1 is invertible with INVERSE OF A MATRIX
inverse (det A)–1 Aadj(A–1) = (adj A)–1 If A and B are two matrices such that
Suppose A and B are two matrices of order n, then adj(AB) = (adj B)(adj A) AB=I=BA
• For any non-negative integer p, adj(Ap) = (adj A)p then B is called the inverse of A and it
is denoted by A-1
If A is invertible, then the above formula also holds for negative k. adjA
Also, A −1 = , if | A |≠ 0
|A|
10. 11.
PROPERTIES OF INVERSE PRODUCT OF TWO DETERMINANTS
If A and B are the non-singular matrices, then the inverse matrix
should have the following properties a1 a 2 a3 x1 x2 x3
• (A ) = A
–1 –1
Let 1 = b1 b 2 b3 and ∆ 2 = y1 y2 y3
• (AB) = A B
–1 –1 –1
c1 c2 c3 z1 z2 z3
• (ABC)–1 = C–1B–1A–1
• (A1 A2 .... An)–1 = An–1An–1–1 ..... A2–1A1–1 Then product of 1 and 2 is defined as
• (AT)–1 = (A–1)T a 1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 a1 y1 + a 2 y 2 + a 3 y3 a1z1 + a 2 z 2 + a 3 z 3
• (kA) = (1/k)A
–1 –1
∆1∆ 2 = b1x1 + b 2 x 2 + b3 x 3 b1 y1 + b 2 y 2 + b3 y3 b1z1 + b 2 z 2 + b3 z3
• AB = In, where A and B are inverse of each other. c1x1 + c 2 x 2 + c3 x 3 c1 y1 + c 2 y 2 + c3 y3 c1z1 + c 2 z 2 + c3 z3

12. 13.
DIFFERENTIATION OF A DETERMINANT INTEGRATION OF DETERMINATION
f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x) f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
Let ∆ (x) = f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x) Let ∆ ( x) = p q r , where p, q, r, l, m and n are constants.
f 3 (x) g 3 (x) h 3 (x) l m n
then (x) b b b
f '1 (x) g '1 (x) h '1 (x) f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x) f1 (x) g1 (x) h1 (x)
b
∫
a
f ( x)dx ∫a
g ( x)dx ∫a
h( x)dx
= f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x) + f '2 (x) g'2 (x) h'2 (x) + f 2 (x) g 2 (x) h 2 (x)
f 3 (x) g 3 (x) h 3 (x) f 3 (x) g 3 (x) h 3 (x) f '3 (x) g'3 (x) h'3 (x)
Then ∫
a
∆( x)dx = p q r
l m n

14. 15.
USE OF SUMMATION a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
n n n
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
r r2 r3 ∑r =1
r ∑r ∑r
r =1
2

r =1
3

n
If f ( r) = p q t where p, q, t are constants, then ∑ f (r ) = p q t
1 2 3
r =1
1 2 3 Consistent system of Inconsistent system
equation has solution of equation has no
solution
a1 b1 c1
Unique solution Infinite solution = ≠
16. a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 a1 b1 c1
= =
Check value of  ≠ (Equation represents
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 c2
parallel disjoint lines)
(Equation represents (Equation represents
intersecting lines) coincident lines)
0 =0

Consistent system and Check the values of

has unique solution 1, 2 and 3
∆1 ∆ ∆
x= ; y = 2 ;z = 3 At least one of 1, 1 = 2 = 3 = 0
∆ ∆ ∆
2, and 3 is
not zero Put z = t and solve any
two equations to get
Inconsistent system the values of x and
y in terms of t.

17.
1. Symmetric determinant
The elements situated at equal distance from the diagonal 1 1 1
are equal both in magnitude and sign. 4. a b c = ( a − b )( b − c )( c − a ) .
a h g a2 b2 c2
h b f = abc + 2fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2 .
g f c 1 1 1
2. Skew symmetric determinant 5. a b c = ( a − b )( b − c )( c − a )( a + b + c ) .
All the diagonal elements are zero and the elements situated at
equal distance form the diagonal are equal in magnitude
a3 b3 c3
but opposite in sign. The value of a skew symmetric determinant
of odd order is zero. 1 1 1
0 b −c 6. a 2 b2 c 2 = ( a − b )( b − c )( c − a )( ab + bc + ca ) .
−b 0 a =0 a3 b3 c3
c −a 0
3. Circulant determinant:
The elements of the rows (or columns) are in cyclic arrangement
a b c
(
b c a = − a 3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc )
c a b
 MATRICES
01. MATRIX 02. ORDER OF A MATRIX
A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m×n or
simply m×n matrix.
functions. The numbers or functions are called the
elements of the matrix or A=[aij ]m×n , 1≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n, i, j N

aij is an element lying in the ith row & jth column. The number of elements
in m×n matrix will be mn.

03. TYPE OF MATRIX

(i) Column Matrix: A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column, i.e., A=[aij]m×1 is a column matrix of order m×1.

(ii) Row Matrix: Row matrix has only one row, i.e., B=[bij]1×n is a row matrix of order 1×n.

(iii) Square Matrix: Square matrix has equal number of rows and columns, i.e., A=[aij]m×m is a square matrix of order m.

(iv) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix if all of its non-diagonal elements are zero, i.e., B=[bij]m×n is said to be a
diagonal matrix if bij=0, where i ≠ j.

(v) Scalar Matrix: It is a diagonal matrix with all its diagonal elements are equal, i.e., B=[bij ]m×n is a scalar matrix if bij = 0, where i≠j, bij=k, when
I = j & k= constant.

(vi) Identity Matrix: : It is a diagonal matrix having all its diagonal elements equal to 1, i.e., A=[aij ]m×n is an identity matrix if

a ij = {
1, if i = j
0, if i ≠ j
we denote identity matrix by In when order is n.

(vii) Zero Matrix: A matrix is said to be zero or null matrix if all its elements are zero. It is denoted by O.

04. EQUALITY OF MATRICES 05. TRACE OF A MATRIX

The sum of diagonal element of a square matrix A is
Two matrices A=[aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if called the trace of matrix A, which is denoted by tr A
(i) they are of the same order n
(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, i.e., aij = bij for all i & j tr A= ∑a
i =1
ii
= a11 + a22 + … ann

Properties of Trace of a Matrix

Let A = [aij]n × n and B = [bij] and λ be a scalar.

06. ADDITION OF MATRICES (i) tr (λA) = λtr(A) (ii) tr(A – B)= tr(A) – tr(B)

(iii) tr(AB) = tr(BA) (iv) tr(In)= n

(vi) tr(AB) ≠ tr A. tr B (v) tr(O) = 0

Properties of matrix Addition

(i) Commulative Law: A + B = B + A (ii) Associative Law: (A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C ) 07. MULTIPLICATION OF A

MATRIX BY A SCALAR
(iii) Existence of Additive Identity: Let A=[aij ]m×n & O = zero matrix of order m × n,
then A + O = O + A = A. Here O is the additive identity for matrix addition. Let A=[aij]m×n be a matrix & k, t be a number.
(iv) Existence of Additive Inverse: Let A= [aij]m×n be any matrix then we have another Then, kA = Ak = [kaij]m×n
matrix as Let -A= [-aij ]m×n such that A + (-A) = (- A) + A = O. Here -A is the additive Properties
inverse of A or negative of A. (I) k (A + B) = kA + kB (ii) (k + t) A = kA + tA.

08. MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

If A & B are any two matrices, then their product will be defined only when the number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B

If A = a ij  and B =  bij  then their product AB = C =  cij  is a matrix of order, m x p where
m× n n×p

(ij) th element of AB = Cij = ∑ rn=1a ir b rj

 09. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX 10. PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE OF
THE MATRICES
MULTIPLICATON For any matrices A & B of suitable orders, we have:
(I) Associative Law for Multiplication: If A, B & C are three matrices of order
m × n, n × p & p × q respectively, then ( AB ) C = A ( BC ) (i) (AT)T=A
(ii) (kA)T =k (A)T (where k is constant)
(ii) Distributive Law : For three matrices A, B & C(a) A ( B + C ) = AB + AC
(iii) (A ± B)T = AT ± BT
(b) ( A + B ) C = AC + BC whenever both sides of equality are defined.
(iv) (AB)T = BT AT
(iii) Matrix Multiplication is not commutative in general, i.e.AB ≠ BA (in general).
(v) (A1 A2 A3 … An – 1 An)T = AnT An - 1T … A3T A2T A1T
(iv) Existence of Multiplicative Identity: For every square matrix, there exists an (vi) IT = I.
identity matrix I of same order such thatIA = AI = A

11. MATRIX POLYNOMIAL 12. SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETIC MATRICES

Symmetric Matrix
Let f(x) = a0 xm + a1 xm – 1 + a2 xm – 2 + … an – 1 x + an be a A square matrix A =  a ij  is called a symmetric matrix, if a ij = a ji for all i, j or A T = A
polynomial and let A be a square matrix of order n,  
then f(A) = a0 Am + a1 Am – 1 + a2 Am – 2 + … + an – 1 A + Skew Symmetric Matrix
an In is called a matrix polynomial. A square matrix A = a ij  is called a skew-symmetric matrix, if a ij = −a ji for all i, j or A T = − A

Properties of Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrices

( )
(i) For any square matrix A with real number entries A + A T is a skew symmetric matrix

13. INVERTIBLE MATRIX AND

INVERSE MATRIX
( A − A ) symmetric matrix.
T

(ii) Any square matrix A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric & a skew symmetric
1  1 
Properties of Invertible Matrices matrix as A = 
 2
(   2
) (
A + AT  +  A − AT 

)
(i) Uniqueness of Inverse : Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is
unique.

(i) (A–1)–1 = A (ii) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T (iii) (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1 (iv) (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k

14. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

15.
A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = I = AT A, i.e., if A–1 = AT.
IDEMPOTENT MATRIX Example: A = 
 cos α − sin α 
= AT. In fact every unit matrix is orthogonal
 − sin α cos α 
A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A² = A.
1 / 2 1 / 2 
Example:   is an idempotent matrix, because

16.
1 / 2 1 / 2 
INVOLUTORY MATRIX
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 + 4 + 
4 4 2 2
A² =   =   =A A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A² = I or A–1 = A
1 + 1 1 1
+ 1 1
1 0
 4 4 4 4   2 2  Example: A =  is an involutory matrix because
0 1 
1 0 0 0  are idempotent matrices because
Also, A =   and, B =  1 0
0 0 0 1  A² = A and B² = B. A² =  = I In fact every unit matrix is involutory
0 1 

17. PERIODIC MATRIX 18. NILPOTENT MATRIX

A matrix A will be called a periodic matrix if Ak + 1 = A where k A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exists p ∈ N such that Ap = 0.
is a positive integer. If, however k is the least positive integer 0 0 0 0
Example: A =  is a nilpotent matrix because A² = = 0 (Here p = 2)
for which A k+1
= A, then k is said to be the period of A. 1

0 0 0 

19. DIFFERENTIATION OF A MATRIX

 f ( x ) g ( x ) dA  f ′ ( x ) g′ ( x ) 
If A =   , then = is a differentiation of matrix A.
h ( x ) l ( x )  dx  h ′ ( x ) l′ ( x ) 
 “Mathematics is, in its way
the poetry of logical ideas”

RELATIONS
(1) Types of Relations
Universal Relation
1. Empty Relation
A relation in which no
2. A relation in which each 3. Identity Relation
4. Reflexive Relation:
A relation in which each (a, a)R, for every
element of A is related to element of A is related to
element is related to a A.
any other element of A, i.e., every element of A, i.e.,
R=ϕ  A×A. R=A×A.
{
itself only. I = ( a, a ) , a ∈ A }

Transitive Relation: 7. Equivalence Relation : 8. Inverse Relation

5. Symmetric Relation:
(a1, a2)R implies that
6. (a1, a2)R & (a2,a3)R implies
A relation R in a set A is said to
be an equivalence relation if
Inverse relation of R from A to B,
denoted by R–1, is a relation from B to
that (a1, a3)R, for all A is defined by
(a2,a1 )R, for all a1,a2A. R is reflexive,symmetric & R–1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) R}.
a1, a2, a3A.
transitive.

Antisymmetric: A relation is Irreflexive Partial order relation

Asymmetric Relation 10. antisymmetric if: 11. 12.
9. R is irreflexive iff R is a partial order, if R is
( x, y ) ∈ R ⇒ ( y, x ) ∉ R • For all x, y ∈ X[( x, y ) ∈ R & ( y, x ) ∈ R] ⇒ x = y ∀a ∈ A, ( ( a,a ) ∉ R ) Reflexive, Antisymmetric
• For all x, y ∈ X[( x, y ) ∈ R & x ≠ y] ⇒ ( y, x ) ∉ R and Transitive.

2. EXAMPLE: Relation Reflexive Symmetric Asymmetric Antisymmetric Irreflexive Transitive

R1
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Identify the properties of relations.
R2
R1 = {(1,1) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 3,3) , ( 2,1) , ( 4,3) , ( 4,1) , ( 3, 2 )} R3
R 2 = A × A, R 3 = φ, R 4 = {(1,1) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 3,3) , ( 4, 4 )} R4

R 5 = {(1,1) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 3,3) , ( 4, 4 ) , (1, 2 ) , ( 2,1) , ( 4,3) , ( 3, 4 )}

R5

If A={1,2},a relation R={(1,2)} on A is a transitive relation.

NOTE using the similar argument a relation R = {(x, y) : x is wife of y} is transitive, where as R = {(x, y) : x is father of y} is not transitive.

3. PROPERTIES
2. 3. 6.
1. 4. 5. R is reflexive implies
R is asymmetric implies R is not symmetric
that R is irreflexive. By does not imply R is R is not symmetric R is not antisymmetric that R is not
definition, for all antisymmetric. Counter does not imply R is does not imply R is asymmetric. By
R is not reflexive does
a, b ∈ A, ( a, b ) ∈ R example: asymmetric. Counter symmetric. Counter definition, for all
not imply R is irreflexive. a ∈ A, ( a,a ) ∈ R
Counter example: and ( b,a ) ∉ R This implies example: example:
A = {1, 2,3} , R = This implies that, both
A = {1, 2,3} , R = {(1,1)} that for all ( a, b ) ∈ R,a ≠ b A = {1, 2,3} , R = A = {1, 2,3} , R =
{(1, 2 ) , ( 2,3) , ( 3, 2 )} (a, b) and (b, a) are in
Thus, for all a ∈ A, ( a,a ) ∉ R {(1, 2 ) , ( 2, 2 )} {(1, 2 ) , ( 2,3) , ( 3, 2 )} R when a = b. Thus, R is
Therefore, R is irreflexive.
not asymmetric.

(4) COUNTING OF RELATION

Number of relations Number of reflexive The number of The number of binary
Number of Identity Number of Symmetric
from set A to B = 2mn, relation set on a set antisymmetric binary relation on A which are
relation on a set with relation set on a set with
where with ‘n’ elements = n ( n+1) /2 relations possible on both symmetic and
‘n’ elements = 1 n ( n−1) ‘n’ elements = 2
| A |= m ,| B |= n 2 2
A is 2n ⋅ 3(n − n)/2 antisymmetric is 2n.

The number of binary The number of binary The number of There are at least 2n
transitive relations
relation on A which are relation which are both asymmetric binary
(lower bound) and
both symmetric and reflexive and antisymmetric relation possible on at most
2 2
asymmetric is 1. on the set A is3(n − n)/2 the set A is 3(n − n)/2 2
n2 −n
2n − 2 2 + 1 (upper bound)
 5. OPERATION ON RELATIONS:
1. R1 − R 2 = {( a, b )∣( a, b ) ∈ R1 and ( a, b ) ∉ R 2 } 2.R 2 − R1 = {( a, b )∣( a, b ) ∈ R 2 and ( a, b ) ∉ R1} 3. R1 ∪ R 2 = {( a, b )∣( a, b ) ∈ R1 or ( a, b ) ∈ R 2 }

4. R1 ∩ R 2 = {( a, b )∣( a, b ) ∈ R1 and ( a, b ) ∈ R 2 }

PROPERTIES 6. COMPOSITON OF
1) If R1 and R2 are reflexive, and symmetric, then R1  R2
is reflexive, and symmetric. RELATIONS
2) If R1 is transitive and R 2 is transitive, then R1 ∪ R 2
need not be transitive. Let R1 ⊆ A × B and R 2 ⊆ B × C ,Composition of R 2 on
counter example: Let A = {1, 2} such that R1 = {(1, 2 )} and R1 , denoted as R1 R 2 or simply R1R 2 is
R 2 = {( 2,1)}.R1 ∪ R 2 = {(1, 2 ) , ( 2,1)} and (1,1) ∉ R1 ∪ R 2 implies that
R1 R 2 = {( a,c )∣a ∈ A,c ∈ C ∧ ∃b ∈ B such that
R1 ∪ R 2 is not transitive.

3) If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations, then R1  R2 is

( ( a, b ) ∈ R1 , ( b,c ) ∈ R 2 )}
an equivalence relation. NOTE
4) If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on A, R1 (R2  R3)  R1 R2  R1 R3
• R1 − R 2 is not an equivalence relation (reflexivity fails).
R1 (R2  R3) = R1 R2  R1R3
• R1 − R 2 is not a partial order (since R1 − R 2 is not reflexive).
• R1 ⊕ R 2 = R1 ∪ R 2 − ( R1 ∩ R 2 ) is neither equivalence relation R1 ⊆ A × B, R2 ⊆ B × C , R3 ⊆ C × D. ( R1 R2 ) R3 = R1 ( R2 R3 )
nor partial order (reflexivity fails)
5) The union of two equivalence relation on a set is not ( R1oR 2 )−1 = R 2 −1oR1−1
necessarily an equivalence reation on the set.
6) The inverse of a equivalence relation R is an
equivalence relation.

7. EQUIVALENCE CLASS
Equivalence class of a ∈ A is defined as [a] = {x∣( x,a ) ∈ R} , that is all the elements related to a under
the relation R.
Example
E=Even integers, O=odd integers.
(i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to each other.
(ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
(iii) E and O are disjoint andZ = E ∪ O
The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by [0].

Properties: consider an equivalence relation R defiend on a set A.

1.  [a] = A 2. For every a,b∈A such that a ∈ [ b ] ,a ≠ b it follows that [ a ] = [ b ] 3. ∑ | [x] | =| R |

∀a∈A ∀x∈A

4. For any two equivalence class[ a ] and [ b ], either [ a ] = [ b ] or [ a ] ∩ [ b ] = φ 5. For all a, b ∈ A , if a ∈ [ b ] then b ∈ [ a ]

6. For all a, b,c ∈ A , if a ∈ [ b ] and b ∈ [ c ] , then a ∈ [ c ] 7. For all a ∈ A, [ a ] ≠ φ

Congruence modulo n given by a  b (mod n) if and only if n divides (a – b).

8. BINARY OPERATIONS
Let S be a non-empty set. A function f : S × S  S is called a binary opertion on set S.
Note
n2
Number of binary operations on a set containing n elements is n
 “In mathematics
the art of proposing a question
must be held of higher value than solving it.”
– Georg Cantor

FUNCTION
1 Classification of function

01. Constant function 03. Polynomial function 4. Rational functions

f(x) = k, k is a constant. y = f(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn-1+...+ an, n is non negative It is defined as the ratio of two polynomials.
integer, ai are real constants. Given a0 ≠ 0, n is P( x)
the degree of polynomial function f ( x) = provided Q( x) ≠ 0
Q( x)
02. Identity function There are two polynomial functions, f ( x) = 1 + x n & f ( x) = 1 − x n Dom { f ( x)} is all real numbers except
1 1
The function y = f ( x) = x , ∀x ∈ R satisfying the relation: f ( x) ⋅ f   = f ( x) + f  when denominator is zero [i, e, Q( x) ≠ 0]
x x
Here domain & Range both R where ‘n’ is a positive integer.

2 Exponential function 3 Logarithmic function

f(x) = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1. f(x) = loga x [a > 0, a ≠ 1]

0<a<1 a>1
0<a<1 a>1
y y
y y

1
1
x' 1 x' 1
x' x x' x x x
O O O O

y' y'
y' y'
Domain =R, Range = ( 0, ∞ )
Domain =(0, ∞), Range =R

Proprieties of Log. Functions

1
1. 4 log a (xy) = log a | x | + log a | y | , where a > 0,a ≠ 1 and xy > 0 2. log a x = for a > 0,a ≠ 1 and x > 0, x ≠ 1
log x a

x x
3. log a   = log a | x | − log a | y | , where a > 0,a ≠ 1 and > 0
y y
4. ( )
log a x n = n log a | x | , where a > 0,a ≠ 1 and x n > 0

m
x loga = yloga x where x > 0, y > 0,a > 0,a ≠ 1
y
5. log a n x m = log|a| | x |, where a > 0,a ≠ 1 and x > 0 6.
n

If a>1 , then the values of f(x)= log a x increase with the increase in x. If , 0<a<1, then the values of f (x) = log a
x decrease with the increase
(iii)in x .
i.e. x < y ⇔ log a x < log a y i.e. x < y ⇔ log a x > log a y
< 0 for 0 < x < 1 > 0 for 0 < x < 1
7.  8. 
Also, log a x  = 0 for x = 1 Also, log a x  = 0 for x = 1
> 0 < 0 for x > 1
 for x > 1. 

4 Trigonometric Functions

Sine function Cosine function Tangent function Cosecant Function

Secant Function Cotangent function
(π/2, −1) (Gs)

(−π, 0) (π/2, −1)

−π/2 −π/2
(π, 0) π/2 O π
O O π/2 ( −π/2, −1) −π/2 π/2 π −π π/2
−π π −π/2
(−π/2, −1)

f(x) = sin x. f(x) = cos x f ( x) = tan x f(x) = cosec x

f(x)=sec x f(x) = cot (x)
Dom (f) = R Dom (f) = R  (2n + 1)π  π
Dom( f ) = R −  , n ∈ z Dom (f) = R-{mR, n e z } Dom (f) = R –{nπ | n ∈ Z }
 2  Dom (s) = R - {(2n+1) |n ∈ Z}
Ran (f) = [-1, 1] Ran (f) = [-1, 1]. Ran( f ) = R Ran (f) = R-(-1, 1) 2 Ran (f) = R.
Ran (f) = R - (-1, 1).
 y = −x
y=x
 x, x > 0
5 Absolute Value Function y = f ( x) =| x |= 
 − x, x < 0

1. | x |2 = x 2 2. x 2 =| x | 3. | x |= max{− x, x} 4.
x − | x |= min{− x, x}

a +b a −b a +b a −b
5. max(a, b) = + 6. min(a , b ) = − 7. | x + y |≤| x | + | y | 8. | x + y |=| x | + | y | if xy > 0
2 2 2 2

9. | x − y |=| x | + | y | if xy < 0 10. |x| ⩾ a (is − ve) x ∈ R 11. a < |x| < b ⇒-b ≤ x ≤ -a or a ⩽ x ⩽ b. x ∈[-b, -a] ∪ [a, b].

y = 1, x > 0

| x |
if x ≠ 0
6 Signum Function y = sgn( x) =  x
0 if x = 0
y = −1
x<0

f(x) = [x] the integral part of x,

7 Greatest Integer Function which is nearest & smaller integer

[ x]< x < [ x] + 1
1.
x − 1 < [ x] < x
2.
I ≤ x < I + 1⇒ [ x] = I
3.
[x] − [ − x] = { 2x ,x∈I
2x + 1 , 2 ∉ I.
4.

 0, x ∈ I 2 x, x∈I [ x] < n ⇔ x < n

[ x] + [− x] = 
∣
−1, x ∈ I , 2 x + 1, , x ∉ I 5.
[ x] ≤ n ⇔ x < n + 1, n ∈ I
6. 7.
 x   x + 1
Properties
[ x] =   + 
 2   2 
8.

 n + 1   n + 2   n + 4  ... [ x ] + [ y ]< [ x + y ] < [ x ] + [ y ] + 1  1  2  n − 1

 2 + 4 + 8 + =n 10. [ x ] +  x +  +  x +  + .... +  x +  = [nx ]
       n   n   n 
9. 11.

8 Fractional Part Function 9 Odd and Even Function

: y={x} fractional past of x. 1. if f(-x) =-f(x) ∀ x ∈R then f is an odd function, odd functions are
y = {x} = x - [x] symmetrical in opposite quadrants or about origin.

2. If f(-x) = f(x). then even. It is symmetric about y axis.

1. {x} = x, 0 ≤ x < 1. 2. {x} = 0, x ∈ I

3. {-x} = 1-{x}, x ∉ I 4. {x ± integer} = {x}

 Properties
1. Product of two odd or two even function is an even function. 2. Product of odd & even function is an odd function.
3. Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even and odd function, i.e, 4. Derivative of an odd function is an even function and of an
f ( x) + f (−x) f ( x) − f (−x) even is odd.
f ( x) = +
2 2

10 Periodic function
Properties of Periodic functions
f(x) is periodic if f(x + T) = f(x) ∀ x ∈ R , T = period
If f(x) is periodic with period T, then
Functions Period 1. c. f(x) is periodic with period T
n n n
sin x, cos x,sec x, cosec x n
π(n is even), 2π(n odd/ fraction) 2. f(x + c) is periodic with period T.
n
tan x, cot x n
π 3. f(x) ± c is periodic with period T.
|trig function| π 4.kf (cx + d ) has period
T
|c|
period is only affected by coefficient of x.
x − [ x] 1
f ( x) = constant Periodic with no fundamental period.

11 Composition of Function 12 Kinds of Mapping

f g 1. One-one/Injective/Homomorphic : f(x) = f(y) x=y, then one-one.

• h(x) = g f(x) = (gof) (x). Graphically, if no line parallel to x-axis meets the graph of function
x f(x) g(f(x)) at more than one point.
• gof ≠ fog.
• Composition of two bijection 2. Onto/Surjective : If range = co-domain. Method to show subjectivity:
is a bijection.
Finding the range of y = f(x) & Showing range of f = c σ-domain of f
f g fog
Properties of
Composite
Function

even even even 3. Many-one mapping :If two or more element in domain have same
odd odd odd image in co-domain.
even odd ever
odd even even 4. Into Function :There's an element in B not having a pre image
in A under f. [f : A → B].

f :A B

x1 y1
13 Number of functions
xn
ym

 m Pn , m ≥ n m n − m Pn , mn
Total no of functions = m n
Number of One to one functions =  No. of many one functions = n
0, m<n m ,m < n

 n
∑ (−1) Cr ( m − r ) , n ≥ m No. of one-to-one onto functions = n! , if m = n
n
No. of constant function = m. r m

No. of onto function =  r =0

 mn ,n < m


14 Inverse of a function

g:B→A , f(x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x ∀ x ∈ A and y ∈ B.

Then g is inverse of f

1. Inverse of a bijection is unique. 2. If f : A → B is a bijection g : B →A is the inverse of f, then fog = IB 3. The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection
gof = IA , where IA & IB are identity function (gof)-1 = f-1 o g-1.

15 Hyperbolic functions

e x − e− x e x + e− x e x − e− x e x + e− x
coth x = x − x
sinhx = cosh x = tanh x = x − x
2 2 e +e e −e
 16 Elementary transformation of graphs

01 02 03
Drawing graph of y=f(|x|) from the known Drawing graph of |y|=f(x) from the know m
Drawing the graph of y = |f(x)| from the graph of y=f(x). graph of y=f(x).
y |y| = f(x)
y = |f(x)|

 f ( x), x <0
x f (| x |) = 
 f (− x), x < 0 y=f(x)
y = f(|x|)
y = f(x) y = f(x)
Remove portion that lies below x axis.

{
| f (x) |=
f (x)
−f (x)
if
if
f (x) < 0
f (x) < 0.
Neglect the curve for x<0 & take the images
of curve for x <0 about y axis.
Plot the remaining portion of the graph
& also its mirror image in x-axis.

17 Things to remember

Range of acosx + bsinx is  − a 2 + b2 , a 2 + b2  Range of f ( x ) = a − x + x − b if a > b > 0 is a − b + 2 (a − b)

 

cos1 < cos ( sin x ) < 1

 1 1
Range of  x +  +
x  1
is ( −∞, −2.5] ∪ [ 2.5, ∞ ) − sin1 < sin ( cos x ) < sin1

x+ 
 x

18 Functional Equation

1) f ( x + y ) = f ( x ) f ( y ) , then f ( x ) = a x
2) f ( xy ) = f ( x ) + f ( y ) , then f ( x ) = log a x
 x + y  f ( x ) + f ( y)
3)f  = , then f ( x ) = mx + c
 2  2
1
4)f ( x ) f   = 1, then f ( x ) = ± x n
x
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

01 02 Graph

Inverse function Domain Principal Value Branch

 −π π  1. y = sin–1x 2. y = cos–1x 3. y = tan–1x

−1
y = sin x [ − 1, 1]  2 , 2
 
π/2 π π/2
y = cos x −1
[−1, 1] [0, π]

 −π π 
y = cosec −1x R−(−1,1)  2 , 2  − {0} –1 1 –1 1
 
–π/2
y = sec −1x R−(−1,1)
π
[0, π] − 
–π/2
2

 −π π 
y = tan −1x R  , 
 2 2 4. y = cot–1x 5. y = sec–1x 6. y = cosec–1x

y = cot −1x R (0, π) π π/2

π

–1 1

–π/2

Properties Of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Property -02
03 Property -01
( )
(i) sin sin −1 x = x , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

(ii) cos ( cos x ) = x , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

−π π (ii) cos −1 (cos θ) = θ if 0 ≤ θ ≤ π −1
(i) sin −1 (sin θ) = θ if ≤θ≤
2 2
−π π (iii) tan ( tan x ) = x, if −∞ < x < ∞
−1
−1
(iii) tan (tan θ) = θ if <θ< (iv) cot −1 (cot θ) = θ if 0 < θ < π
2 2 (v) sec ( sec x ) = x , if−∞ < x ≤ −1or 1 ≤ x < ∞
−1

π π
(v) sec −1 (sec θ) = θ if 0 ≤ θ <
π π
or < θ ≤ π (vi) cosec (cosec θ) = θ , if −
−1
≤ θ < 0 or 0 < θ ≤ (iv) cot ( cot x ) = x , if −∞ < x < ∞
−1

2 2 2 2
(vi) cosec ( cosec x ) = x , if −∞ < x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞
−1

Property -03 Property -04

(i) sin −1 (− x) = − sin −1 x , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (iv) cot −1 (− x) = π − cot −1 x , if −∞ < x < ∞ π
−1 −1
(i) sin x + cos x = , x ∈ [−1,1]
2
(ii) cos −1 (− x) = π − cos −1 x , if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (v) sec −1 (− x) = π − sec −1 x, if −∞ < x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞
π
(ii) tan −1 x + cot −1 x = , x ∈ R
(iii) tan (− x) = − tan x , if −∞ < x < ∞
−1 −1 (vi) cosec −1 (− x) = − cosec −1 x , if −∞ < x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x < ∞ 2
−1 −1 π
(iii) sec x + cosec x = , x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
2
Property -05

1 Property -06

(i) sin −1 x = cosec −1   , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − {0}
x
 x+y  −1 −1 −1  x − y  , xy > – 1
1 −1 −1 −1 (ii) tan x − tan y = tan  
(ii) cosec −1 x = sin −1   , x ∈ R − (−1,1) (i) tan x + tan y = tan   ,xy < 1  1 + xy 
x  1 − xy 
 x+y   x − y  , x > 0, y > 0, xy < – 1
= π + tan −1  = π + tan −1  
1 −1   , x > 0, y > 0, xy > 1  1 + xy 
(iii) cos x = sec   , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − {0}
−1
 1 − xy 
x
 x+y   x − y  , if x < 0, y < 0 and xy > 1
−1 1 −1  = −π + tan −1   , x < 0, y < 0, xy > 1 = −π + tan −1  
(iv) sec x = cos   , x ∈ R − (−1,1)  1 − xy   1 + xy 
x
1 −1  x + y + z − xyz 
(v) tan −1 x = cot −1   , x ∈ R − {0} −1 −1 −1
(iii) tan x + tan y + tan z = tan  ,
x 1 − xy − yz − zx 
if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 , if x < 0, y < 0 and xy > 1
cot −1 x ∀ x>0
(vi) tan −1 (1 / x) =  −1
and (xy + yz + zx) < 1
−π + cot x ∀ x < 0
 Property -07

(i)
−1
{2
sin −1 x + sin −1 y = sin x 1 − y + y 1 − x
2
} ,if x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1
or if xy < 0 and x + y > 1; where x, y ∈ [ −1,1]
2 2
(ii) sin
−1 −1
{ 2 2
}
x − sin −1 y = sin x 1 − y − y 1 − x , xy > 0, x2 + y2 > 1 or x2+y2<1

{ }
= π − sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 , 0 < x ≤ 1, –1 ≤ y ≤ 0, x + y > 1
2 2

{ }
= π − sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 if 0 < x ≤ 1,0 < y ≤ 1and x 2 + y 2 > 1
{ }
= −π − sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 , –1 ≤ x < 0, 0 < y ≤ 1, x + y > 1
2 2

= −π − sin {x 1 − y
−1 2
+ y 1− x } 2 2 2
,if − 1 ≤ x < 0, 0 < y ≤ 1 and x + y > 1

Property -08

{
(i) cos x + cos y = cos xy − 1 − x 1 − y , –1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 ,x + y ≥ 0
−1 −1 −1 2 2
}
−1 −1
{
(ii) cos x − cos y = cos xy + 1 − x 1 − y , –1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x ≤ y
−1 2 2
}
{
= 2π − cos −1 xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 , –1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 , x + y < 0 } { }
= − cos −1 xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 , –1 ≤ y ≤ 0, 0 < x ≤ 1, x > y

Property -09 Property -10

(i) 2cos x = cos ( 2x − 1) , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. = 2π − cos ( 2x − 1) , −1 ≤ x ≤ 0

−1 2

( 2x 1 − x ) , 2 ≤ x 2
−1 −1 2
−1 1
−1
(i) 2sin x = sin
−1 2
(ii) 3sin x = sin
−1
( 3x − 4x ) , −1 / 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 / 2
−1 3

= π − sin ( 3x − 4x ) , 1 / 2 < x ≤ 1
−1 3
(ii) 3cos x = cos
−1 −1
( 4x 3
)
− 3x , 1 / 2 ≤ x ≤ 1
= π − sin ( 2x 1 − 2 ) ,
−1 1 2
≤ x ≤ 1.
2 = −π − san ( 3x − 4x ) , −1 ≤ x < −1 / 2
−1 3
( )
= 2π − cos −1 4x 3 − 3x , −1 / 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 / 2

= −π − sin ( 2x 1 − x ) , −1 ≤ x ≤
−1
−1 2

2
= 2π + cos −1 ( 4x 3
− 3x ) , − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1 / 2

Property -11

 2x  −1 −1  2x 
(ii) 2 tan x = sin 
−1
(i) 2 tan −1 x = tan  2 
, −1 < x < 1 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
1− x  1 + x2  

 2x   2x 
= π + tan −1  , x > 1 = π − sin −1  2 , x > 1
1− x
2
 1+ x 
 2x 
 2x  = −π − sin −1   , x < −1
= −π + tan −1  2  , x < −1 1+ x
2

1− x 

 3x − x 3  −1 1 2
−1  1 − x 
(iv) 3tan −1 x = tan −1  2 
, <x< (iii) 2 tan x =
−1 cos  2 
, 0≤x<∞
 1 − 3x  3 3 1+ x 
 3x − x 3  1  1 − x2 
= π + tan −1  2 
, x> = − cos −1  2 
, −∞ < x ≤ 0
 1 − 3x  3 1+ x 

 3x − x 3  −1
= −π + tan −1  2 
, x<
 1 − 3x  3

Property -12

x 1 − x 2 = sec −1  1  −1  1 
Property -13
−1
(i) sin x = cos
−1 2
1 − x = tan −1
= cot −1
  = cosec   , x > 0
1 − x2 x  1− x
2
 x

If x1, x2, ....., xnϵ R then tan–1x1 + tan–1x2 + ..... + tan–1xn =

1 − x2 x 1  1 
cos −1 x = sin
−1
1 − x 2 = tan −1 = cot −1 = sec −1   = cosec −1 
  , x > 0  s − s + s − s + 
x 1 − x2 x  1− x
2
 tan −1  1 3 5 7 
 1 − s 2 + s 4 − s6 +  
 1 + x2 
( )
 x  1  where, sk = sum of products of x1, x2, ......, kn taken k at a time.
−1  1  −1
−1 −1
(iii) tan x = sin   = cos −1   = cot   = sec 1 + x 2 = cosec −1  
2   2
 x   x 
 1+ x   1+ x   
 Some Important graphs

sin −1 ( 3 x − 4 x3 ) cos −1 ( 4 x3 − 3 x ) tan −1 ( sec x + tan x )


tan 
−1
( )
1 + x2 + 1 − x2  π 1

= + cos −1 x 2 cos −1 ( cos x ) sin −1 ( sin x )

 ( 2
1+ x − 1− x  )
2 

4 2