GGS COLLEGE OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY

KHARAR, PUNJAB

COMPUTER NETWORKS
ASSIGNMENT – I
BTCS 504 – 18
B. TECH 5TH SEMESTER
2023-24

Submitted By: Eshan Padhiar

Submitted To: Mr. Munish Kumar
Roll No: 2103769
Course: B. Tech
Semester: 5th
Department: CSE
QUES 1. Define Data Communication?
Data communication is the process of transmitting and receiving data or information between
two or more devices through a medium such as wires, cables, optical fibers, or wireless
channels. This communication can take various forms, including text, audio, video, or other
types of digital or analog data.

Key components of data communication include:

1. Sender: The device or system that initiates the transmission of data.
2. Receiver: The device or system that receives the transmitted data.
3. Medium/Channel: The physical or logical path through which data is transmitted, which
can be wired or wireless.
4. Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that govern the format and error-checking
procedures for data transmission to ensure that both the sender and receiver can understand
and interpret the data correctly.
5. Data: The information that is being transmitted, which can be in various formats, including
text, numbers, images, audio, or video.

Data communication plays a crucial role in various aspects of modern life, enabling the
exchange of information over long distances and forming the foundation for technologies
such as the internet, telecommunication systems, and computer networks. It is essential for
businesses, governments, individuals, and organizations to share data efficiently and securely
for various purposes, from personal communication to complex data-driven processes and
applications.

QUES 2. Define LAN.

A LAN, or Local Area Network, is a network of interconnected computers, devices, and
resources within a limited geographical area, such as a home, office building, school, or a
small campus. LANs are designed to facilitate the sharing of data, resources, and services
among the devices connected to the network.
LANs are commonly used in various settings, such as homes and businesses, to facilitate
local communication and resource sharing. They provide a foundation for larger-scale
networks like WANs (Wide Area Networks) and the internet, allowing devices within the
LAN to access external resources and services through routers and gateways.
QUES 3. What Are Protocols?
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that define how data is transmitted and received
over a network or communication system. Protocols are essential for ensuring that devices
and systems can communicate effectively and understand each other's data. They establish a
common language and structure for data exchange, enabling seamless and reliable
communication.

Key aspects of protocols include:

1. Data Format: Protocols define the format and structure of the data to be transmitted,
specifying details like data encoding, packet format, and data fields. This ensures that
both the sender and receiver can interpret the data correctly.
2. Data Transmission: Protocols dictate how data is sent, including how it is divided
into packets (if necessary), how it is addressed, and how it is acknowledged or
retransmitted in the event of errors or data loss.
3. Error Handling: Many protocols include mechanisms for detecting and correcting
errors in data transmission. This can involve checksums, error codes, and error
correction algorithms to ensure data integrity.

QUES 4. What is TCP/IP?

TCP/IP, which stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of
networking protocols and standards that form the foundation of the internet and many other
computer networks. It provides the rules and conventions for data communication and
network management, enabling data to be transmitted, routed, and received across
interconnected networks and devices. TCP/IP consists of two main protocols: Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), along with several other supporting
protocols and layers. Here's a brief overview of these two key components:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that ensures reliable and error-free data
transmission.
 It divides data into packets, assigns sequence numbers to them, and manages
the acknowledgment of received packets.
 TCP handles error detection and correction, flow control, and congestion
control, making it suitable for applications that require highly reliable data
transmission, such as web browsing and email.
 2. Internet Protocol (IP):
 IP is a connectionless and routing protocol responsible for addressing and
routing data packets across networks.
 It assigns a unique IP address to each device on the network and is responsible
for determining how data packets should be forwarded from the source to the
destination.
 IP is versioned as IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet
Protocol version 6). IPv6 was introduced to address the limitations of IPv4,
primarily the exhaustion of available IP addresses.

QUES 5. Difference Between Osi And Tcp/Ip Model.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) model are both conceptual frameworks used to understand and
standardize the functions of networking and data communication. While they have some
similarities, they also have significant differences. Here's a comparison of the two models:

1. Number of Layers:
 OSI Model: The OSI model consists of seven layers, each with a specific function.
These layers are, from the bottom to the top: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application.

 TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model has four layers, which are often grouped
differently and are sometimes referred to as a three-layer model with the following
layers: Network Interface, Internet, Transport, and Application.

2. Specific Protocols:
 OSI Model: The OSI model doesn't specify particular protocols but provides a
conceptual framework for networking. However, it is not directly tied to specific
protocols used in the real world.

 TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model, as the name suggests, is closely associated with
the TCP and IP protocols, which are central to the operation of the internet. Other
protocols like UDP, ICMP, and HTTP also fit into the TCP/IP model.
3. Real-World Relevance:
 OSI Model: While the OSI model is a theoretical framework, it has limited real-
world implementation. Few networks strictly adhere to all seven OSI layers, and it is
primarily used for educational and reference purposes.

 TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model is much more closely aligned with the practical
implementation of networks, particularly the internet. It directly reflects the structure
and protocols used in the real world.

4. Layer Functions:
 OSI Model: The OSI model defines seven layers, each with a specific function, from
the physical transmission of data (Layer 1) to the user interface and application layer
(Layer 7).

 TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model's layers are more focused on actual network
communication: Network Interface (similar to OSI Layers 1 and 2), Internet (similar
to OSI Layer 3), Transport (similar to OSI Layer 4), and Application (similar to OSI
Layers 5, 6, and 7).

5. Development History:
 OSI Model: The OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in the 1980s as a theoretical model for networking.

 TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model predates the OSI model and was developed in the
early days of the ARPANET, the precursor to the internet. It evolved as a practical
approach to networking.

In summary, the OSI model is a conceptual framework that provides a structured way to
understand networking concepts, while the TCP/IP model is more closely aligned with the
actual protocols and architecture of the internet. In practice, the TCP/IP model is more widely
used for understanding and working with real-world networks and the internet.
QUES 6. What Is Multiplexing? Explain Its Types.
Multiplexing is a technique in data communication and networking that allows multiple
signals or data streams to be combined and transmitted over a single communication channel
or medium. This process optimizes the use of available resources and increases the efficiency
of data transmission. Multiplexing is commonly used in various communication technologies
to share bandwidth and accommodate multiple users or data streams. There are several types
of multiplexing, including:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 In FDM, different data streams are assigned non-overlapping frequency ranges
within a wider bandwidth channel.
 Each data stream is modulated onto a carrier signal at a specific frequency.
 The resulting modulated signals are then combined and transmitted over the
channel.
 At the receiving end, these signals are demodulated to extract the original data
streams.
 FDM is commonly used in radio and television broadcasting, where multiple
channels share a single range of frequencies.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

 TDM divides the available time on a communication channel into discrete
time slots.
 Different data streams or users are assigned specific time slots, and data from
each source is transmitted sequentially during its assigned time slot.
 TDM is widely used in digital telephone systems, where voice or data from
multiple users is interleaved and sent over a single physical connection.

3. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM):

 STDM is a variant of TDM where time slots are allocated dynamically based
on demand.
 In STDM, a user is given a time slot only when they have data to transmit.
This allows for more efficient use of the channel when users are not
continuously transmitting data.
 It is often used in packet-switched networks to accommodate varying traffic
loads.
 4. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):
 WDM is similar to FDM but is used in optical fiber communication.
 Different data streams are assigned specific wavelengths (colors) of light
within the optical spectrum.
 Multiple optical signals are combined and transmitted over the same optical
fiber.
 WDM significantly increases the data-carrying capacity of optical fibers and is
crucial in high-speed internet and long-distance communication systems.

5. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):

 CDM assigns unique codes to each data stream before transmission.
 These codes are then used to spread and mix the signals across a wide
bandwidth.
 At the receiving end, the original data is retrieved by using the corresponding
codes to de-spread the signals.
 CDM is commonly used in CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) cellular
networks.

6. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM):

 SDM involves using multiple physical paths or spatial channels within a
transmission medium to carry different data streams.
 Examples include multiple antennas in MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-
Output) wireless systems or using separate optical fibers in a fiber optic cable.

QUES 7. What Is Spread Spectrum?

Spread spectrum is a technique used in wireless communication to spread the signal over a
wider bandwidth than what would typically be required for the information being transmitted.
This spreading of the signal provides benefits such as improved resistance to interference,
increased security, and reduced signal detection by unauthorized receivers. Spread spectrum
is commonly used in various wireless technologies, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and some
military and satellite communication systems.
Key characteristics and components of spread spectrum include:
1. Frequency Hopping or Direct Sequence: Spread spectrum systems can use one of
two primary methods: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) or Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
  Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): In FHSS, the signal's carrier
frequency rapidly changes (hops) between different predetermined frequencies
in a pseudorandom sequence. The receiver is synchronized with the
transmitter, allowing it to follow the hopping pattern to recover the original
signal. FHSS is more resilient to narrowband interference.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): DSSS spreads the signal by
modulating it with a pseudorandom noise code (spread code). This spreads the
signal across a much wider bandwidth than the original data signal. The
receiver, which is aware of the spread code, can use it to recover the original
data.

2. Security: One of the primary advantages of spread spectrum is its inherent security.
Without knowledge of the spreading code or hopping sequence, it is difficult for
unauthorized receivers to detect and demodulate the signal effectively.

3. Resistance to Interference: Spread spectrum signals are more robust against various
forms of interference, including narrowband interference and jamming. The
interference appears as noise across the entire bandwidth, making it easier to filter out
or ignore.

4. Multipath Fading Mitigation: Spread spectrum can mitigate the effects of multipath
interference in wireless communication. The spread signal can be received as multiple
delayed and attenuated copies, which can be effectively combined at the receiver to
improve the signal's quality.

5. Multiple Access: Spread spectrum is used in CDMA (Code Division Multiple

Access) systems, where multiple users can share the same frequency band
simultaneously. Each user is assigned a unique spreading code, and the signals are
separated at the receiver using these codes.

6. Applications: Spread spectrum is widely used in various applications, including

wireless LANs (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth, Global Positioning System (GPS), and military
communication systems.

7. Signal Detection: To detect a spread spectrum signal, the receiver must be

synchronized with the transmitter by using the same spreading code or hopping
pattern.
QUES 8. What Is Transmission Media? Explain Its Types.
Transmission media, also known as communication channels, are physical or wireless paths
that enable the transfer of data or signals from a sender to a receiver in a data communication
system. Different types of transmission media are used in networking and
telecommunications, and they can be categorized into several main types:

1. Guided Media (Wired Media): Guided media use physical cables or wires to
transmit signals. They are more secure and less susceptible to interference compared
to wireless media. Common types of guided media include:

a. Twisted Pair Cable:

 Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
 Commonly used in Ethernet networks for both data and voice communication.
 Two main categories: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair
(STP).
b. Coaxial Cable:
 Features a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and
an outer plastic sheath.
 Often used in cable television (CATV) and some broadband internet
connections.
c. Fiber-Optic Cable:
 Utilizes strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as pulses of light.
 Offers high bandwidth, immunity to electromagnetic interference, and long-
distance transmission capabilities.
 Used in long-distance telecommunications, high-speed internet connections,
and data centers.

2. Unguided Media (Wireless Media): Unguided media transmit signals through the air
or free space without the use of physical cables. They include:

a. Radio Waves:
 Wireless communication through radio frequencies.
 Used for AM/FM radio, television, and wireless networking (e.g., Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth).
b. Microwaves:
 Utilizes higher-frequency radio waves for communication.
 Often used for point-to-point communication links, such as microwave relay
systems.
c. Infrared Waves:
 Uses infrared light for short-range communication.
 Common in remote controls, IrDA (Infrared Data Association) devices, and
some indoor wireless technologies.
d. Satellite Communication:
 Relies on geostationary or low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites to relay signals
between ground stations.
 Enables long-distance global communication for television broadcasting,
internet services, and mobile communications.

3. Other Media:

a. Power Lines (Power Line Communication - PLC):

 Transmits data over existing electrical power lines.
 Used for home networking and smart grid applications.
b. Free-Space Optical Communication (FSO):
 Utilizes lasers to transmit data through the atmosphere, often in line-of-sight
scenarios.
 Offers high bandwidth and low latency for point-to-point communication.

The choice of transmission media depends on factors such as the required bandwidth,
distance, susceptibility to interference, cost, and specific application. In many cases, a
combination of different media types is used within a single network to optimize performance
and reliability. For example, fiber-optic cables may be used for long-distance backbone
connections, while wireless technologies like Wi-Fi or cellular networks provide connectivity
to end-user devices.
QUES 9. Explain The Topology And Its Types With Diagram.
Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of interconnected devices and nodes
in a computer network. It defines how devices are connected and how data flows within the
network. There are several common network topologies, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. Here, I'll explain some of the most prevalent network topologies with
diagrams.

1. Bus Topology:
In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a central communication bus (a single cable or
wire). Data is transmitted along the bus, and all devices on the network receive the data. It's a
simple and cost-effective topology but can be prone to disruptions if the main bus fails.
2. Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device is connected directly to a central hub or switch. Data flows
through the hub, and if one device fails, it doesn't affect the rest of the network. Star
topologies are common in Ethernet LANs.
3. Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a closed
loop. Data circulates around the ring in one direction. While it's a simple topology, a single
point of failure can disrupt the entire network.
4. Mesh Topology:
Mesh topologies are characterized by every device being interconnected with every other
device. This redundancy ensures high reliability and fault tolerance, but it can be costly and
complex to set up.
5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology:
Tree topologies combine elements of star and bus topologies. Devices are arranged in a
hierarchical structure, with lower-level branches connecting to higher-level branches. It is
commonly used in large-scale networks.
6. Hybrid Topology:
Hybrid topologies combine two or more different network topologies. For example, you
might have a combination of star and ring topologies to achieve specific performance and
redundancy goals.

Remember that these diagrams provide a simplified visual representation of each topology. In
real-world networks, variations and combinations of these topologies are often used to meet
specific requirements, such as scalability, redundancy, and fault tolerance. The choice of
topology depends on the network's purpose and design goals.