CHAPTER 7

GROUNDWATER

Learning Objectives

This chapter is designed to assist the students to develop and enhance their
ability and knowledge in:

1. Groundwater hydrology concept such occurrence of groundwater,

hydrogeology parameters and pumping test
2. Presenting methods for calculating confined and unconfined steady
/unsteady flow toward a well

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Define between surface water and groundwater.

2. Apply fundamental knowledge of groundwater hydrology
particularly use in civil and environmental engineering.
3. Apply hydrogeology parameters and properties as the base of a
modeling of groundwater which covers processes of groundwater
flow.
Hydrology

7.1 Introduction

Groundwater begins with rain and snow melt that seeps or infiltrates into the
ground. The amount of water that seeps into the ground varies widely from place
to place according to the type of land surface that is present. In porous surface
material that water readily seeps through, such as sand or gravel, 40 to 50
percent of the rain and snow melt may seep into the ground. Seepage into less
porous surface material may range from 5 to 20 percent. The remainder of the
rain and snow melt runs off the land surface into streams or returns to the
atmosphere by evaporation. Groundwater is an important source of water supply
throughout the world. Its use in irrigation, industries, municipalities and rural
homes continue to increase.

Total amount of groundwater is 8.2 x 1012 m3.

i.e. 35 x all water from rivers, lakes and dams.

7.1.1 Definition of Groundwater Hydrology

Groundwater Hydrology is the science of the occurrence, distribution, and

movement of water below the surface of the earth (Figure 7.1). Groundwater
refers to water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum (saturated zone).
The unsaturated zone is usually found above saturated zone where voids are
filled with water and air.

Figure 7.1 Groundwater classification

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7.2 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater

7.2.1 Porosity

Porosity is the ratio of the volume of interstices to the total volume. Those
portions of rock or soil are not occupied by solid mineral matter that can be
occupied by groundwater. These spaces are known as voids, interstices, pores,
or pore space and they serve as water conduits. Original or primary interstices
were created by geologic processes, while secondary interstices are developed
after the rock was formed (joints, fractures, solution openings and cracks).

7.2.2 Aquifer

Aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to

yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. This implies an ability to
store and to transmit water (e.g. unconsolidated sand and gravel) (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2 Groundwater yield in different materials

7.3 Types of Aquifer

7.3.1 Confined or Artesian Aquifer

Groundwater that becomes trapped under impermeable soil or rock may be

under pressure. This is called a confined or artesian aquifer (Figure 7.3). A well
that pierces a confined aquifer is known as an artesian well. Water pressure in
the confined aquifer will cause water in the well to rise above the aquifer level.

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 Hydrology

7.3.2 Unconfined or Water Table Aquifer

Aquifers that are not confined under pressure are called unconfined or water
table aquifers. The water level in a well is the same as the water table outside
the well (Figure 7.3).

Recharge area of
Recharge area of Unconfined-aquifer
Confined-aquifer Non flowing wells
Q2
Q1

Flowing well

Perched water-table

Unconfined-aquifer

Confined-aquifer

Confining layer

Figure 7.3 Confined and unconfined aquifer

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7.4 Parameters of Groundwater Storage

There are 4 (four) parameters of groundwater storage i.e., specific yield, storage
coefficient, hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and coefficient of leakage.

7.4.1 Specific Yield (Sy)

Specific yield is the volume of water released from storage per unit area per unit
change in water level (for unconfined aquifer). Value ranges from 0.01 to 0.3.

7.4.2 Storage Coefficient (S)

The storage coefficient is the volume of water released from storage per unit
area per unit change in potentiometric level (for confined aquifer). Value ranges
from 0.00005 to 0.005.

Specific storage (Ss) is a constant property of an aquifer and, as such, is

a more fundamental parameter. Jacob made the first attempt in 1940 to introduce
an analytical expression for the storage coefficient, S and specific storage, Ss.

 1 1 
S   w b    or S  gb     (7-1)
 E w E s 

and;
S
Ss  (7-2)
b

However, DeWiest has proposed the following equation to determine the

specific storage:

S s   w 1     (7-3)

Where;
S = storage coefficient
b = thickness of aquifer
 = porosity
w = specific gravity of water
Ew = bulk modulus of elasticity of water
(3105 psi at ordinary temperature)
Es = bulk modulus of elasticity of soil solids
 = aquifer compressibility (1/Es)

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 = water compressibility (1/Ew)

Ss = specific storage

Example 7.1

A confined aquifer of 40 m thickness has a porosity of 0.3. Determine the storage

coefficient and specific storage according to Jacob and DeWeist analysis,  =
1.5 x 10-9 cm2/dyn,  = 5 x 10-10 cm2/dyn.

Solution 7.1

1. Storage coefficient, S

S  gb       w b   

S  980
dyn
cm3
 40 m 
100 cm
1m
1 . 
5  10 9
 
0 . 3  ( 5  10 
10
)
cm2
dyn
S = 6.4710 -3

2. Specific Storage , Ss

Using Jacob analysis ;

S 6.47  10 3 1m
Ss   
b 40 m 100 cm

Ss = 1.62  10-6 per cm

Using DeWiest analysis ;

S s   w 1    

    
2
 1  0.3  1.5  10  0.3  5  10
dyn 9 10 cm
S s  980
cm3 dyn

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Ss = 1.18  10-6 per cm

7.4.3 Hydraulic Conductivity (K) or Permeability

Hydraulic conductivity, K is the rate of which water can be transmitted through

unit cross sectional area, normal to flow, under unit hydraulic gradient (unit
m/day)


K k and q = Ki (7-4)


where;
K = hydraulic conductivity
k = intrinsic permeability (refer Table 7.1)
 = specific weight of fluid
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid
q = specific discharge
i = hydraulic gradient = h/L

Table 7.1 Equivalence of Intrinsic permeability, hydraulic conductivity, and

transmissivity

Parameter Unit Unit Conversion

(multiply by)
Intrinsic Darcy cm2 ft2
permeability
1 Darcy 0.987  10-8 1.062  10-11
Hydraulic Meinzer or gpd/ft2 ft/day m/day
conductivity
1 Meinzer 0.134 0.041
Transmissivity gpd/ft ft2/day m2/day
1 gpd/ft 0.134 0.0124

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Example 7.3

Determine the hydraulic conductivity of a medium of which intrinsic permeability

is 1 Darcy and through which water flows at 60oF.

Solution 7.3

Properties of fluid at 60oF;  = 0.999 g/cm3,  = 1.1210-2 g/cm.sec and

k = 0.987  10-8 cm2 (1 darcy).

Unit conversion;

m 100 cm cm
g  9.81 2
  981 2
s 1m s

Therefore, hydraulic conductivity;

 g
K k k
 

 g cm 1 cm.sec 
K   0.987  108 cm 2  0.999 3  981 2  2 
 cm s 1 .12  10 g 

K = 8.64  10-4 cm/sec

7.4.4 Transmissivity (T)

Transmissivity is the rate at which water can be transmitted through a unit strip
of aquifer (full thickness) under unit hydraulic gradient. T= K x thickness of aquifer
(unit m2/day). In an aquifer of uniform thickness;

T  Kb (7-5)
where;
T = transmissivity
K = average hydraulic conductivity; and
b = thickness of aquifer

When the hydraulic conductivity is a continuous function of depth (water table

aquifer or unconfined aquifer);

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b
1
b 0
K K z dz

For confined aquifer, if the flow is in the horizontal direction;

K 1b1 K 2 b 2  K 3b 3  ....K nb n
K (7-6a)
b
Meanwhile if the flow is in the vertical direction;

b
K (7-6b)
 b1   b 2   b 3  b 
         .... n 
 K1   K 2   K 3   Kn 

Example 7.5

The soil under a dam consists of four layers as follows:

Layer Hydraulic Depth

Conductivity
(cm/hour) (m)

1 5 4.8
2 2 8.0
3 0.6 18.0
4 1.0 3.0

(a) What is the average vertical conductivity of the soil?

(b) What is the transmissivity of the soil when the water table is at the ground
surface?

Solution 7.5

Sketch of the problem:

Flow direction K1 = 5 cm/hr

Water table
(all layer saturated)

1 K1 = 5 cm/hr b1 = 4.8 m

2 K2 = 2 cm/hr b2 = 8.0 m
b = 33.8 m

3 K3 = 0.6 cm/hr b3 = 18.0 m

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4 K4 = 1.0 cm/hr b4 = 3.0 m

Hydrology

(a) Average vertical conductivity of the soil

b
K
 b1   b 2   b 3  b 
         .... n 
 K1   K 2   K 3   Kn 

4.8  8  18  3 m
K
 4.8   8   18   3  .hr
m
    
 5   2   0.6   1  cm

33.8
K
37.96

K  0.89 cm/hr  0.214 m/day

(b) Transmissivity of the soil

T  Kb

T  0.214 33 .8 

T = 2.23 m2/day

7.4.5 Coefficient of Leakage (Leakance)

Hantush (1964) introduced leakance or coefficient of leakage as a term

characteristic of the semi-pervious confining layer through which water leaks out
from an aquifer.
K'
Le  (7-7)
b'
Where;
Le = leakance
b’ = thickness of the semi pervious layer
K’ = coefficient of permeability of semi-pervious layer
K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer

The retardation coefficient, a and leakage factor, β are represented by the

following equations:

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K
a (7-8)
 K' 
 
 b' 

Kb
 (7-9)
 K' 
 
 b' 

Example 7.7

The banks (and bottom) of a stream consist of silty clay of hydraulic conductivity
0.008 m/day having an average depth of 150 cm. The underlying aquifer of fine
sand has an average thickness of 20 m. Determine the (a) coefficient of leakage,
(b) retardation coefficient, and (c) leakage factor. Hydraulic conductivity of fine
sand = 2.5 m/day.

Solution 7.7

(a) Coefficient of leakage, Le

K'
Le 
b'

m 1 100 cm
L e  0.008  
day 150 m 1m

Le = 5.3  10-3 per day

(b) Retardation coefficient, a

K K
a or a
 K'  Le
 
 b' 

m 1
a  2 .5  day
day 5.3  10 3

a = 471.7 m

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(c) Leakage factor, β

Kb Kb
 or  
 K'  Le
 
 b' 

m 1
  2.5  20 m  day
day 5.3  10-3
β = 97.1 m2

7.5 One Dimensional Groundwater Flow in Steady Condition

7.5.1 Darcy’s Law

The fundamental law of groundwater movement was discovered by Henry Darcy

in 1856. Darcy's Law is a generalized relationship for flow in porous media. It
shows the volumetric flow rate is a function of the flow area, elevation, fluid
pressure and proportionality constant. It may be stated in several different forms
depending on the flow conditions. He ran an experiment on a vertical pipe filled
with sand under conditions simulated by the figure below.

h1
Sand sample

h2

Figure 7.4 Simulation of Darcy’s experiment

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KAh1  h 2  Kh
Q and qv  (7-10)
L L

Basic formula!

where; q = specific discharge

K = Hydraulic Conductivity of medium
A = cross sectional area perpendicular to flow
direction
v = Darcy velocity or discharge velocity
h = drop of head in length L (negative sign indicates
flow in the direction of decreasing head).

7.5.2 Steady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer

Assume:
(a) Aquifer is confined (top and bottom)
(b) Well is pumped at a constant rate
(c) Equilibrium is reached (no drawdown change with time)
(d) Wells are fully screened and is only one pumping

Q
Ground Level

Aquiclude
Initial water table

K h1 h2 h0
b
confined r1
aquifer r2

Bedrock
r0
Figure 7.5 Profile of confined aquifer

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Radial flow in the confined aquifer is given by;

Q  AV (7-11)
Q  2rKb 
dh
dr

1 2Kb
dr  dh
r Q
Boundary condition, h2, h1, r2, r1, Integrate

1
r2 2Kb h2
r2 r
dr 
Q h1
hdh

2Kb
ln r2  ln r1  h2  h1 
Q
 r  2Kb
ln  2   h2  h1 
 r1  Q

But, T  Kb
h2  h1
Q  2T (Theim equation for confined aquifer) (7-12a)
ln r2 r1 

Importance formula!

7.5.3 Steady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer

Assume:
(a) Aquifer is unconfined but underlain by an impermeable horizontal unit.
(b) Well is pumped at a constant rate
(c) Equilibrium is reached (no drawdown change with time)
(d) Wells are fully screened and
(e) There is only one pumping well

Q
Ground Level
Initial water table

K
Unconfined h1 h2 h0
aquifer r1
r2

198 Bedrock
r0
 Groundwater

Figure 7.6 Profile of unconfined aquifer

Radial flow in the unconfined aquifer is given by

Q  AV

Q  2rh K
dh
dr
1 2K
dr  hdh
r Q

Boundary condition, h2, h1, r2, r1, Integrate

r2 1 2K h2
r1 r
dr 
Q 
h1
h dh

2K  h22 h12 

ln r2  ln r1    
Q  2 2
 r  K 2
ln  2    h2  h12 
 1
r Q
h 2  h12
Q  K 2 (Theim equation for unconfined aquifer) (7-12b)
ln r2 r1 

Importance formula!

Example 7.8

A channel runs almost parallel to a river as shown in the figure below. The water
level in the river at an elevation of 120 ft and in the channel at an elevation of
110 ft. The river and channel are 2000 ft apart and a pervious formation of
average 30 ft thickness and hydraulic conductivity of 0.25 ft/hr joint them
together. Determine the rate of seepage flow from the river to the channel.

+ 120
+ 110
Pervious
30 ft
s
Medium

Channel
River 2000 ft

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Solution 7.8

Consider a 1-ft of width of pervious medium:

A = 30  1 = 30 ft2

h = 120 – 110 = 10 ft

Therefore rate of seepage flow;

KAh1  h 2 
Q
L

 ft 24 hr 
0.25 hr  1 day  30 ft10 ft
Q  
2000 ft

ft 3
Q  0 .9
day.ft  length

Example 7.9

A confined aquifer has a source of recharge as shown in the figure below. The
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 m/day and its porosity is 0.2. The
piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m, respectively, from
a common datum. The average thickness of the aquifer is 25 m and the average
width is 5 km. Determine the rate of flow through the aquifer and the time of travel
from the head of the aquifer to a point 4 km downstream (assume no dispersion
or diffusion).

Recharge area

+55 m 5m
+50 m

1000 m

Confined-aquifer 25 m

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 Groundwater

Solution 7.9

Area of cross section of flow (A) = 25m  5km = 12.5  104 m2

55  50
Hydraulic gradient (i) = = 5  10-3
1000
Rate of flow, Q = K A i = (50 m/day) (12.5  104 m2) (5  10-3)

Q = 31,250 m3/day
Q  m 3   1 
Darcy velocity (v) =   31,250 
  = 0.208 m/day
A  day   12.5 10 m 
4 2

v 0.208
Seepage velocity (Vv) =  = 1.042 m/day
 0.2
Time to travel 4 km downstream:
4km 4000m
t  = 3,840 days or 10.5 years
1.042m / day 1.042m / day

7.7 Groundwater Flow to a Well

This analysis normally used for confined or unconfined conditions during the
pumping activities. Some time, there have one or more monitoring wells for
pumped well’s analysis.

7.7.1 Confined Flow

sw

H
h
b r
R

rw

Figure 7.9 Fully penetrating well in a confined aquifer

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The differential equations of confined flow to a well are as follows:

 2 h 1 h 1  2 h
  0
r 2 r r r 2  2

 2 h 1 dh
 0
r 2 r dr

1 d  dh 
r 0
r dr  dr 

And, the common equation of confined flow to a well is as follows:

Q R
H h  ln (7-15)
2bK r
where;
H = piezometric head at radial distance R
h = piezometric head at any distance r
Q = discharge from the well
b = thickness of confined aquifer
bK = transmissivity of aquifer

Importance formula!

Example 7.11

A well is pumped from a confined aquifer at a rate of 0.08 m 3/s for a long time.
In two observation wells located 50 and 10 m away from the well, the difference
in elevation has been observed as 1.5 m. What is the transmissivity of the
aquifer?

Solution 7.11

Q R
T = bK = ln
2 H  h r

0.08 50
T= ln = 0.0137 m2/s
2 1.5 10

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Example 7.12

An aquifer of 20 m average thickness is overlain by an impermeable layer of 30

m thickness. A test well of 0.5 m diameter and two observation wells at a distance
of 10 m and 60 m from the test well are drilled through the aquifer. After pumping
at a rate 0f 0.1 m3/s for a long time, the following draw-downs are stabilized in
these wells: first observation well, 4 m; second observation well, 3 m. Determine
the hydraulic conductivity and the drawdown in the test well.

Solution 7.12

Q R
H h  ln
2bK r
Q R 0.1 60
K ln  ln = 1.43  10-3 m/s
2bH  h r 2 204  3 10

𝑠1 𝑠2
sw

H
h
b r
R

rw

See the figure of confined flow to a well:

sw = draw-down in the test well

Q R
s w  s2   ln
2bK rw

0.1 60
sw  3  ln
2 201.4310 3  0.25
 

𝑠𝑤 = 3.06 𝑚 + 3 𝑚 = 6.06 𝑚

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Or

sw = draw-down in the test well

Q r
sw  s1   ln
2bK rw

0.1 10
sw  4  ln
2 201.4310 3  0.25
 

𝑠𝑤 = 2.06 𝑚 + 4 𝑚 = 6.06 𝑚

7.7.2 Unconfined Flow

Q

sw

H
h
r
R

rw
Figure 7.10 Partially penetrating well in a unconfined aquifer

Equation:
Q R
H 2  h2  ln (7-16)
K r

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Example 7.13

A fully penetrating 30 cm diameter well has its bottom 24.4 m below the static
water table. After 24 hr of pumping at 0.07 m3/s, the water level in the test well
stabilizes to 3 m below the static water table. A draw-down of 1.11 m is noticed
in an observation (test) well 97.5 m away from the pumped well. Determine the
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.
0.07 m3/s

Pumped well
Static water table

3m
Water table 1.11 m

Test well
24.4 m 30 cm

Unconfined Aquifer 97.5 m

Impermeable layer

Solution 7.13

Q R
H 2  h2  ln
K r
H = 24.4 – 1.11 = 23.29 m

h = 24.4 – 3 = 21.4 m

r = ½  30 cm = 15 cm = 0.15 m

0.07 97.5
K ln = 0.00171 m/s
  23.29 2  21.4 2  0.15
 
7.8 Pumping Test

Objective: to know the capability of aquifer to provide the adequate water for
meet the demand (quantity).

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Purpose: measuring hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity using the

drawdown versus time data. Discharge rate, Q, also determined during pumping
test activity (Figure 7.11 and 7.12).

Figure 7.11 Measurement of discharge, Q during the pumping test

Figure 7.12 Water table declines during discharge or pumping test

7.8 1 How to Record

Preparation apparatus before pumping activity consists of water level

indicator, bucket and stopwatch (Figure 7.13). During discharge, record all
data volume of water by time to time versus water level decline (Figure 7.14).

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Figure 7.13 Simple apparatus for pumping test

Figure 7.14 Step to record data

7.8.2 Construction of Well

Pumped well system normally constructed proper in the design and installation.
It usually constructed in size of diameter bigger than monitoring or observation
well to install pump and pipe inside.

Rotary wash boring is commonly used for drilling method in Malaysia (Figures
7.15 to 7.18).

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Figure 7.15 Drilling well at RECESS, Johor

Figure 7.16 Pipe installations after drilling work

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Figure 7.17 Flushing and cleaning well after pipe installation

Figure 7.18 Groundwater up to surface with related to hydraulic and confining

pressure at Lojing, Kelantan

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7.9 Summary

Groundwater is a major source of freshwater for public consumption, industrial

uses and the irrigation. Groundwater protection and management practices must
be based on an understanding of groundwater sources; the manner in which
groundwater is distributed below the earth’s surface; geologic; topographic and
soil characteristics.
Understanding the movement of groundwater requires knowledge of the
time and space dependency of the flow, the nature of the porous medium and
fluid and the boundaries of the flow system. Fundamental to the mechanics of
groundwater flow is Darcy’s Law. Using Darcy’s equation along with knowledge
of the hydraulic conductivity K, estimates of flow can be made.

Problems

Q1. State four (4) reasons the importance of groundwater investigations.

Q2. List out three (3) parameters in the groundwater systems.

Q3. With the aid of a sketch, explain the difference between confined and
unconfined aquifer.

Q4. Explain briefly occurrence and movement of groundwater in the ground.

Q5. Calculate the seepage velocity and discharge for water flowing through a
sand-filled pipe with a hydraulic conductivity of 1.5 x 10 -6 m/s and an
effective porosity of 20%. The hydraulic gradient is 0.01 and the cross
sectional area of the pipe is 150 cm2.
Answer: 7.5 x 10-6 cm/s, 1.125 x 10-3 cm3/s

Q6. An extraction well was drilled penetrating straight into the unconfined
aquifer with the thickness of 40 m and consist of sandy media. The
constant pumping rate has been set at 0.08 m 3/s. The groundwater
drawdown for the first extraction well with a distance of 20 m is 4.5 m
whereas the drawdown for the second extraction well with a distance of
190 m is 1.5 m. What is the permeability of the groundwater through the
soil media when it was being pumped out?
Answer: 0.00024 m/sec

Q7. A 40 cm well was drilled penetrating straight into the unconfined aquifer
at the depth of 90 m. Two other wells were drilled at the distance of 20 m

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 Groundwater

and 100 m from the initial well which have the decrease in the water level
of 12 m and 8 m from the initial groundwater level. If the aquifer has a
permeability value of 200m/day, what is the pumping rate of the
groundwater well?
Answer: 1.062 m3/sec

Q8. A fully penetrating 12 cm diameter well has its bottom 80 meter below the
static ground water table. After 24 hours of pumping at 1100 m 2/min, the
water level in the test well stabilizes to 10 meter below the static water
table. A draw-down of 3.65 meter is noticed in an observation (test) well
300 meters away from the pumped well. Determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer in m/hour.
Answer: 88.44 m/hr

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