All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

CHME2201 : Chemistry Engineering II

Chapter 6: Nuclear Chemistry

 Definition
In chemical reactions, only the outer electrons of the atoms are disturbed. The nuclei
of the atoms are not affected. In nuclear reactions, however, the nuclear changes that occur
are independent of the chemical environment of the atom.

 Nuclear stability
All elements with Z equal to 83 or less have one or more stable nuclides, with the
exception of technetium (Z =43), as noted in the chapter opening, and promethium (Z =61).
Therefore, no stable nuclides are known with atomic numbers greater than 83.
In general, nuclear with even number of protons and even number of neutrons are
highly stable and those withe old number of proton and old number of neutrons are highy
unstable.

 Nuclear equation
As any chemical transformations, nuclear reactions can be represented by an
equation called nuclear equation. In this equation, reactants and products nuclei are
represented by their nuclide symbols. The general form of nuclear equation is :
A1 A2 A3 A4
Z1 X 1 + Z2 X 2 → Z3 X 3 + Z4 X 4

In this equation, X1 is the symbol of element i ; Ai is the mass number of element i and Zi
the atomic number of element i.
Remark : It is not necessary to indicate the chemical compound or the electron charges for
any ions involved, because the chemical environment has no effect on nuclear processes.
In fact, the reaction of 31H are the same if it is part of H2 or incorporated in H2 O.

 Determination of the product of a nuclear reaction

Consider the follow nuclear reaction :
A1
Z1 X 1 +
A2
Z2 X 2 →
A3
Z3 X 3 +
A4
Z4 X 4
1

The mass number of reactants and products of this nuclear reaction are related as
follow :

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

(𝟏) 𝐀 𝟏 + 𝐀 𝟐 = 𝐀 𝟑 + 𝐀 𝟒
And the atomic number of reactants and products of this nuclear reaction are related as
follow :
(𝟐) 𝐙𝟏 + 𝐙𝟐 = 𝐙𝟑 + 𝐙𝟒
Equations (1) and (2) are used to determine nucleus and particles that are involved in a
nuclear reaction.
238 234
Example 1: Determine the nucleus X in the following nuclear reaction : 92U → 90Th +
x
yX

Solution :
238 = 234 + x ⇒ x = 238 − 234 = 4
92 = 90 + y ⇒ y = 92 − 90 = 2
Therefore, the atomic number of X is 2, then X is helium refer to as alpha particle in nuclear
chemistry.
Example 2: Complete the following equations : (i) 234 0
90Th → ⋯ + −1e

(ii) 236
92U →
96
39Y + ⋯ + 4 10n (iii) 226
88Ra + ⋯ →
222
86Rn + 42He (iv) 147N + ⋯ → 17
8O + 11H

 Classification of nuclear reactions

Nucleation reactions can be divided in two main groups : radioactivity decay
(spontaneous nuclear reactions) and nuclear bombardment reactions (non-spontaneous
nuclear reactions).

1. Radioactivity
Radioactive decay, the process in which a nucleus spontaneously disintegrates,
giving off radiation. The radiation consists of one or more of the following, depending on
the nucleus: electrons, nuclear particles (such as neutrons), smaller nuclei (usually helium-
4 nuclei), and electromagnetic radiation.

 Types of radioactivity decay

There are six common types of radioactive decay :
(i) Alpha emission (abbreviated α): emission of a 42He nucleus, or alpha particle, 2
from an unstable nucleus.
238 234 226
Examples : (i) 92U → 90Th + 42He (ii) 88Ra → 222
86Rn + 42He

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

Remark : Nuclei with 𝑍 > 83 often decay by alpha emission.

(ii) Beta emission (abbreviated β or β− ): emission of a high-speed electron from
an unstable nucleus. Beta emission is equivalent to the conversion of a neutron to a proton
according to the following equation : 10n → 11p + −10e
Example : 146C → 14
7N + −10e
(iii) Positron emission (abbreviated β+ ): emission of a positron from an unstable
0
nucleus. A positron, denoted in nuclear equations as −1e, is a particle identical to an
electron in mass but having a positive instead of a negative charge.
Positron emission is equivalent to the conversion of a proton to a neutron : 11p → 10n + 01e
95 95
Example : 43Tc → 42Mo + 01e
Remark : Positron emission is generally seen in lighter elements having small value of the
nutron-to-proton ratio
(iv) Electron capture (abbreviated EC): the decay of an unstable nucleus by
capturing, or picking up, an electron from an inner orbital of an atom.
In effect, a proton is changed to a neutron, as in positron emission 11p + −10e → 10n
Example : 40 0
19K + −1e →
40
18Ar

Remark : Positron emission and electron capture are competing radioactive decay
processes, and what is observed depends on the relative rates of the two processes.
However, the rate of electron capture increases with atomic number of the decaying nuclide
and therefore becomes important in heavier elements.
Remark : When another orbital electron fills the vacancy in the inner-shell orbital created
by electron capture, an x-ray photon is emitted.
(v) Gamma emission (abbreviated γ): emission from an excited nucleus of a
gamma photon, corresponding to radiation with a wavelength of about 10−12 m. In many
cases, radioactive decay results in a product nucleus that is in an excited state. Then the
excited state is unstable and goes to a lower-energy state with the emission of
electromagnetic radiation that belong in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum.
Remark : Often gamma emission occurs very quickly after radioactive decay. In some
cases, however, an excited state has significant lifetime before it emits a gamma photon. 3

Remark : A metastable nucleus is a nucleus in an excited state with a lifetime of at least

one nanosecond (10−12 s). In time, the metastable nucleus decays by gamma emission.

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

99 99
Example : 43Tc ∗ → 43Tc + 00γ
The start on Tc indicate that the metastable state of Tc.
(vi) Spontaneous fission: the spontaneous decay of an unstable nucleus in which a
heavy nucleus of mass number greater than 89 splits into lighter nuclei and energy is
released.
Example : 236
92U →
96
39Y + 136 1
53I + 4 0n

 Prediction of the type of radioactive decay

To predict the the type of radioactive decay of a nuclide, you compare the nuclide
with the stable nuclides of the same element :
(i) A nuclide with an N/Z ratio greater than that of the stable nuclides is expected to exhibit
beta emission.
(ii) A nuclide with an N/Z ratio less than that of the stable nuclides is expected to exhibit
positron emission or electron capture; electron capture is important with heavier elements.
Remark : Since you are comparing nuclides of the same Z, you can compare mass
numbers ( N + Z), rather than N/Z
Example : Consider a series of isotopes of a given element, such as carbon. Carbon-12 and
carbon-13 are stable isotopes, whereas the other isotopes of carbon are radioactive :
- Carbon-11 has a neutron-to-proton ratio of 5/6 (0.8), which increases in the product
boron-11 to 6/5 (1.2) therefore, carbon-11 will decay by positron emission.
- Carbon-14 has a neutron-to-proton ratio of 8/6 (1.3), which decreases in the product
nitrogen-14 to 7/7 (1.0).
Example : Predict the expected type of radioactive decay for each of the following
radioactive nuclides: (i) 47
20Ca (ii) 25
13Al

Solution :
(i) The atomic mass calcium is 40.1 amu, so you expect calcium-40 to be a stable isotope.
Calcium-47 has a mass number greater than that of the stable isotope, so it is expected
calcium-47 decays by beta emission.
(ii) The atomic mass of aluminum is 27.0 amu, so you expect aluminum-27 to be a stable
4
isotope. The mass number of aluminum-25 is less than 27, so it is expected aluminum-25
decays by either positron emission or electron capture.

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

 Radioactive decay series

A radioactive decay series, a sequence in which one radioactive nucleus decays to
a second, which then decays to a third, and so forth untill a stable nucleus, which is an
isotope of lead, is reached.
Three radioactive decay series are found naturally. One of these series begins with
uranium-238. The differents step of this radioactive decay serie is shown on the figure
below :

The second radioactive decay series start with uranium-235 and consists of a sequence of
alpha and beta decays, ending with lead-207. The third naturally occurring radioactive
decay series begins with thorium- 232 and ends with lead-208. All three radioactive decay
series found naturally end with an isotope of lead.

2. Nuclear bombardment reaction,

The nuclear reactions discussed in the previous section are radioactive decay
reactions, in which a nucleus spontaneously decays to another nucleus and emits a particle.
However, it is also possible to change the nucleus of one element into the nucleus of
another element by processes that can be controlled in the laboratory.

 Transmutation
5
Transmutation is the change of one element to another by bombarding the nucleus
of the element with nuclear particles or nuclei or a nuclear reaction in which a nucleus is

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

bombarded, or struck, by another nucleus or by a nuclear particle. If there is sufficient

energy in this collision, the nuclear particles of the reactants rearrange to give a product
nucleus or nuclei.
Examples : (i) 147N + 42He → 17
8O + 11H (ii) 49Be + 42He → 12
6C + 10n

 Nuclear bombardment reaction notation

Nuclear bombardment reactions are often referred to by an abbreviated notation. In
this, notation, you first write the nuclide symbol for the original nucleus (target). Then, in
parentheses, you write the symbol for the projectile particle (incoming particle), followed
by a comma and the symbol for the ejected particle. After the last parenthesis, you write
the nuclide symbol for the product nucleus. The following symbols are used for particles:
n for neutron, p for proton ( 11H) , d for deuteron and α for alpha ( 42He).
14
Example : The reaction 7N + 42He → 17
8O + 11H is abbreviated 14 17
7N(α, p) 8O.

Q : Write the abbreviation notation of the following bombardment reactions :

(i) 40 2
20Ca + 1H →
41
20O + 11H (ii) 27 1
13Al + 1H →
26
13Al + 21H
12 13
Q : Write the nuclear equation for the bombardment reaction denoted (i) 6C(d, p) 6C

(ii) 49Be(α, n) 126C

 Particle accelerator
To be able to penetrate the nucleus and provoque a nuclear reaction, the particle
must be traveling very fast. The device used to accelerate electrons, protons, and alpha
particles and other ions to very high speeds is called particle accelerator. An exampe of
this device is the cyclotron.
Remark : The kinetic energies of these particles is measured in electron volts (eV).
One electron volt (1 eV) is the quantity of energy that would have to be imparted to an
electron (whose charge is 1.602 x 10-19 C) to accelerate it by one volt potential difference.
1 eV = (1.602 × 10−19 C ) × (1 V) = 1.602 × 10−19 J

 Transuranium elements
Transuranium elements are elements with atomic numbers greater than that of 6
uranium (Z 92), the naturally occurring element of greatest Z. Their are obtained by
nuclear bombardment reactions.

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

Examples : (i) Neptunium is obtained by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons. This

gave uranium-239, by the capture of a neutron, and this nucleus decayed in a few days by
beta emission to neptunium-239
(ii) : Plutonium is obtained by bombarding uranium-238 with deuteron. This gave
neptunium-238 which decay to plutonium-238
Q : Write all the nuclear reactions that take place in the previous examples.

 Rate of radioactive decay

The rate at which a sample decays is called the activity of the sample and it is define
as the number of nuclei disintegrating per unit time. The rate of radioactive decay is
proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample and cannot be changed by
varying the temperature, the pressure, or the chemical environment of the nucleus.
The rate of radioactive decay is mathematically expressed as follow :
Rate = kNt
In this equation Nt is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t, and k is the radioactive
decay
constant, or rate constant for radioactive decay.
The SI unit of nuclear activity is the becquerel (Bq), defined as one nuclear
disintegration per second. Activity can also be expressed in curie (Ci) which is related to
Bq as follow : 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq.
Remark : Each nuclide have a given value of the radioactive decay constant therefore, the
radioactive decay constant is a characteristic property of the radioactive nuclide.
Q : A 1.0-mg sample of technetium-99 has an activity of 1.7 x 10-5 Ci, decaying by beta
emission. (i) Write the nuclear equation of this decay. (ii) What is the decay constant for
99
43Tc?

Relation between 𝑁𝑡 and the initial number od nuclei :

𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑡
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ⇔ = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ⇔ 𝑙𝑛 = − 𝑘𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁0
In this equation, N0 is the number of nuclei in the original sample (t = 0). This relation is
used to calculate the fraction of the radioactive nuclei that remains after a given period of 7
𝑁
time (𝑁𝑡 ).
0

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

 Half-life
The half-life of a radioactive nucleus is the time it takes for one-half of the nuclei
in a sample to decay. the half-life of a radioactive nucleus as the time it takes for one-half
of the nuclei in a sample to decay. It is usually determine by measuring decay rates and

relating them to half-lives. The half life for radioactive decay (t 1⁄ ) is relate to the decay
2

constant as follow :
0.693
t 1⁄ =
2 k
Remark : Tables of radioactive nuclei often list the half-life.
0.693
Q : Derive the following expression : t 1⁄ =
2 k
99
Example : The decay constant for the beta decay of 43Tc is 1.0 x 10-13/s. What is the half-
life of this isotope in years?
Example : Tritium is a radioactive nucleus of hydrogen. It is used in luminous watch dials.
Tritium decays by beta emission with a half-life of 12.3 years. (i) Write the nuclear
equation of the tritium decays (ii) What is the decay constant (in /s)? (iii) What is the
activity (in Ci) of a sample containing 2.5 g of tritium? The atomic mass of tritium is 3.02
amu.

 Energy of nuclear reaction

Nuclear reactions, like chemical reactions, involve changes of energy. However,
the changes of energy in nuclear reactions are enormous by comparison with those in
chemical reactions. The energy released by certain nuclear reactions is used in nuclear
power reactors and to provide the energy for nuclear weapons.
When nuclei decay, they form products of lower energy. The change of energy is
related to changes of mass, according to the mass-energy equivalence relation derived
by Albert Einstein. The mass-energy equivalence is written as follow :
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
In this equation, c is the speed of light, 3.00 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. M is in kg, then E is in J because
1 𝐽 = 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 𝑠 −2 8
The meaning of this equation is that, for any mass there is an associated energy, or
for any energy there is an associated mass. If a system loses energy, it must also lose mass.

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

from Einstein’s theory of special relativity is that the mass of a particle changes with its
speed: the greater the speed, the greater the mass. Or, because kinetic energy depends on
speed, the greater the kinetic energy of a particle, the greater its mass.
For a nuclear reaction, the mass-energy equivalence is written as follow :
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
Where ∆m is the mass defect given as follows:

∆𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

𝑚 is the atomic mass of elements involved in the nuclear reaction. Then,

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 = (∑ 𝑚(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)) 𝑐 2

The energy of a nuclear reaction can be given as :

∆𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸𝑏 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝐸𝑏 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

Where 𝐸𝑏 is the bending energy of a nucleus.

Remark: The nuclear reaction is interpreted in term of atom. Therefore, the energy of the
235
following nuclear reaction 92U + 10𝑛 → 4 10𝑛 + 145 90
54Xe + 38Sr correspond to the energy
235 145
release when one atom of 𝑈 is bombard by one neutron and one atom of 𝑋𝑒, one
atom of 90𝑆𝑟 and four neutrons are produced
 Binding energy of a nucleus
The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy needed to break a nucleus into its
individual protons and neutrons.
Example : Thus, the binding energy of the helium-4 nucleus is the energy change for the
reaction :
4
2𝐻𝑒
2+
→ 2 11𝑝 + 2 10𝑛
𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
In this equation, ∆m is the mass defect of a nucleus and it can be approximate as the nucleon
mass minus the atomic mass.
∆m = (𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒 + Zmp + Nmn ) − 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 ≈ (Zmp + Nmn ) − 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 9

ne is the number of electron, me the mass of one electron, mp the mass of one proton and
mn the mass of one neutron and 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 the atomic mass of helium.

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa

 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 200

Then, the bending energy is given as follow:

𝐸𝑏 = [(𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒 + Zmp + Nmn ) − 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 ]𝑐 2 ≈ [(Zmp + Nmn ) − 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 ]𝑐 2
 Useful conversion factors
1 𝑎. 𝑚. 𝑢 = 1.6605 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 = 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
1 𝐽 = 6.242 × 1012 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Remark : Nuclear reactions can also be classified as :
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter
nuclei and energy is released.
In some cases, a nucleus can be induced to undergo fission by bombarding it with
neutrons. An example is the nuclear fission of uranium-235.
235
92U + 10𝑛 → 4 10𝑛 + 145 90
54Xe + 38Sr

Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which light nuclei combine to give a stabler,
heavier nucleus plus possibly several neutrons, and energy is released. Example :
2
1H + 31H → 10𝑛 + 42He

10

By Dr. JH NONO |MINE, NAHPI, UBa