Engineering Physics 1: Mechanics

Prepared by: Dr K. Govender, Mr R. Pentz and Dr A. Mabuda

June 5, 2020
ii

Introduction
These set of notes have been developed using the following text books:
Physics for scientist and engineers by Serway and Jewettt, 9 edition
These notes will be divide according to the various parts of Syllabus, namely: Me-
chanics, Waves and vibration, Electricity and magnetism, Thermodynamics, light
and optics, and Modern Physics. This first set of notes is for Mechanics. These
notes contain only the bare essentials of the course and you will need to read the
text book to obtain understanding of the subject. Also there are no worked exam-
ples in these notes. The worked examples are clearly done in the textbook. You
urged to get copy of the book. All tutorial and homework problems will be from
the textbook.
The physics lectures will provide you with skills in analysing a physical problem
and developing a solution. You will also cultivate new ways of thinking logically and
laterally.
In addition to the lectures there will be laboratory work to develop laboratory
skills in conducting experiments, making measurements and drawing conclusions.
The laboratory work will also complement the lectures. A separate manual for lab
work will be given to you.
Contents

1 Units and measurements 1

2 Motion in one dimension 5

2.1 Position, velocity and speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Average velocity and speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Constant velocity motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Average and instantaneous acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Constant acceleration motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Vectors 13
3.1 Coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Scalar and vector quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Properties of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Components of a vector and unit vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Motion in two dimensions 23

4.1 Position, velocity and acceleration vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Two dimension motion with constant acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Projectile motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Horizontal and maximum height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.5 Particle in uniform circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6 Tangential and radial acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.7 Relative velocity and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5 The laws of motion 35

5.1 Concept of a force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Newton’s first law and inertial frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

iii
iv CONTENTS

5.3 Newton’s second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.4 Gravitational force and weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5 Newton’s third law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6 Analysis model using Newton’s second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7 Force of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6 Circular motion and other application of Newton’s laws 45

6.1 Extending the particle motion in uniform circular motion . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Non-uniform circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 Motion in accelerated frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4 Motion in the presence of resistive medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7 Energy of a system 53
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Systems and environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3 Work done by a constant force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.4 Scalar product of two vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.5 Work done by a varying force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.6 Work done by a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.7 Kinetic energy and kinetic energy theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.8 Potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.9 Potential energy of a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.10 Conservative forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

8 Conservation of energy 65
8.1 Situation involving Kinetic friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

9 Linear momentum 69
9.1 Definition of linear momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.2 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.3 Collisions in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.4 Centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

10 Rotational dynamics 77
10.1 Angular position, velocity and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.2 Angular and translational quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.3 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
10.3.1 Vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
CONTENTS v

10.3.2 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.4 Motion under net torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.4.1 Parallel axis theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.5 Rotational kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.6 Rolling motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
vi CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Units and measurements

Physics is based on firstly experimental measurements, from which basic laws are
determined. These laws are further refined as new experiments are made.
Measurements that are made are related to physical quantities such as length,
mass, velocity etc. The laws of nature are then expressed as mathematical relation-
ship between these physical quantities. In mechanics the fundamental quantities are
length, mass and time. All other quantities can be stated in terms of these.
When reporting on measurements of physical quantities it is necessary to use a
system of units to specify the measurements based on some form of standard. In
modern science and engineering the SI (System International) system is used. Here
length, mass and time have units metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s). Other
SI units are Kelvin (K) for temperature, Ampere (A) for current etc.

Length
Length is the distance between two points in space. We can measure length using a
number of different units in the metric system, namely, millimetre (mm), centimetre
(cm) and meter (m). However the SI unit is the metre (m). In the laboratory it is
more often convenient to make measurements in mm or cm and then convert to m
at the end when writing a report.
Note the following conversions

1 m = 1000 mm

1 m = 100 cm

1
2 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

1 mm = 0.001 m
1 cm = 0.01 m

Mass
The SI unit for mass is kilogram (kg), but gram (g) and milligram (mg) are used
initially in the laboratory.
1 kg = 1000 g
1 kg = 1000000 mg

1 g = 0.001 kg = 10−3 kg
1 mg = 0.000001 kg = 10−6 kg

Time
The SI unit for time is second (s).
Note also the following conversions:

1 min = 60 s
1 hours = 60 min = 3600 s
1 ms = 10−3 s
1 µs = 10−6 s

Dimensional analysis
Dimension refers to the physical nature of a measurement. In mechanics the physical
nature that is important are length, mass and time. The dimension of these will
be denoted by L, M and T. Let x represents a measurement of a physical quantity
or a variable to describe a physical quantity. Then another way of denoting the
dimension of this measurement of variable is by [x].
For example:
x could represent the distance between two points, then [x]=L.
 3

v= ∆x
∆t
represents speed, then[v]= TL .
a= ∆v
∆t
represents acceleration, then[a]= TL2 .

When writing out equations the dimensions of the LHS must match the dimen-
sions on the RHS of the equation. For example consider the equation x = 12 at2 .
Then
[x] = [a][t2 ]
L 2
L= T =L
T2
On the other hand let say we did not know the exact relation between x, a and
t. We can determine this relation (up to a proportional constant) using dimensional
analysis as follows:
Let

x ∝ an tm
Then

[x] = [an tm ]
[x] = [an ][tm ]
Ln m
L= T
T 2n
L = Ln T m−2n
By comparing LHS and RHS we require n=1 and m-2n=0. Solving for m gives m=2.
Thus

x ∝ at2

Significant figures
When computing calculations it is important keep in mind the number of digits after
the decimal point to retain. For most engineering practise it generally acceptable
to round of to three digits after the decimal point.
When making measurements, the accuracy with which measurements are made
will depend on the instrument used, resulting in significant figures. This will be
covered in the lab work.
4 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Chapter 2

Motion in one dimension

In this chapter we will discuss the motion of objects moving in a straight line. The
study of motion of object without concern for what is causing the motion is called
kinematics. We will treat all objects in kinematics as point-like particles. We will
now define and discuss various concepts needed to analysis 1D motion.

2.1 Position, velocity and speed

Reference frame
When describing the motion of an object it is necessary to have a reference frame or
coordinate system, whereby its position with respect to the origin can be specified.
For now will consider only one dimension, say an x axis along the horizontal direction
parallel to the ground as shown in figure 2.1

−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40 x (cm)

Figure 2.1: One dimension coordinates system. The origin is some reference point

5
6 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Position
The position of an object, is its distance from the origin/reference point. Note that
this position can be positive or negative. If the object is moving then its position
will be changing with time. For example consider the position x of a car at various
times t:
Position t(s) x
A 0 30
B 10 52
C 20 38
D 30 0
E 40 -37
F 50 -53

Figure 2.2 shows a plot of x vs t, showing in more detail how the position of the car
may change with time.

Bb
x (m) 50
40 ∆x Cb

A 30b

∆t
20
10
D
0 b

t (s)
−10 0 10 20 30 40
−20
−30
b

−40 E
−50 Fb

Figure 2.2: Position versus time graph

2.2. INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED 7

Displacement
This is the change in position between two points on the x axis

∆x = xf − xi (2.1)

wherexi and xf are the initial and final positions. For example the displacement
between t=0 s and t=10 s is shown in figure 2.2 for the moving car example.
Displacement is an example of a vector; it has a magnitude as well as a sign +
or - to denote direction of change in position.

Distance
This is the total distance d travelled between an initial time ti and final time tf . It
is always positive. It is a scalar quantity.

2.1.1 Average velocity and speed

The average velocity is the change in position divided by the change in time
xf − xi ∆x
vx,avg = = (2.2)
tf − ti ∆t

where ti and tf are the initial and final times. Average velocity is a vector quantity.
The average speed is the total distance d that is travelled divided by the time
interval ∆t
d
vavg = (2.3)
∆t
This is a scalar quantity.

2.2 Instantaneous velocity and speed

This is defined by
∆x
vx = lim (2.4)
∆t→0 ∆t

Velocity is the slope of the tangent to the position vs time graph at a time t. It is
a vector quantity. The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of vx .
8 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Figure 2.3 shows the geometrical interpretation of average and instantaneous

velocity.The slope of the lines between B and C, and between B and D equals the
average velocity between these points. The instantaneous velocity at a particular
time, on the other hand, is the slope of the tangent to the x vs t graph at that
particular time.

B b
x (m) 50
40 Cb

A 30b

20
10
D
0 b

t (s)
−10 0 10 20 30 40
−20
−30
b

−40 E
−50 F
b

Figure 2.3: Graph of x versus t showing average velocity and instantaneous velocity.

{see examples 2.2 and 2.3}

2.3. CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION 9

2.3 Constant velocity motion

Consider now the case when the velocity is constant in time, i.e. v is same for all t

v (m/s)

vi

t (s)

Figure 2.4: Constant velocity versus time graph

Since vx = dx
dt
is the slope of the position-time graph and if vx = constant for all
time, then the position time graph will be a straight line whose slope is equal to vx .

x (m/s)

xi

t (s)

Figure 2.5: Position versus time graph for constant velocity

Here the average velocity will be the same as instantaneous velocity. Since
position vs time graph is a straight line we can write the equation for x

x = xi + vx t
10 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

{see examples 2.4}

2.4 Average and instantaneous acceleration

The average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the change in time
vf − vi ∆vx
ax,avg = = (2.5)
tf − ti ∆t

Average acceleration is a vector quantity.

The instantaneous acceleration is defined by

∆vx
ax = lim (2.6)
∆t→0 ∆t

Acceleration is the slope(gradient) of the tangent to the velocity vs time graph

at a time t. It is a vector quantity.

2.5 Constant acceleration motion

Now consider the case when the acceleration is constant in time as shown in figure
2.6
ax = constant

ax (m/s)

ax

t (s)

Figure 2.6: Acceleration versus time graph for constant acceleration

2.5. CONSTANT ACCELERATION MOTION 11

vx (m/s)

vxi

t (s)

Figure 2.7: Velocity versus time graph for constant acceleration

Then, similar to the case of constant velocity case, here the velocity-time graph
will be a straight line with a slope equal to acceleration (see figure 2.7). We can
write an equation for vx
vxf = vxi + ax t (2.7)
where vxi is the initial velocity at time t = 0 and ax is the slope of the graph.
Because the velocity varies linearly with time we can write the average velocity as
vxf + vxi
vx,avg =
2
i.e. the arithmetic mean of the velocity between initial and final values.
vx +vx
Now using ∆x = xf − xi , vx,avg = ∆x ∆t
and vx,avg = f 2 i we can write an
equation for the position
∆x = vx,avg t

1
xf − xi = (vxi + vxf )t
2
1
xf = xi + (vxi + vxf )t (2.8)
2
Using vxf = vxi + ax t and the above equation gives

1
xf = xi + vxi t + ax t2 (2.9)
2
12 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

vxf −vxi
Using ax = tf −ti
with t = 0 and tf = t and solving with t gives

vxf − vxi
ax =
tf − ti

Substitute this in the formula for xf gives

vx2f = vx2i + 2ax (xf − xi ) (2.10)

Note that when ax = 0 we get the constant velocity equations

vxf = vxi = vx

xf = xi + vx t
{See examples 2.7, 2.8 and 2.10 }
Chapter 3

Vectors

3.1 Coordinate system

In dealing with motion in two dimensions we will need to specify position in two di-
mension. For this it is necessary to use a system of two axes which are perpendicular
to each other, called a Cartesian coordinate system, as shown in figure 3.1.
Any point, call it P, within this system is represented by a pair of numbers (x, y).
The distance from the origin to the point P is
p
r = x2 + y 2
Another way of representing the point P is using the distance r and the angle θ
(called polar coordinates) where
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
and
y
tan θ =
x
{See example 3.1.}

3.2 Scalar and vector quantities

A scalar quantity is any quantity specified by a single number and a unit. It has no
direction. Examples of scalars are: distance, temperature, mass , energy, potential
etc.

13
14 CHAPTER 3. VECTORS

y (m)

P
30 (x, y)

20 r

10
θ
0
−30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 x (m)
−10

−20

−30

Figure 3.1: Two dimensional coordinate systems.

A vector quantity is a quantity requiring two numbers to specify it, such as a

magnitude and its unit, plus a direction. We will also see that we can represent
vectors in terms of its x and y components using a coordinate system.
Examples of vectors: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric and mag-
netic fields, etc.

Representation of vectors
Vectors are represented graphically by an arrow (figure 3.2), whose length denotes
its magnitude and, its direction, the direction of the physical quantity. Symbolically
we will use letters with an arrow above it to denote a vector, eg A ~
The magnitude of A ~ will be denoted by A without the arrow above.
3.3. PROPERTIES OF VECTORS 15

~
A

Figure 3.2: Geometrical representation of a vector.

3.3 Properties of vectors

Equality of vectors
~ and B
Two vectors A ~ are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction, i.e.
~ = direction of B
A = B and the direction of A ~

Adding vectors
Consider two vectors as shown below

~
B
~
A

Figure 3.3: Geometrical addition of vectors.

We can add the vectors A ~ and B~ geometrically by placing the tail of vector B~ at
~ and the resultant R
the head of vector A ~ will be the vector from the tail of the first
~
vector A to the head of the second vector B, ~ as shown in figure 3.4. The drawing
must be done to scale for this to be correct
The negative of a vector is a vector whose direction has been reversed, but its
magnitude remains the same. and A ~ + (−A)
~ =0

Subtracting vectors
~ − B,
Consider A ~ this can be written as A
~ + (−B).
~ i.e first reverse the direction of
~ then add to A.
B, ~ This is shown graphically in figure 3.5.
16 CHAPTER 3. VECTORS

Figure 3.4: Geometrical addition of vectors.

Scalar multiplication of a vectors

Given a vector A~ and a scalar number m, then mA
~ is a vector whose magnitude is
~
scaled by the number m, but whose direction remains the same as A.
3.4. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR AND UNIT VECTORS 17

~
A

Figure 3.5: Geometrical subtraction of vectors.

3.4 Components of a vector and unit vectors

By using a rectangular coordinate system we can also represent a vector in terms of
components or the projection onto the x and y axis.
Consider a vector A~ as shown in figure 3.6
~
Then A can be expressed as the sum of two vectors A ~ x and A
~ y , i.e.

~=A
A ~x + A
~y

~ x is the projection of A
A ~ along the x axis. A ~ y is the projection of A
~ along the y
axis.
The magnitudes of A ~ x and A
~ y are given by

Ax = A cos θ

Ay = A cos θ
where the angle θ is the angle measured counter-clockwise from the positive x axis
~ and
to A, q
A = A2x + A2y
18 CHAPTER 3. VECTORS

~
A
~y
A

~x
A

Figure 3.6: Components of a vector.

Ay
θ = tan−1
Ax
~ can be positive
While the magnitude A is always positive, the components of A
~ lies in.
or negative depending on which quadrant the vector A

unit vectors
A unit vector is a vector that has unit magnitude. Unit vectors that lie along the x
and y axes (and z axis in case of 3D system) have special symbols:
î is a unit vector along the x -axis ĵ is a unit vector along the y -axis k̂ is a unit
vector along the z -axis
3.4. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR AND UNIT VECTORS 19

y (m)

ĵ

î x (m)

Figure 3.7: Unit vectors.

|î| = 1
|ĵ| = 1
|k̂| = 1
where |.| denotes magnitude of a vector.
Coming back to vector A~ in 2D; A~ can be written in terms of unit vectors as
~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ
A
Note again the Ax andAy can be positive or negative.
A special vector is the position vector ~r, that specifies the position of an object.
consider an object located at coordinates (x, y). Then its position vector is
~r = xî + y ĵ
20 CHAPTER 3. VECTORS

y (m)

30 (x, y)

20 ~r

10
θ
0
−30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 x (m)
−10

−20

−30

Figure 3.8: Position vector.

Adding vectors using components

Let
~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ
A
and
~ = Bx î + By ĵ
B
Then
~ =A
R ~ +B
~

= (Ax î + Ay ĵ) + (Bx î + By ĵ)

= (Ax + Bx )î + (Ay + By )ĵ
3.4. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR AND UNIT VECTORS 21

i.e. you simply add their components

Rx = Ax + Bx

Ry = Ay + By
and
~ = Rx î + Ry ĵ
R
q
R = Rx2 + Ry2
q
= (Ax + Bx )2 + (Ay + By )2
The extension to 3D is straight forward see text book.
{Study examples 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5.}
22 CHAPTER 3. VECTORS
Chapter 4

Motion in two dimensions

4.1 Position, velocity and acceleration vectors

Consider now an object moving in two dimensions over some curved path as shown
in figure 4.1. We will need two coordinates, x and y to specify its position.

y (m)
50

40 b b

b b

30 b

20 ~r

10 b

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x (m)

Figure 4.1: Motion in two dimensions

We will use the position vector ~r to denote its position relative to the origin of
a coordinate system. Let ~ri be the position vector at ti and ~rf the position vector
at tf

23
24 CHAPTER 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

~r = xî + y ĵ
Then the change in position between time ti and tf is

∆~r = ~rf − ~ri (4.1)

In component form
∆~r = (xf − xi )î + (yf − yi )ĵ
The average velocity is
∆~r
~vavg = (4.2)
∆t
~vavg has the same direction as ∆~r. Figure 4.2 shows the calculation of ~vavg for
various ∆t values. In the limit has ∆t approaches zero the direction of ~vavg become
tangential to the path and equals the direction of the instantaneous velocity.
∆~r d~r
~v = lim = (4.3)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

y (m)
50
B
40 A
b
b

30 B’
b b

~r
20
B”
10 b

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x (m)

Figure 4.2: Illustration of average and instantaneous velocity calculation.

Let the instantaneous velocity at time ti be ~vi and velocity at time tf be ~vf , then
the average acceleration is defined by
∆~v ~vf − ~vi
~aavg = = (4.4)
∆t tf − ti
4.2. TWO DIMENSION MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 25

In the limit as ∆t approaches zero we get the instantaneous acceleration.

∆~v d~v
~a = lim = (4.5)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
In component form the instantaneous velocity and acceleration are:
dx dy
~v = î + ĵ
dt dt
dvx dvy
~a = î + ĵ
dt dt

4.2 Two dimension motion with constant acceler-

ation
Constant acceleration means that the magnitude as well as the direction of acceler-
ation remains unchanged. The motion in 2D can be modelled as two independent
motion in each of the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes.
That is, any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction
and vice versa.
Let the position of the particle be ~r

~r = xî + y ĵ

The variables x and y will change with time, î and ĵ will remain constant.
Then
d~r dx dy
~v = = î + ĵ
dt dt dt
= vx î + vy ĵ
Now if ~a = ax î + ay ĵ is constant, then ax and ay will be constant in time. Then
from our 1D analysis we can write the following equations for velocity:

vxf = vxi + ax t

vyf = vyi + ay t
In vector form
~vf = (vxi + ax t)î + (vyi + ay t)ĵ
26 CHAPTER 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

= (vxi î + vyi ĵ) + (ax î + +ay ĵ)t

~vf = ~vi + ~at (4.6)
Similarly we can write the equations for the coordinates x and y
1
xf = xi + vxi t + ax t2
2
1
yf = yi + vyi t + ay t2
2
Therefore
1
~rf = ~ri + ~vi t + ~at2 (4.7)
2
where ~ri and ~vi are the initial position and velocity. {See example 4.1 }

4.3 Projectile motion

We will now exam 2D motion, where the x-axis is in the horizontal plane and the
y-axis lies in the vertical plane. This is an example of an object moving under the
influence of gravity, such as when you throw a ball upwards in a direction θ with
respect to the horizontal, as shown in figure 4.3

y (m)
50 b

40

30

20

10 ~vi
vyi
b b

vxi
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x (m)

Figure 4.3: Projectile motion.

4.3. PROJECTILE MOTION 27

Here
~a = ~g = 0î − g ĵ
and

1
~rf = ~ri + ~vi t + ~g t2
2
where
vxi = vi cos θ

vyi = vi sin θ
The term ~vi t is the change in position if the object was moving with constant
velocity, without acceleration, and 12 ~at2 is the distance the ball falls due to gravity.
If the there were no gravity the ball would be at point A, but ends up at point B in
figure 4.4

y (m)
b

vyi t
1
a t2
2 y

b b

x (m)

Figure 4.4: Projectile motion

Since there is no acceleration in the x-direction we can write

vx = vxi

xf = xi + vxi t
28 CHAPTER 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

In the y-direction we have from our 1D analysis for motion under constant ac-
celeration
vy = vyi − gt
vyi + vyf
vy,avg =
2
1
yf = yi + (vyi + vyf )t
2
1
yf = yi + vyi t − gt2
2
vy2f = vy2i − 2g(yf − yi )

4.4 Horizontal and maximum height

y (m) A
b

h
vi

θ
B
b b

x (m)
R

Figure 4.5: Horizontal range and maximum height.

Consider a ball launched at ti = 0 from the origin with a speed vi , at an angle θ

with respect to the horizontal, as shown in figure 4.5. Also assume the initial and
final points of the path lie at the same horizontal level. Lets derive formulas for
maximum height h reached by the ball and the horizontal distance R where the ball
strikes the ground.
4.4. HORIZONTAL AND MAXIMUM HEIGHT 29

The following points are worth noting: the path followed is a parabola, and is
symmetric about the vertical line passing through point (A) of maximum height.
The coordinates of A are (R/2, h). The velocity at A is tangential to the path and
is horizontal, thus vy = 0.
Lets work out the time tA taken to reach A.

vyf = vyi − gt

At A we have 0 = vi sin θ − gtA Thus

vi sin θ
tA =
g

We can now find h as follows:

1
yf = yi + vyi t − gt2
2
 2
vi sin θ 1 vi sin θ
h = 0 + vi sin θ − g
g 2 g

vi2 sin2 θ
h= (4.8)
2g
Now the time taken to go from the origin to point A is tA , and the time taken from
A to B will also be tA . Therefore

R = xf = xi + vxi t
 
vi sin θ
R = 0 + vi cos θ 2
g

sin 2θ
R = vi2 (4.9)
g
So for a given initial vi what value of θ should be used to obtain a maximum
range?
{Study examples 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 }
30 CHAPTER 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

4.5 Particle in uniform circular motion

Here we consider an object moving in a circle in the horizontal plane (for now) with
a constant speed v. While its speed is constant its direction is constantly changing.
There it has acceleration.
We will analyse this motion to define angular speed, period of rotation and
derive a formula for the acceleration. We will show that the acceleration is always
perpendicular to the path and is directed towards the centre. Consider the vectors
for two time instance ti and tf as shown in figure 4.6.

~vi

∆~r ~vf

~ri ~rf

∆θ

Figure 4.6: Uniform circular motion.

Note that vi = vf = v, but their directions differ.

vf = ~vi + ∆~v
We have two triangles from figure 4.6 These triangle are similar!
4.5. PARTICLE IN UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 31

∆~r

~vi
~ri ~rf ∆θ ∆~v
~vf
∆θ

Figure 4.7: Vector triangles from figure 4.6.

What is the condition for two triangles to be consider similar?

Now the ratio of any two sides of these similar triangle must be equal. Therefore
consider
|∆~v | |∆~r|
=
v r
|∆~r|
|∆~v| = v
r
Thus
|∆~v| v |∆~r|
|~aavg | = =
∆t r ∆t
In the limit ∆t → 0 we get
v2
ac = (4.10)
r
This is called centripetal (centre seeking) acceleration, therefore the subscript c.
Time for the object to complete one revolution, called the period, is
total distance
T =
speed
2πr
T =
v
The angular speed is the number of radians covered in unit time
2π
ω=
T
32 CHAPTER 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

v
= 2π
2πr
v
ω= (4.11)
r
We can also write ac in terms of ω and v

(rω)2
ac =
r

ac = rω 2 (4.12)

4.6 Tangential and radial acceleration

A more general case is when a particle is moving on a curved path and its speed
is changing. In this case there will be two components to the acceleration, a radial
component (in the direction of the radius to the path) and a component tangential
to the path.
~a = ~ar + ~at

x(m) ~at
40 b b

30 ~a

20 ~ar
~ar ~a
10 b b

~at

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 x(m)

Figure 4.8: Tangential and radial acceleration

d|~v|
at =
dt
4.7. RELATIVE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 33

v2
ar = −ac = −
r
and q
|a = a2r + a2t
Note the ar is the acceleration in the direction of increasing r. Since centripetal accel-
eration points to the centre of curvature, it is opposite to radial direction Therefore
the minus sign in the above
{Study example 4.7}

4.7 Relative velocity and acceleration

Consider two observers A, stationary with respect to the ground, and B in a moving
car. Both observers measure the position, velocity and acceleration of a moving
object P. A measures with respect to a coordinates fixed to the ground, while B
measures with respect to a coordinate system that is moving with the car at velocity
vBA relative to observer A. This is shown in figure 4.9.
~rP A is the position of the object relative to A’s frame of reference.
~rP B is the position of the object relative to B’s frame of reference.
~rBA is the position of the origin of B’s reference relative to A’s frame of reference.

By vector rules
~rP A = ~rP B + ~rBA
= ~rP B + ~vBA t
The velocity of P relative to A is related to the velocity of P relative to B according
to
d~rP A d~rP B
uP A = = + ~vBA
dt dt
~uP A = ~uP B + ~vBA (4.13)
Differentiating the previous equation gives the relationship between the various
accelerations
d~uP A d~uP B ~vBA
= +
dt dt dt
If ~vBA is a constant then d~vdtBA = 0 and
~aP A = ~aP B
Thus the acceleration seen by both observers is the same.
{Study example 4.8}
34 CHAPTER 4. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

B Object
P

A
~rP B
~rP A

~rBA

Figure 4.9: Relative motion

Chapter 5

The laws of motion

In this chapter we will investigated what causes objects to move. We will introduce
the concept of force, and Newton’s laws of motion, followed by applications of these
laws.

5.1 Concept of a force

Force is a form of interaction between bodies. It can be in the form of contact
or act over a distance. Examples of contact forces are: kicking a ball, pulling a
drawer, pushing a car, etc. Forces that act over a distance are field forces, such as
gravitational forces, electromagnetic forces and nuclear strong and weak forces.
Force is a vector quantity, it has magnitude as well as direction. If multiple
forces act on an object, then the net force acting on it is a vector sum of all forces.
A spring scale can be used as a simple device to measure force. The elongation
of a spring is directly proportional to the force.

5.2 Newton’s first law and inertial frames

Inertial frame
Important in this discussion is the concept of an inertial frame. An inertial frame is a
set of coordinates axes that is fairly isolated that it does not interact with anything.
It is non accelerating and non rotating.
Another way of stating this is, if we have an object that is free of any interaction
from other objects, then there must be reference frame in which our object is at

35
36 CHAPTER 5. THE LAWS OF MOTION

∆x

F~
F ∝ ∆x
F = k∆x Hook’s Law

Figure 5.1: Spring force

rest.
A practical statement of the first law is: In the absence of any external forces
and when viewed from an inertial reference frame, an object at rest will remain at
rest, and an object that is in motion continues in motion with constant velocity.
The body will resist any attempt to alter its state of motion. This tendency to
resist changes in state of motion is called inertia.
Using the first law force is defined as that which caused a change in motion of
an object.

Mass
Mass is that property of an object that specifies how much resistance it offers to
changes in its velocity. The greater the mass the less it accelerates when subject to
a given force compared to a smaller mass.
Suppose a force F~ acting on a mass m1 produces an acceleration ~a1 and F~ acting
on mass m=m2 produces an acceleration ~a2 . Then the ratio of the two masses is
defined to be equal to the inverse ration of their accelerations
m1 a2
=
m2 a1
The above definition is motivated by experiments.
NB Mass should not be confused with weight. Mass is a scalar quantity, while weight
is mass ×g and is a vector quantity.
5.3. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW 37

5.3 Newton’s second law

When viewed from an inertial frame, the acceleration of an object is directly pro-
portional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass, that
is, the acceleration is given by
F~
P
~a =
m
If we choose the constant of proportionality to be 1, then

F~
P
~a =
m
NB Note the m~a is NOT a force. (See pitfall note.)
In component form Newton’s second law is

F~x = m~ax
X

F~y = m~ay
X

F~z = m~az
X

SI unit of force is newton(N)

1 N = 1 kg.ms−2

{see example 5.1 }

5.4 Gravitational force and weight

Gravitation force is the force exerted on a mass m by gravity

F~g = m~g

and the magnitude of the gravitational force

F = mg

is referred to as the weight.

38 CHAPTER 5. THE LAWS OF MOTION

5.5 Newton’s third law

If two objects interact, the force F~12 exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the force F~21 exerted by object 2 on object
1.
F~12 = −F~21
NB Note the action and reaction forces act on different bodies.

Normal force
Consider an object( a computer monitor) of mass m resting on a table as shown in
figure 5.2 The object is stationary but yet there is a force of gravity acting on the
object. But Newton’s law tells us that since the acceleration is zero the net force
acting on m has to be zero. There has to be an upward force to balance the force
of gravity. This is the normal force, ~n exerted by the table on the object.

Figure 5.2: Normal force

Force diagram and free body diagrams

When applying Newton’s second law it is helpful to use force diagrams and free
body diagrams. Force diagrams are simply the drawings of the physical situation
5.6. ANALYSIS MODEL USING NEWTON’S SECOND LAW 39

with forces shown, while free body diagrams are force diagrams but the objects of
interests are represented by point particles.
Lets analyse this situation shown in figure 5.2 more carefully by drawing all the
forces involved and drawing a free body diagram for the mass m.

~n = F~tm
~n = F~tm ~n = F~tm

F~g = F~mt F~g = F~Em F~g = F~Em F~g = F~Em

F~ = F~mE

Figure 5.3: Force diagrams and free body diagrams.

F~g is the force of gravity on the object.

~n is the force exerted by the table on the object.

F~g + ~n = 0

~n = F~g

(See pitfall note.) { See example in textbook.}

Note that ~n and F~g are equal in magnitude and oppositely directed but they are
NOT action reaction pair! Why not?

5.6 Analysis model using Newton’s second law

We will neglect friction , rotation, masses of strings etc.
40 CHAPTER 5. THE LAWS OF MOTION

Particle in equilibrium
Here the particle has zero acceleration. Therefore the vector sum of all forces must
add to zero.
F~ = 0
X

or in component form
F~x = 0, F~y = 0, F~z = 0
X X X

As an example consider a lamp hanging from light chain which is attached to

the ceiling. The lamp is stationary, therefore
F~ = 0
X

The free body diagram for the lamp is shown in figure 5.4

T~

F~g

Figure 5.4: Lamp hanging from ceiling (left) and freebody diagram (right).

F~g is the weight of the lamp and T~ is the tension in the chain.
F~g = −Fg ĵ
T~ = T ĵ
Thus
(T − Fg )ĵ = 0
(T − Fg ) = 0
(T = Fg )
F~g and T~ are not reaction pair.
5.6. ANALYSIS MODEL USING NEWTON’S SECOND LAW 41

Particle under a net force

Consider a crate of mass m being pulled horizontally with force T~ on a frictionless
surface as shown in figure 5.5

~n ~n

T~ T~

F~g F~g

Figure 5.5: Crate pulled on a frictionless surface.

The forces are

F~g = −Fg ĵ
T~ = T î
~n = nĵ
Now there is no movement in y direction so that we can write the acceleration vector
as
~a = ax î + 0ĵ
Now apply Newton’s second law

F~ = m~a
X

to get
T î − Fg ĵ + nĵ = max î
T î + (n − Fg )ĵ = max î
Equating components
T = max
42 CHAPTER 5. THE LAWS OF MOTION

n − Fg = 0
Thus
T
ax =
m
n = Fg
{Study examples 5.4 to 5.10}

5.7 Force of friction

This the contact force between two rough surfaces. When the objects try to slide
past each other it feels a resisting force due to the roughness. There are two type
of friction forces,namely static and kinetic friction.
Initially when the objects are stationary and a small force is applied there is
small friction force that resists any motion and the objects remain stationary. This
friction force is called static friction. As the applied force is increased the static
friction forces increases proportionally, until a point is reached when the objects
starts to slide. When the objects slide the friction force is lower and is called kinetic
friction. The variation of the friction force is shown in figure 5.6
The maximum static friction is fs = µs n The kinetic friction force of fk = µk n,
where n is the magnitude of the normal force exerted by the floor and µs and µk are
constants called the coefficients of static and kinetic friction, respectively.
5.7. FORCE OF FRICTION 43

|f~|

fs,max
F
=
fs

applied force F
static region kinetic region

Figure 5.6: friction

44 CHAPTER 5. THE LAWS OF MOTION
Chapter 6

Circular motion and other

application of Newton’s laws

In this chapter we will examine circular motion in more detail by including Newton’s
laws of motion.

6.1 Extending the particle motion in uniform cir-

cular motion
Recall from the previous work, a particle moving with constant speed v in a circle
of radius r will experience an acceleration ~a, where

v2
ac =
r
This acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle and ~a is always perpen-
dicular to ~v.
Consider an object(puck) attached to string of length r. The other end of the
string is attached to a peg on a horizontal table. The object moves on a bed of air
cushion (i.e. the table is frictionless,) in a circle in the horizontal plane as shown in
figure 6.1.
If there was no string attached to the object, the object would move in a straight
line in the horizontal plane. But it is attached to the string which forces it to move
in a circle. Since it is not moving in a straight line there has to be net force F~
causing it change direction as it moves. This force can only be due to the string.

45
46CHAPTER 6. CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW

~n

T~
F~g

plan view side view

Figure 6.1: Object moving in a circle on a frictionless table.

Thus by Newton’s second law we must have

F~ = m~a

v2
F = mac = m
r
This force will be the tension in the string.
If the string should snap, then the object will move in a straight line thereafter
in the same direction as the velocity vector at the instant the string snaps.
{Study example 6.1 to 6.5}

6.2 Non-uniform circular motion

Here we consider circular motion where the speed is not constant and is changing
with position. There will be both radial and tangential acceleration components.
Therefore there will be both radial and tangential forces. The radial and tangential
forces and acceleration components will also change with position.
The total acceleration will be

~a = ~ar + ~at
6.3. MOTION IN ACCELERATED FRAMES 47

and the total force will be

F~ = F~r + F~t
X

P~
F~r F

F~t

Figure 6.2: Non-uniform circular motion.

{Study example 6.6}

6.3 Motion in accelerated frames

This section will be done qualitatively in class by your lecturer.

6.4 Motion in the presence of resistive medium

In the discussion so far we ignored any resistance to the motion through which the
object is moving. Examples of resistive forces are air resistance and viscous forces
48CHAPTER 6. CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW

due to objects moving in a liquid.

The medium will exert a force R~ that opposes the motion, and may depend on
a number of factors. The resistive force is in the opposite direction to the motion
relative to the medium.

Model 1: Resistive force proportional to object velocity

~ = −b~v
R
where b is a constant that depends on the medium and on the properties of the
object, and ~v is the velocity of the object relative to the medium.
Consider a small sphere of mass m released from rest in a liquid.

~
R
y

~v

m~g

Figure 6.3: Object released from rest in liquid.

Choose a coordinate system as shown in figure 6.3, where positive y is upwards.

6.4. MOTION IN THE PRESENCE OF RESISTIVE MEDIUM 49

(This contrary to the way the book does it.) Then the velocity will be

~v = vy ĵ

Since the object is moving downwards the signs of vy will be negative to indicate
this. The force of gravity on the object is

F~g = m~g = −mg ĵ

The acceleration of the object will.

~a = ay ĵ

The resistive force will be

~ = −b~v = −bvy ĵ
R
Now apply Newton’s second law to the object to get

F~ = m~a
X

−mg − bvy = may

dividing by m and rearranging gives
b
ay = −g − vy (6.1)
m

dvy b
= −g − vy
dt m
This is called a differential equation, it contains the variable vy and its derivative. In
this course we will not go about solving differential equations, until you have cover
these in maths courses.
Let examine this equation from another perspective. The acceleration in this case
will not be ~g , but will decrease as the objects gain speed until a point is reached
when the acceleration will be zero. By setting the left hand side of equation 6.1 to
zero we can find the velocity at which the acceleration becomes zero.
gm
vyT = − (6.2)
b
This velocity is called the terminal velocity
50CHAPTER 6. CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW

Model 2: Resistive force proportional to speed squared

Applies to large objects moving through air.
1
R = DρAv 2
2
D is a dimensionless empirical quantity called coefficient of drag. It can be as small
as 0.2 for spherical objects, but can as great as 2 for irregular shaped objects. ρ is
the density of air. A is the cross sectional area of the moving object.
Consider an object falling through air

~
R ~
R

~v ~v

m~g m~g

Termminal speed

Figure 6.4: Forces on object falling through air.

The relevant vectors are

~ = 1 DρAv 2 ĵ
R y
2
F~g = m~g = −mg ĵ
6.4. MOTION IN THE PRESENCE OF RESISTIVE MEDIUM 51

~a = ay ĵ

F~ = m~a
X

gives
1
−mg + DρAvy2 = may
2
1
ay = −g + DρAvy2
2
and the Terminal speed is r
2mg
vyT =
DρA
52CHAPTER 6. CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW
Chapter 7

Energy of a system

7.1 Introduction
In this chapter will examine motion using the concept energy. We will see that some
times provides an easier approach to solving problems.

7.2 Systems and environments

A system is a small part of the universe, which we are directly interested in. The
rest of the universe is regarded as the environment. We can imagine an imaginary
boundary or surface separating the system from the environment. There maybe
interaction between the system and the environment.

7.3 Work done by a constant force

Consider a force F~ acting on an object as shown in figure 7.1 The object undergoes
a displacement ∆~x. The work done by the force F~ is defined to be

W ≡ F ∆x cos θ (7.1)

work is a scalar and it has the units of N.m which is also given a special name the
joule (J). The above formula tells us the work is the product of the component of
F~ along the displacement, F cos θ and the displacement ∆x. Note that while work
is a scalar, it depends on two vector quantities F~ and ∆~x and they appears in the

53
54 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

F~
∆θ
∆x

Figure 7.1:

formula for work by their magnitudes F and ∆x and the angle θ between them.
Note that W can be positive or negative depending on the sign of cos θ.
{Study examples in textbook. }

7.4 Scalar product of two vectors

~ and B
Consider two vectors A ~ as shown below in figure 7.2. One type of multipli-
cation that can be done with these vectors is called a scalar product and is define
as
A~•B ~ = AB cos θ (7.2)
~ and B,
where θ is the angle between A ~ drawn so that their tails are touching.
Comparing the above formula for the scalar product and the formula for work
we can see that
W ≡ F~ • ∆~x (7.3)
Note the following about scalar products:
~ •B
A ~ =B
~ •A~
 
~• B
A ~ +C~ =A~•B~ +A
~ •C
~

~ is perpendicular to B
If A ~ then A
~ •B
~ = 0 If A
~ is antiparallel to B
~ then A
~ •B
~ =
−AB
7.4. SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS 55

~
A

~
B

Figure 7.2:

The unit vectors satisfy the following

î • î = 1

ĵ • ĵ = 1
k̂ • k̂ = 1
and
î • ĵ = 0
î • k̂ = 0
ĵ • k̂ = 0
In terms of unit vectors
~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
A

~ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
B
and
~•B
A ~ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

and
~•A
A ~ = A2 + A2 + A2
x y z

{Study examples in textbook. }

56 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

7.5 Work done by a varying force

When the force F~ varies in magnitude or direction as the objects moves, then the
formula given in equation 7.1 cannot be used as it is, because that formula applies
only when F~ is constant over the displacement ∆~r. We will need to modify the
formula to cater for varying force over large displacements.
Let us derive a formula for the work done by a force varying along the x direction.
Consider a force Fx acting on the x direction on an object, that varies with position
as shown in figure 7.3

Fx
F

xi x xf x

∆x

Figure 7.3: Graph of force versus displacement shown a varying force.

To determine the total work done between xi and xf , we divide the interval from
xi to xf into many small intervals ∆x wide. We then assume that over each ∆x
the force is approximately constant and equal to the value at the centre of each
subinterval. Over a single subinterval ∆x the work done is
∆W = Fx ∆x
The total work done in moving from xi to xf is
xf
X
W ≈ Fx ∆x
xi
7.6. WORK DONE BY A SPRING 57

P Now we take´ the limit ∆x → 0, then we replace ∆x by dx and the summation

changes to
ˆ xf
W = lim Fx ∆x = Fx dx (7.4)
∆x→0 xi

= area under force versus displacment graph

{Study examples in textbook. }

7.6 Work done by a spring

The external force required to stretch a linear spring a distance x from its un-
stretched state is
Fext = kx
where k is a constant of proportionality. This is called Hooke’s law. The spring in
turn exerts a force
Fs = −kx
in the opposite direction. Figure 7.4 shows a spring with one attached to a rigid
wall and the other end subjected to an external force. Take an origin where x = 0
corresponds to the position of the right end of the spring. When the spring is stretch,
x > 0 the external force points to the right, while the spring force points to the left.
When the spring is compressed, x < 0 the external force points to the left, while
the spring force points to the rights.
Consider now an object attached to the right end of the spring (see 7.5). The
object is pulled to the right to a position xi and then released. The spring now will
pull the object towards the left. Let’s determine the work done by the spring in
changing its length from an initial length xi to a final length xf , as shown in the
figure. The force versus displacement graph is shown in figure 7.5
The work is equal to the area under the graph from xf to xi . By simply geometry
we get
1 1
W = − kx2f + kx2i
2 2
If you know how to integrate we can derive this as follows:
ˆ xf
W = F dx′
xi
58 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

x<0 x=0 x>0

F~s
F~ext

spring force =zero

F~ext

F~s

Figure 7.4: Extension/compression of a spring by an external force.

7.6. WORK DONE BY A SPRING 59
ˆ xf
= −kx′ dx′
xi

1 1
W = − kx2f + kx2i
2 2
{Study examples in textbook. }
60 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

x=0 xf xi

F~s

Fs

xf xi

Figure 7.5: Work done by spring in moving object from xi to xf .

7.7. KINETIC ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY THEOREM 61

7.7 Kinetic energy and kinetic energy theorem

Consider a force F~ moving an object a distance ∆x, from an initial velocity ~vi to a
final velocity ~vf

F~
∆x
~vi ~vf

Figure 7.6: Object moving a distance ∆x, from an initial velocity ~vi to a final
velocity ~vf .

The work done by the force is

ˆ xf
W = F dx′
xi
ˆ xf
= madx′
xi
xf
dv ′ ′
ˆ
= m dx
xi dt
xf
dv ′ dx′ ′
ˆ
= m dx
xi dx′ dt
ˆ vf
= mdv ′ v ′
vi
ˆ vf
= mv ′ dv ′
vi

1 1
= mvf2 − mvi2
2 2
1 2
The quantity 2 mv is defined to be the kinetic energy K. Thus the work done
goes to changing the kinetic energy of the object.
62 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY OF A SYSTEM

W = Kf − Ki = ∆K
{study examples in textbook. }

7.8 Potential energy

Now let’s derive the work done in moving an object through the earth’s gravitational
field from some height yi to yf by an applied force Fa equal an opposite to the
gravitational force. ˆ yf
W = F dy ′
yi
ˆ yf
= mgdy ′
yi
= mgyf − mgyi
The quantity mgy is defined to be the gravitational potential energy U. Thus the
work done in this case goes to changing the potential energy of the object.
{study examples in textbook. }

7.9 Potential energy of a spring

Consider an external force stretching a spring, having a spring constant k, from a
length xi to a length xf . The work done by this force is
1 1
= kx2f − kx2i
2 2
The quantity 21 kx2 is defined to be the elastic potential energy. Thus the work done
in this case goes to changing the potential energy stored in the spring.
{study examples in textbook. }

7.10 Conservative forces

These are force with the following properties:
1. The work done by these forces depend only on the initial and final positions
and not the path followed.
7.10. CONSERVATIVE FORCES 63

2. The work done in moving through a closed loop is zero. A closed loop is a
path where the initial and final positions are the same.

Conservative forces are related to the potential energy as follows

dU dU dU
Fx = − , Fy = − , Fz = −
dx dy dz
e.g.
For gravity
U = mgy
therefore
dU
Fg = −
dy
= −mg

For a spring
1
U = kx2
2
Therefore
dU
Fs = −
dx
= −kx
64 CHAPTER 7. ENERGY OF A SYSTEM
Chapter 8

Conservation of energy

In this chapter we will learn about one of the first conservation laws in physics,
which is the conservation of total energy. The word conservation means to remain
unchanged or constant. Energy can be transformed from one form to another, but
the total energy of an isolated system will remain constant.
An isolated system is a system that does not interact with anything external
to itself. There maybe interactions internally. Thus for an isolated system the
conservation of energy says

K + U + Eint = constant (8.1)

where K is the total kinetic energy of the system, U is the total potential energy
of the system and Eint is the internal energy. The internal energy refers to energy
stored in the system. The internal energy can take many forms but a typical example
is heat energy.
Consider an isolated system, that changes from a state A to another state B by
itself. The total energy of state A must be equal to that of state B, i.e.
KA + UB + Eint, A = KB + UB + Eint, B (8.2)
which can be rearranged to
(KB − KA ) + (UB − UB ) + (Eint, B − Eint, A ) = 0 (8.3)
or
∆K + ∆U + ∆Eint = 0 (8.4)
Now let’s consider a system that does interact in some way with something
external to itself, that is heat may flow in/out of the system, or work maybe done

65
66 CHAPTER 8. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

on/by the system. The system then is not isolated. For non-isolated system the
energy conservation changes to

∆K + ∆U + ∆Eint = Q + W (8.5)

where Q is the heat entering or leaving the system. If Q is positive we consider that
to be heat entering, and if Q is negative heat is leaving the system. W is the work
done on/by the system. If W is positive we consider that to be work done on the
system by the environment, and if W is negative work is done by system on the
environment.
Let us examine a few cases involving equations 8.4 and 8.5

Isolated system
Consider a book of mass m, falling from a height yi to a height yf under the influence
of gravity.

yi

yf

Figure 8.1:

Lets take the system to be the book and the earth. This is an isolated system, if
we assume any other interactions from outside the book-earth system is negligible.
No heat enters/leave and no work done on/by the system, therefore Q = 0 and W =
0. The internal energy of the book or the earth does not change, so ∆Eint = 0.Thus
the conservation of energy gives

∆K + ∆U = 0
 67

or

(Kf − Ki ) + (Uf − Ui ) = 0
which gives

Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui

1 2 1
mvf + mgyf = mvi2 + mgyi (8.6)
2 2
If the book is released from rest then vi = 0 and if yi and yf are known, we can
find the velocity at the position yf

1 2
mv = mg(yi − yf )
2 f
q
vf = 2g(yi − yf )

Note that in this problem we took the ground as our reference for the y-coordinate.
But we could have chosen any point as our reference for the y coordinate and still
get the same answer. Try it. Use the initial position of the book as your origin.

Non-isolated system
Lets examine the previous problem by treating the system as only the book. Then
there is no changes to its potential energy ∆U = 0. Its internal energy remains
the same ∆Eint = 0. The book interacts with the earth via the gravitational field.
Gravity does work on the book. So energy conservation gives

∆K = W
1 2 1 2
mv − mv = W
2 f 2 i
1 2 1 2
mv − mv = −mg(yf − yi )
2 f 2 i
Thus we get the same equation as previously for the isolated system.
{Study examples in textbook}
68 CHAPTER 8. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

8.1 Situation involving Kinetic friction

Kinetic friction between two surfaces causes heating of the surface. It is due to the
work done by the friction force fk . This heat goes towards increasing the internal
energy of the system, i.e. ∆Eint = fk d, if the friction force acts over a distance d.
The conservation of energy will be

∆K + ∆U + fk d = Q + W (8.7)

where W is any other work done on the system.

Chapter 9

Linear momentum

9.1 Definition of linear momentum

Linear momentum is define to be:

~p = m~v (9.1)
In 3D this gives three equations
px = mvx
py = mvy
pz = mvz
Consider Newton’s second law again

F~ = m~a
d~v
F~ = m
dt
Now if m is a constant, we can take it inside the derivative sign
dm~v
F~ =
dt
which gives
d~p
F~ = (9.2)
dt
which states that force is equal to the rate of change of linear momentum.

69
70 CHAPTER 9. LINEAR MOMENTUM

Now if the net force on a system is zero then the left hand side of equation 9.2 is
zero giving d~
p
dt
= 0. This implies that p~ must be equal to a constant. This is the
conservation of momentum:
If the net force on an isolated system is zero then the total momen-
tum of the system is constant.
The total momentum is constant but various particles within the system may change
its momentum.

9.2 Collisions
We will now examine collision between two bodies, each of mass m1 and m2 . The aim
will be to determine the motion of the bodies after collision given their parameters
(masses, initial velocities and directions) before collision.

There are two types of collisions, namely, elastic collisions and inelastic collisions.
In all type of collisions momentum is ALWAYS conserved.

Elastic collisions are collisions where the momentum and kinetic energy is conserved,
i.e. the momentum and kinetic energy before collision is equal to momentum and
kinetic energy after collision.

In inelastic collisions ONLY momentum is conserved.

Perfectly inelastic collision

A collision is called perfectly inelastic when the masses after collision stick to-
gether and move as one object with mass (m1 + m2 ).

v1i v2i vf

before collision after collision

Figure 9.1: Head-on inelastic collision.

9.2. COLLISIONS 71

Applying momentum conservation we get

m1~v1i + m2~v2i = (m1 + m2 )~vf

Thus
m1~v1i + m2~v2i
~vf =
m1 + m2

Elastic collision
Consider two masses colliding head on as shown below. The motion of the masses
before and after collisions will all be in the same straight line. Therefore we can
always arrange our coordinate system so that one of the axes lines up with the
direction of motion. Masses moving to the right will be taken as positive and
those moving to the left will be taken as negative. After collision each mass could
move either to the right or left depending on momentum conservation. We need to
determine the direction of motion of each mass.

v1i v2i v1f v2f

before collision after collision

Figure 9.2: Head-on elastic collision.

Applying momentum and energy conservation before and after collision gives

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f
2 2 2 2
Assuming that the initial velocities are known we can use the above equations
to find the final velocities of each mass.

Exercise 9.1. Using the equations above show that

m1 − m2 2m2
v1f = v1i + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
72 CHAPTER 9. LINEAR MOMENTUM

2m1 m2 − m1
v2f = v1i + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
[See textbook for derivation.]

{Study examples in textbook.}

9.3 Collisions in 2D
In the case when the collision is not head-on the motion of the masses before and
after collision will not lie on a straight line as shown in figure 9.3. The masses after
collision can move in any direction as long as the momentum is conserved. Here the
collision can be either elastic or inelastic.

v1f
v1i

v2i
v2f

before collision after collision

Figure 9.3: Oblique collision.

Momentum conservation will result in two equations, one for the x direction and
one for the y direction.
X X
~pbef ore = ~paf ter
X X
px, bef ore = px, af ter
X X
py, bef ore = py, af ter
9.4. CENTRE OF MASS 73

For two particle collision these equations gives

m1 v1xi + m2 v2xi = m1 v1xf + m2 v2xf

m1 v1yi + m2 v2yi = m1 v1yf + m2 v2yf

and if kinetic energy is conserved this would give one more equation:
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
m1 (v1xi + v1yi ) + m2 (v2xi + v2yi ) = m1 (v1xf + v1yf ) + m2 (v2xf + v2yf )
2 2 2 2
{study examples in textbook.}

9.4 Centre of mass

When dealing with the motion of large macroscopic objects, the centre of mass is the
point we track and we can imagine all the mass is concentrated at that point. The
object moves as if the external forces are acting at that point. This is the particle
model we adopted in kinematics.
The object (or system for that matter) may also be made up of a number of par-
ticles. Consider a system made up of two particles m1 and m2 , located at positions
~r1 and ~r2 respectively. The centre of mass lie somewhere along the line joining these
masses. The position of the centre of mass (CM) is denoted by ~rCM .
y
m2

~r2

~rCM
m1
~r2
x

Figure 9.4: Centre of mass for a two particle system.

We can find ~rCM as follows:

74 CHAPTER 9. LINEAR MOMENTUM

m1~r1 + m2~r2
~rCM = (9.3)
m1 + m2
or
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xCM = (9.4)
m1 + m2
m1 y1 + m2 y2
yCM = (9.5)
m1 + m2
For a system containing many particles
P
mi~ri
~rCM = Pi (9.6)
i mi

or P
mi xi
xCM = Pi (9.7)
i mi
P
mi yi
yCM = Pi (9.8)
i mi

If we have an extended object we can find its centre of mass by dividing the
object into tiny elements of mass ∆mi with position ~ri and applying the previous
formulas and letting ∆mi → 0
P
i mi xi 1
ˆ
xCM = lim = xdm (9.9)
∆mi →0 M M v
P
mi yi 1
ˆ
i
yCM = lim = ydm (9.10)
∆mi →0 M M v

For objects that are regular and symmetrical in shape, the centre of mass will
lie at the geometrical centre of the object. For example a uniform rod of length L
and mass M will have its centre of mass at its geometrical centre.[See example in
textbook]
If the rod is placed on the x axis with one end at the origin and the other end
at x = L, its centre of mass will be at

xCM = L/2

yCM =0
9.4. CENTRE OF MASS 75

If the rod is placed on the x axis with one end at the x = −L/2 and the other end
at x = L/2, its centre of mass will be at

xCM = 0

yCM =0
But the CM will still be at centre of the rod.
76 CHAPTER 9. LINEAR MOMENTUM
Chapter 10

Rotational dynamics

10.1 Angular position, velocity and acceleration

We will analyse angular motion initially without concern for what is causing the
motion, like we did in the study of linear motion.
Consider a particle moving in a circle about the origin.

r s
θ

Figure 10.1: Circular motion of a particle.

The angular position with respect to the positive x-axis, θ, is related to the arc

77
78 CHAPTER 10. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

length s and radius r by

s
θ= (10.1)
r
As the particle moves θ will increase. The rate of increase of θ is called the angular
velocity, ω
dθ
ω= (10.2)
dt
and the rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration, α
dω
α= (10.3)
dt
We can make a correspondence between linear motion and angular motion as
follows:
θ ↔ x, y
ω↔v
α↔a
Thus we can use all the equations from linear motion with the above change in
variables as follows:
ωf = ωi + αt (10.4)
1
θf = θi + ωi t + αt2 (10.5)
2
2 2
ωf = ωi + 2α(θf − θi ) (10.6)
1
θf = θi + (ωi + ωf )t (10.7)
2
The above equations apply to constant angular acceleration.

10.2 Angular and translational quantities

Consider the particle moving in a circle again.
Its linear (tangential) speed is
ds
v=
dt
and
s
θ=
r
10.2. ANGULAR AND TRANSLATIONAL QUANTITIES 79

y
~v

~r
θ

Figure 10.2: Circular motion of a particle.

Taking the derivative on both sides of the above with respect to time gives
 
d  s  1 ds v
ω= = =
dt r r dt r
Thus
v = ωr (10.8)
Its linear(tangential) acceleration is
dv
at = (10.9)
dt
and the angular acceleration is is therefore
dω d v a
α= = =
dt dt r r
where a in the above is the tangential acceleration and we can write, from the above,
at = αr (10.10)
The centripetal acceleration is
v2
ac = = ω2r (10.11)
r
80 CHAPTER 10. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

10.3 Torque
Before we discuss torque lets introduce another mathematical vector operation.

10.3.1 Vector product

Another type of multiplication that can be done with vectors is called the vector
product and is defined as follows:
Given two vectors
A~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
and
~ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
B
~ and B
the vector product of A ~ is defined as
î ĵ k̂
~ =A
C ~ ×B
~ = Ax Ay Az (10.12)
Bx By Bz
= î (Ay Bz − Az By ) − ĵ (Ax Bz − Az Bx ) + k̂ (Ax By − Ay Bx )
The magnitude of C ~ is
C = AB sin θ (10.13)
where θ is the angle between A ~ and B ~ drawn so that their tails are touching (similar
to the case of the scalar product).
Note the following about vector products:
~×B
A ~ = −B ~ ×A~
 
~× B
A ~ +C ~ =A ~×B ~ +A ~×C ~
~ is parallel or antiparallel to B
If A ~ then A
~ ×B
~ =0
The unit vectors satisfy the following
î × î = 0
ĵ × ĵ = 0
k̂ × k̂ = 0
and
î × ĵ = k̂
î × k̂ = −ĵ
ĵ × k̂ = î
10.4. MOTION UNDER NET TORQUE 81

10.3.2 Torque
Consider a force acting on a lever as shown.

y
F~

O
θ x
~r

Figure 10.3: Rotational force action of a force.

The force F~ acting on the lever will cause it to rotate clock wise about the point
labelled O. Thus there is twisting force acting on it. This angular or twisting force
is called torque.
Mathematically torque is defined by

τ = ~r × F~ (10.14)
where ~r is the position of application of the force relative to some point. This point
need not lie on the object. We can choose this point at will as we desire. F~ is the
vector force.
The magnitude of the torque is

τ = rF sin θ (10.15)

10.4 Motion under net torque

Here we want to know what is equivalent of Newtons second law for rotational
motion. We can simply state it and just use it.
82 CHAPTER 10. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

The net torque acting on system or object is proportional to its angular acceler-
ation.
X
~τ = Iα (10.16)
The constant of proportionality I is called the moment of inertia of the object.
To calculate I lets look at the particle going around a circle and acted on by a
tangential force F~t . The Newton’s law for the tangential motion gives

Ft = mat
Multiply both sides by r
Ft r = (mat )r
since the force is at right angle to the position vector, we can write the above
equation as
Ft r sin 90 = (mat )r
which is same as
τ = (mαr)r
τ = (mr 2 )α
τ = Iα
Thus for a point particle the moment of inertia about the origin is
I = mr 2 (10.17)
To find I for an extended object we divide the object into tiny mass elements
∆mi each at position ~ri from the origin and then sum up the contribution to I by
each mass elements. Then take the limit as ∆mi → 0
ˆ
I = lim ∆mi ri = r 2 dm
2
(10.18)
∆mi →0

10.4.1 Parallel axis theorem

If we are given the moment of inertia of an object about its centre of mass, ICM ,
then the moment of inertia of about another axis which is parallel to the axis passing
through the centre mass and displaced from it by a distance d, is

I = ICM + Md2 (10.19)

The moment of inertia of some common shape are shown below.
10.5. ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY 83

1
Icm = 12
ML2 I = Icm + Md2 = 31 ML2

solid rod, lenght L

d = L/2

Icm = 25 MR2 I = Icm + Md2 = 57 MR2

d=R
solid sphere, radius R

Icm = 12 MR2 I = Icm + Md2 = 23 MR2

d=R
solid cylinder, radius R, lenght L

Figure 10.4: Moment of inertia of common objects about an axis passing though
their CM and an axis parallel to it. M is the total mass of each object.

10.5 Rotational kinetic energy

From linear motion we can, by analogy without deriving, quote the following:
the kinetic energy for rotational motion is given by

1
KR = Iω 2
2
84 CHAPTER 10. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

The work energy theorem for rotational motion then would be

ˆ ωf
1 1
W = Iωdω = Iωf2 − Iωi2
ωi 2 2

work done by a torque is

W = τ ∆θ, constant torque

ˆ
W = τ dθ, varying torque

we have all the ingredients now to study motion involving both linear as well as
rotational motion when subjected to net forces and net torques.
The centre of mass moves according to:

F~ = maCM
X

and the rotational dynamics about its centre of mass is described by

X
~τ = I α
~

The total kinetic energy is

1 2 1
K = m~vCM + ICM ω 2
2 2

10.6 Rolling motion

Consider a cylinder rolling on flat horizontal surface without slipping. Let say its
angular velocity is ω.
We want to know what its velocity of the centre of mass and position of the
centre of mass as a function of time. Note that relative to the surface, the point
in contact with the surface is stationary and relative to the surface the cylinder is
rotating about this point. So the centre of mass moves a distance

s = Rθ

Therefore the translational velocity of the centre of mass is

ds dθ
vCM = = R = Rω
dt dt
10.6. ROLLING MOTION 85

θ
R
s

s = Rθ

Figure 10.5: Cylinder rolling (without slipping) on a horizontal surface.

and the translational(linear) acceleration of the centre of mass is

dvCM
aCM = = Rα
dt
The total kinetic energy is
1 2 1
K = m~vCM + ICM ω 2
2 2
Consider now a sphere of radius R and mass M rolling down an inclined plane
due to gravity. Lets work out the linear speed of the centre of mass as a function of
distance along the plane.
Lets solve this using two methods.

Method 1: Conservation of energy

Treating the sphere and the earth as the system, the total energy must be constant.

Ktotal + U = constant

Ktotal,at top + Utop = Ktotal,at any point x + Uat any point x

1 2 1 2
0 + 0 = Mvcm + ICM ωcm − mgh
2 2
86 CHAPTER 10. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

h
θ x

mg
θ

Figure 10.6: Sphere rolling (without slipping) down an inclined plane due to gravity.

1 2 1  v 2
CM
0 + 0 = Mvcm + ICM − mgh
2 2 R cm
2
 2 !
vcm 1
0= M + ICM − Mgh
2 R cm
s
2Mgh
vCM =
M + ICM /R2
s
2gh
vCM =
1 + ICM /MR2

Method 2: Rotational equivalent of Newton’s 2nd Law

The rotational equivalent of Newton’s 2nd Law is

τ = Iα
The torque acting on sphere about the point of contact with the plane is

τ = Mg sin θR

therefore
Mg sin θR = Iα
10.6. ROLLING MOTION 87

Solving for α gives

Mg sin θR
α=
I
Using the following equations
ω = ωi + αt
at = αR
1
x = xi + vi t + at2
2
with xi = 0 and vi = 0 we are left with
1
x = at2
2
1
x = αRt2
2
Thus the time to reach a a position x is
r
2x
t=
αR
s
2x
= M g sin θR
I
R
Now use α and t derived above to find ω

ω = αt
s
Mg sin θR 2xI
=
I MgR2 sin θ
r
2Mgx sin θ
=
I
solving for v gives
r
2Mgh
v=R
I
Now to work out I. Using the parallel axis theorem

I = Icm + MR2
88 CHAPTER 10. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

the velocity of the centre of mass becomes

s
2gh
vcm =
I/MR2
s
2gh
=
I + ICM /MR2