UNIT 1 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity

Outcomes:
1. Calculate limits for function values and apply limit properties with and without technology
2. Remove removable discontinuities by extending or modifying a function
3. Apply the properties of algebraic combinations and composites of continuous functions
4. Identify the intervals upon which a given function is continuous and understand the
meaning of a continuous function
5. Understand the development of the slope of a tangent line from the slope of a secant line
6. Find the equations of the tangent line and normal lines at a given point

Lesson 3: Continuity
Continuity at a Point
Any function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) whose graph can be sketched in one continuous motion without
lifting the pencil is an example of a continuous function.
Because of the heavy use of discontinuous functions in computer science, statistics, and
mathematical modeling, the issue of continuity has become one of practical as well as
theoretical importance.

=𝟏

=𝟏

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟐

Page 1 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

To define continuity at a point in a function’s domain, we need to define continuity at an
interior point (which involves a two-sided limit) and continuity at an endpoint (which
involves a one-sided limit).

Continuity at points a,
b, and c for a function
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) that is
continuous on the
interval [a, b].

If a function 𝑓 is not continuous at a point 𝑐, we say that 𝑓 is discontinuous at c and c is

a point of discontinuity of 𝑓 . Note that 𝑐 need not be in the domain of 𝑓.

At x=1.5, f(x)=f(1.5)=1
Left Lim f(x)=1
Right Lim f(x)=1

Page 2 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

 f(0) =1
Left Lim f(x)=1 f(0) =undefined
Right Lim f(x)=1 Left Lim f(x)=1
Right Lim f(x)=1

(a) is continuous at x= 0 (b) is discontinuous at x=0

(b) would be continuous if it had f (0) = 1

f(0) =2
Left Lim f(x)=1
Right Lim f(x)=1

f(0) =1
Left Lim f(x)=0
Right Lim f(x)=1

(c) is discontinuous at x = 0
(d) is discontinuous at x=0
(c) would be continuous if f (0) were 1 instead of 2
f(0) =undefined
Left Lim f(x)=0
Right Lim f(x)= 0
f(0) =undefined
Left Lim f(x)=∞
Right Lim f(x)= ∞

(e) is discontinuous at x=0 (f) is discontinuous at x=0

Page 3 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

Intuitive Notion of Continuity (Calculus 3rd Edition by Strauss, Bradley, & Smith)

(𝒄, 𝒇(𝒄) )

Continuity of a Function at a Point:

A function f is continuous at a point x=c if the following three conditions are satisfied:
(1) 𝑓(𝑐) is defined; (2)𝑔𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠; (3)lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
A function that is not continuous at c is said to have discontinuity at that point.

Page 4 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

To simplify the meaning of continuity using the equation of Kelley (2006), we have

Continuous = limit exists + function defined

This means that to ensure that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐, the following three
conditions must be met:
1) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1
𝑥→𝑐

1.1 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1 Left-hand Limit

𝑥→𝑐
1.2 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1 Right-hand Limit
𝑥→𝑐

2) 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝐿2
3) 𝐿1 = 𝐿2

Considering the aforementioned conditions, we can certainly claim that tangent,

cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are not continuous because of the following
reasons:
1. Their graphs contain vertical asymptotes, which make these functions to lack
function values at the vertical asymptotes. That is, values of the functions are
indeterminate (not defined) when x-values are equal to the vertical asymptotes.
2. When x-values approach vertical asymptotes from the left or from the right, the
limits are infinite limits, which are not considered real numbers.

However, the aforementioned trigonometric functions are continuous over its entire
domain (and that excludes restricted x values that refer to vertical asymptotes)

Factor both the numerator and denominator.

(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑓(𝑥) = .
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
Findings based on the previous Precalc12 Lesson on Rational Functions:
1. The graph of f(x) is the curve in solid line.

2. The Domain is {𝑥 /𝑥 ≠ −3, 3; 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}.

3. There is a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = −3, which we can call a POLE.

4. There is a point of discontinuity at 𝑥 = 3, specifically at a HOLE (𝑥, 𝑦) =

(𝑥+1)(𝑥+2) (3+1)(3+2) 20 10
(3, reduced f(x)) = (3, 𝑥+3
) = (3, 3+3
) = (3, 6 ) = (3, 3 ).

Page 5 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

In calculus,
1. The restrictions in the domain, which is based on the linear factors of the
denominator, tell when or where 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous. In this example, 𝑓(𝑥)
is discontinuous at 𝑥 = −3 and at 𝑥 = 3.
2. With 𝑓(𝑥) having a HOLE or point of discontinuity at 𝑥 = 3, this
discontinuity is REMOVABLE. The discontinuity is removed by extending
the original f(x) into a piecewise-defined function, such as follows:
𝑥 3 −7𝑥−6
Extended 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ −3
𝑥 2 −9
10
;𝑥 = 3
3

Page 6 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

 3. Since 𝑓(𝑥) is indeterminate at 𝑥 = −3, considering that 𝑥 = −3 is a vertical
asymptote, the discontinuity of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = −3 is classified as POLE and NOT
REMOVABLE because redefining a finite number of points will NOT REMOVE
the discontinuity. Hence, f(x) is nonremovably discontinuous at x=-3.
Reminder (Keeley, 2006):
• Only discontinuities formed by HOLES are REMOVABLE.
• Discontinuities formed by JUMPS and POLES are NOT REMOVABLE.
• HOLE discontinuities are REMOVABLE.
• JUMP discontinuities are NOT REMOVABLE.
• POLE discontinuities are NOT REMOVABLE
• POLE discontinuities are also called INFINITE discontinuities.
• HOLE discontinuities are also called POINT discontinuities.

Example:
1. Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)below,
1.1 Identify the x-values at which 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous, and classify each instance of
discontinuity as hole, jump, or pole.
1.2 Categorize identified discontinuity as removable or not removable.
1.3 If it is removable, write a rule to be added to extend 𝑓(𝑥)

Discontinuity at KIND For extended 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 = −2 Pole Not Removable
𝑓(0) = 1, so
𝑥=0 Hole Removable
• 𝑦 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑥=2 Pole Not Removable
𝑥=3 Jump Not Removable

2. Given the piecewise-defined function 𝑓(𝑥) defined below, identify any value(s) of 𝑥 at
which 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous and describe the discontinuity exhibited.
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 3 − 12, 𝑥>2
Solution:
Because both polynomial functions in f(x) are continuous over their entire domains,
which consist all the real numbers, the only location at which 𝑓(𝑥) could be
discontinuous is 𝑥 = 2.

Page 7 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

 To solve this problem, we need to do the following:
2.1 Evaluate 𝑓(2)
𝑓(2) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 22 − 5(2) + 3 = 4 − 10 + 3 = −3
𝟐. 𝟐 Evaluate the general limit lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2
• Left-hand Limit:
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 22 − 5(2) + 3 = 4 − 10 + 3 = −𝟑
𝑥→2
• Right-hand Limit:
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 12 = 23 − 12 = 8 − 12 = −𝟒
𝑥→2
• Because lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥), then the general limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2.3 Tell whether 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous or discontinuous. If discontinuous, describe the
discontinuity.
• Because lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist, 𝑓(2) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥). This shows that 𝑓(𝑥) has a
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
nonremovable jump discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2.

3. Determine the value of c that makes the piecewise-defined function g(x) everywhere
continuous.

√2𝑥 − 𝑐, 𝑥 < 0
𝑔(𝑥) =
3𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Solution:
Because the radical and quadratic functions in g(x) are continuous over their entire
domains, the only location at which 𝑔(𝑥) may be discontinuous is at 𝑥 = 0.
For 𝑔(𝑥) to be continuous everywhere, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(0). But notice that 𝑔(0) uses the
𝑥→0
same equation when getting the right-hand limit. Hence, 𝑔(0) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑔(𝑥). Hence, we
𝑥→0
only need to solve for 𝑔(0) and 𝑙𝑖𝑚− 𝑔(𝑥) or left-hand limit.
𝑥→0

• 2 2
𝑔(0) = 3𝑥 + 1 = 3(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→0
• 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚− √2𝑥 − 𝑐 = √2(0) − 𝑐 = √−𝑐
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

Hence, we have to equate the results of lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(0). That is, √−𝑐 = 1.
𝑥→0
Solving for c, we have:
2
√−𝑐 = 1 ⟹ (√−𝑐) = (1)2 ⟹ −𝑐 = 1 ⟹ −1(−𝑐) = −1(1) ⟹ 𝑐 = −1
Therefore, for g(x) to be continuous everywhere in their domains, 𝑐 = −1.

Page 8 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

4. At what value(s) of x is the greatest integer function (also called step function or floor
function), 𝑦 = ⟦𝑥⟧, discontinuous?
Solution:
The greatest integer function, whose graph is shown on the next page, outputs the
greatest integer (y-value) that is less than or equal to the input (x-value). Hence,

1
⟦6.8⟧ = 6 ⟦2 ⟧ = 2 ⟦−1.3⟧ = −2 ⟦−3⟧ = −3
3
Observe that the outputs are all greatest integers that are less than or equal to the inputs.
This is the reason that solid dots bound on the left side and hollow dots bound on the right
side of the segments that make up the graph of the greatest integer function.

Though 𝑦 = ⟦𝑥⟧ is defined for all real numbers, at each integer j, lim− ⟦𝑥⟧ ≠ lim+ ⟦𝑥⟧.
𝑥→𝑗 𝑥→𝑗

Specifically, ( lim−⟦𝑥⟧) + 1 = lim+⟦𝑥⟧. Because a general limit does not exist at its integer
𝑥→𝑗 𝑥→𝑗
in its domain, 𝑦 = ⟦𝑥⟧ is discontinuous at those values. We call these discontinuities at
the integers JUMP discontinuities.
5. Calculate the value of 𝑘 that makes the piecewise-defined function ℎ(𝜃) continuous
𝜋 𝜋
over the interval (− 2 , 2 ).
𝜋
2(tan 𝜃 + 1), 𝜃 ≤ −
ℎ(𝜃) = 4
𝜋
tan(𝑘𝜃 − 1) , 𝜃 > −
4
Solution:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Note that − 4 is a point within the domain interval (− 2 , 2 ) that ℎ(𝜃) can be
𝜋
discontinuous. Since 2(tan 𝜃 + 1) is the rule when 𝜃 ≤ − 4 , 2(tan 𝜃 + 1) must be used to
𝜋 𝜋
solve for ℎ (− 4 ) and lim𝜋 − ℎ(𝜃) . Hence, ℎ (− 4 ) = lim𝜋 − ℎ(𝜃). Of course, we may
𝜃→(− ) 𝜃→(− )
4 4

𝜋
only need to solve for ℎ (− 4 ) if we want to solve for lim𝜋 − ℎ(𝜃). In order to solve for 𝑘
𝜃→(− )
4
𝜋
that will make ℎ(𝜃) to be continuous at 𝜃 = − 4 , we have to equate

lim𝜋 − ℎ(𝜃) and lim ℎ(𝜃).

𝜃→(− ) 𝜋 +
4 𝜃→(− )
4

Page 9 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

Hence,

lim𝜋 − ℎ(𝜃) = lim ℎ(𝜃)

𝜃→(− ) 𝜋 +
4 𝜃→(− )
4
𝜋 𝜋
⟹ 2 (tan (− ) + 1) = tan (𝑘 (− ) − 1)
4 4
𝜋 𝑘𝜋
⟹ 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) + 2 = tan (− − 1)
4 4
𝑘𝜋
⟹ 2(−1) + 2 = tan (− − 1)
4
𝑘𝜋
⟹ −2 + 2 = tan (− − 1)
4
𝑘𝜋
⟹ 0 = tan (− − 1)
4
𝑘𝜋
⟹ tan−1(0) = tan−1 [tan (− − 1)]
4
𝑘𝜋
⟹ 0=− −1
4
⟹ 0 = −𝑘𝜋 − 4
⟹ 𝑘𝜋 = −4
4
⟹ 𝑘=−
𝜋
4 𝜋 𝜋
Therefore, when 𝑘 = − 𝜋, ℎ(𝜃) is continuous over (− 2 , 2 ).

Page 10 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

FUNCTIONS CONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY
𝑓 is continuous at every real number
Linear none
c

𝑓 is continuous at every real number

Quadratic none
c

Absolute Value 𝑓 is continuous at every real number

none
𝑦 = |𝑥| c

𝑓 is continuous at every real number

Polynomial none
c
Radical
𝑛 𝑓 is continuous at every point in its
𝑦 = √𝑥; 𝑛𝜖ℤ+ 𝑥<0
domain, which is 𝑥 ≥ 0
> 1, 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Exponential 𝑓 is continuous at every
none
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥, 𝑏 > 1 real number 𝑐
Logarithmic 𝑓 is continuous at every point in its
𝑥≤0
domain, which is 𝑥 > 0

𝑓 is continuous at every real number

Sine none
c

𝑓 is continuous at every real number

Cosine none
c

𝑓 is continuous at every point in its

Tangent domain, which is

Rational 𝑓 is continuous at every point in its

𝑎 𝑥=ℎ
𝑦= +𝑘 domain, which is {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ ℎ, 𝑥𝜖𝑅}
𝑥−ℎ

Page 11 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

Composition Limit Rule:

If lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑓 is a function continuous at 𝐿, then lim 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝐿).

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

That is, lim 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝐿) = 𝑓(lim 𝑔(𝑥)).

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Proof:

lim(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = lim 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 [lim 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑐)] = (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Meaning:
The limit of a continuous function is the function of the limiting value. The continuous
composition property says that a continuous function of a continuous function is
continuous.

Page 12 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

 1

(0, ∞)

Page 13 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

EXAMPLE 3

Page 14 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

The continuity of 𝑓 on the interval is essential to Theorem 8. If 𝑓 is discontinuous at even
one point of the interval, the theorem’s conclusion may fail.
A Consequence for Graphing: Connectivity
Theorem 8 is the reason why the graph of a function continuous on an interval
cannot have any breaks. The graph will be connected, a single, unbroken curve, like the
graph of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥. It will not have jumps like those in the graph of the greatest integer function
1
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥, or separate branches like we see in the graph of 𝑥.
Most graphers can plot points (dot mode). Some can turn on pixels between
plotted points to suggest an unbroken curve (connected mode). For functions, the
connected format basically assumes that outputs vary continuously with inputs and do
not jump from one value to another without taking on all values in between.

Page 15 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

More Examples (Keeley, 2006):

1. Given a function f(x) that is continuous over the closed [𝑎, 𝑏]interval, what conclusions
can be drawn about 𝑑, if 𝑑 is a real number in the closed interval [𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓( 𝑏)]?
Solution:
According to the intermediate value theorem, there must exist a value 𝑐 in the closed
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑑.

2. Apply the intermediate value theorem to verify the following statement:

Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , there exists some number c on the interval [−1, 3] such
̅̅̅̅̅.
that 𝑓(𝑐) = 5.924318674
Solution:
Step 1: Ensuring that that f(x) is continuous on the given closed interval because that
is the only time that we can apply the intermediate value theorem.

In this case, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is a quadratic polynomial function whose domain is all real
numbers, so 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on any closed interval, including the interval
specified: [−1, 3].
Step 2: Evaluating 𝑓(𝑥) at the endpoints of the closed interval.
• 𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 = 1
• 𝑓( 3 ) = ( 3 )2 = 9
Step 3: Making a conclusion
For any real number 𝑑 in the interval [1, 9], the intermediate value theorem
guaranteed that there exists a value 𝑐 on [−1, 3] for which 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑑. Notice that the
relatively absurd number 5.924318674 ̅̅̅̅̅ falls on the interval [1, 9], so some value 𝑐
on the interval [−1, 3] exists such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 5.924318674 ̅̅̅̅̅.

Page 16 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

 (b,f(b))=(3, 9)

(c,f(c))=(x, d)=(c, 5.92...)

(b,f(b))=(1, 1)

3
3. Use the intermediate value theorem to prove that the number √20 exists and has a
value greater than 2 but less than 3.
Solution:
3
Note: This problem asks us to show that √20 is greater than 2 but less than 3, so we
have to prove that the endpoints don’t give us 20 when we plug them in to 𝑓(𝑥).
Step 1: Given the function f(x) that is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], any
number 𝑑 between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) has a corresponding value 𝑐 between 𝑎 and
𝑏 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑑, as required by the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Step 2: In this problem, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(2) = 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(3) = 27.
Thus, for any value d we choose in the interval [8, 27] (such as d=20), there exists
a corresponding c in the interval [2,3] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 20, which should be
3 3
𝑐 = √20. Because 𝑓(2) = 8 and 𝑓(3) = 27 (and neither of them equal 20), √20
actually belong to the interval (2, 3).

Page 17 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

4. Use the intermediate value theorem to prove that ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)2 − 7 has a root
between 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥 = 6.
Solution:
By solving for h(x) when 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥 = 6, we get ℎ(5) = −3 and ℎ(6) = 2.
It is clear that for the closed interval in the domain of h(x) we have [5, 6], which has
corresponding interval of the value of the function [ℎ(5), ℎ(6)] = [−3, 2].

The intermediate value theorem guarantees that 𝑑 = 0, which belongs to the interval
[−3, 2], will correspond to some c in the interval [5, 6] such that ℎ(𝑐) = 0. In other words,
there’s some value c between 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑥 = 6 that makes the function equal to zero, and
is therefore the root of the function.

Note that this problem does not ask you to find c—the intermediate value theorem is
an existence theorem that merely guarantees the existence of c but falls short of
actually identifying it.

(b,h(b))=(6, 2)

(c,d)=(c, 0)

(a,h(a))=(5, -3)

Page 18 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

NAME:___________________ CLASS: _____________ SCORE:____________

EXERCISE NO.3 CONTINUITY

A. Review on Finding Limits

lim ⟦𝑥⟧ = −2
𝑥→−1−

lim ⟦𝑥⟧ =
𝑥→−1+

Page 19 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

 −5
−5

−5

Page 20 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

Hello!

𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜! √

Page 21 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant

Page 22 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant
Page 23 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant
Page 24 Calculus 12 Unit 1 Chapter 1 Lesson 3 Merden C. Largo-Bryant