Using The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Using The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
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Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being “GNU General Public License”
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Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below). A copy of the license is included in the section
entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
(a) The FSF’s Front-Cover Text is:
A GNU Manual
(b) The FSF’s Back-Cover Text is:
You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies
published by the Free Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.
i
Short Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 Programming Languages Supported by GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Language Standards Supported by GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 GCC Command Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4 C Implementation-defined behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5 Extensions to the C Language Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6 Extensions to the C++ Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7 GNU Objective-C runtime features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8 Binary Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9 gcov—a Test Coverage Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
10 Known Causes of Trouble with GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11 Reporting Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12 How To Get Help with GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
13 Contributing to GCC Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Funding Free Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
The GNU Project and GNU/Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Contributors to GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Option Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Keyword Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
ii Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
iii
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction
This manual documents how to use the GNU compilers, as well as their features and incom-
patibilities, and how to report bugs. It corresponds to GCC version 3.4.4. The internals
of the GNU compilers, including how to port them to new targets and some information
about how to write front ends for new languages, are documented in a separate manual.
See section “Introduction” in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals.
2 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 1: Programming Languages Supported by GCC 3
standard also defines two environments for programs, a freestanding environment, required
of all implementations and which may not have library facilities beyond those required of
freestanding implementations, where the handling of program startup and termination are
implementation-defined, and a hosted environment, which is not required, in which all the
library facilities are provided and startup is through a function int main (void) or int
main (int, char *[]). An OS kernel would be a freestanding environment; a program
using the facilities of an operating system would normally be in a hosted implementation.
GCC aims towards being usable as a conforming freestanding implementation, or as the
compiler for a conforming hosted implementation. By default, it will act as the compiler for a
hosted implementation, defining __STDC_HOSTED__ as 1 and presuming that when the names
of ISO C functions are used, they have the semantics defined in the standard. To make it act
as a conforming freestanding implementation for a freestanding environment, use the option
‘-ffreestanding’; it will then define __STDC_HOSTED__ to 0 and not make assumptions
about the meanings of function names from the standard library, with exceptions noted
below. To build an OS kernel, you may well still need to make your own arrangements for
linking and startup. See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21.
GCC does not provide the library facilities required only of hosted implementations, nor
yet all the facilities required by C99 of freestanding implementations; to use the facilities
of a hosted environment, you will need to find them elsewhere (for example, in the GNU C
library). See Section 10.7 [Standard Libraries], page 339.
Most of the compiler support routines used by GCC are present in ‘libgcc’, but there
are a few exceptions. GCC requires the freestanding environment provide memcpy, memmove,
memset and memcmp. Some older ports of GCC are configured to use the BSD bcopy, bzero
and bcmp functions instead, but this is deprecated for new ports. Finally, if __builtin_
trap is used, and the target does not implement the trap pattern, then GCC will emit a
call to abort.
For references to Technical Corrigenda, Rationale documents and information concerning
the history of C that is available online, see http://gcc.gnu.org/readings.html
There is no formal written standard for Objective-C. The most authoritative manual is
“Object-Oriented Programming and the Objective-C Language”, available at a number of
web sites
• http://developer.apple.com/techpubs/macosx/Cocoa/ObjectiveC/ is a recent
version
• http://www.toodarkpark.org/computers/objc/ is an older example
• http://www.gnustep.org has additional useful information
There is no standard for treelang, which is a sample language front end for GCC. Its only
purpose is as a sample for people wishing to write a new language for GCC. The language
is documented in ‘gcc/treelang/treelang.texi’ which can be turned into info or HTML
format.
See section “About This Guide” in GNAT Reference Manual, for information on standard
conformance and compatibility of the Ada compiler.
See section “The GNU Fortran Language” in Using and Porting GNU Fortran, for details
of the Fortran language supported by GCC.
Chapter 2: Language Standards Supported by GCC 7
See section “Compatibility with the Java Platform” in GNU gcj, for details of compati-
bility between gcj and the Java Platform.
8 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 9
C Language Options
See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21.
-ansi -std=standard -aux-info filename
-fno-asm -fno-builtin -fno-builtin-function
-fhosted -ffreestanding -fms-extensions
-trigraphs -no-integrated-cpp -traditional -traditional-cpp
-fallow-single-precision -fcond-mismatch
-fsigned-bitfields -fsigned-char
-funsigned-bitfields -funsigned-char
-fwritable-strings
Warning Options
See Section 3.8 [Options to Request or Suppress Warnings], page 35.
-fsyntax-only -pedantic -pedantic-errors
-w -Wextra -Wall -Waggregate-return
-Wcast-align -Wcast-qual -Wchar-subscripts -Wcomment
-Wconversion -Wno-deprecated-declarations
-Wdisabled-optimization -Wno-div-by-zero -Wendif-labels
-Werror -Werror-implicit-function-declaration
-Wfloat-equal -Wformat -Wformat=2
-Wno-format-extra-args -Wformat-nonliteral
-Wformat-security -Wformat-y2k
-Wimplicit -Wimplicit-function-declaration -Wimplicit-int
-Wimport -Wno-import -Winit-self -Winline
-Wno-invalid-offsetof -Winvalid-pch
-Wlarger-than-len -Wlong-long
-Wmain -Wmissing-braces
-Wmissing-format-attribute -Wmissing-noreturn
-Wno-multichar -Wnonnull -Wpacked -Wpadded
-Wparentheses -Wpointer-arith -Wredundant-decls
-Wreturn-type -Wsequence-point -Wshadow
-Wsign-compare -Wstrict-aliasing
-Wswitch -Wswitch-default -Wswitch-enum
-Wsystem-headers -Wtrigraphs -Wundef -Wuninitialized
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 11
-Wunknown-pragmas -Wunreachable-code
-Wunused -Wunused-function -Wunused-label -Wunused-parameter
-Wunused-value -Wunused-variable -Wwrite-strings
Debugging Options
See Section 3.9 [Options for Debugging Your Program or GCC], page 49.
-dletters -dumpspecs -dumpmachine -dumpversion
-fdump-unnumbered -fdump-translation-unit[-n ]
-fdump-class-hierarchy[-n ]
-fdump-tree-original[-n ]
-fdump-tree-optimized[-n ]
-fdump-tree-inlined[-n ]
-feliminate-dwarf2-dups -feliminate-unused-debug-types
-feliminate-unused-debug-symbols -fmem-report -fprofile-arcs
-frandom-seed=string -fsched-verbose=n
-ftest-coverage -ftime-report
-g -glevel -gcoff -gdwarf-2
-ggdb -gstabs -gstabs+ -gvms -gxcoff -gxcoff+
-p -pg -print-file-name=library -print-libgcc-file-name
-print-multi-directory -print-multi-lib
-print-prog-name=program -print-search-dirs -Q
-save-temps -time
Optimization Options
See Section 3.10 [Options that Control Optimization], page 56.
-falign-functions=n -falign-jumps=n
-falign-labels=n -falign-loops=n
-fbranch-probabilities -fprofile-values -fvpt -fbranch-target-load-optimize
-fbranch-target-load-optimize2 -fcaller-saves -fcprop-registers
-fcse-follow-jumps -fcse-skip-blocks -fdata-sections
-fdelayed-branch -fdelete-null-pointer-checks
-fexpensive-optimizations -ffast-math -ffloat-store
-fforce-addr -fforce-mem -ffunction-sections
-fgcse -fgcse-lm -fgcse-sm -fgcse-las -floop-optimize
-fcrossjumping -fif-conversion -fif-conversion2
-finline-functions -finline-limit=n -fkeep-inline-functions
-fkeep-static-consts -fmerge-constants -fmerge-all-constants
-fmove-all-movables -fnew-ra -fno-branch-count-reg
-fno-default-inline -fno-defer-pop
-fno-function-cse -fno-guess-branch-probability
-fno-inline -fno-math-errno -fno-peephole -fno-peephole2
-funsafe-math-optimizations -ffinite-math-only
-fno-trapping-math -fno-zero-initialized-in-bss
-fomit-frame-pointer -foptimize-register-move
-foptimize-sibling-calls -fprefetch-loop-arrays
-fprofile-generate -fprofile-use
-freduce-all-givs -fregmove -frename-registers
-freorder-blocks -freorder-functions
-frerun-cse-after-loop -frerun-loop-opt
-frounding-math -fschedule-insns -fschedule-insns2
-fno-sched-interblock -fno-sched-spec -fsched-spec-load
-fsched-spec-load-dangerous
-fsched-stalled-insns=n -sched-stalled-insns-dep=n
12 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-fsched2-use-superblocks
-fsched2-use-traces -fsignaling-nans
-fsingle-precision-constant
-fstrength-reduce -fstrict-aliasing -ftracer -fthread-jumps
-funroll-all-loops -funroll-loops -fpeel-loops
-funswitch-loops -fold-unroll-loops -fold-unroll-all-loops
--param name =value -O -O0 -O1 -O2 -O3 -Os
Preprocessor Options
See Section 3.11 [Options Controlling the Preprocessor], page 77.
-Aquestion =answer
-A-question [=answer ]
-C -dD -dI -dM -dN
-Dmacro [=defn ] -E -H
-idirafter dir
-include file -imacros file
-iprefix file -iwithprefix dir
-iwithprefixbefore dir -isystem dir
-M -MM -MF -MG -MP -MQ -MT -nostdinc
-P -fworking-directory -remap
-trigraphs -undef -Umacro -Wp,option
-Xpreprocessor option
Assembler Option
See Section 3.12 [Passing Options to the Assembler], page 86.
-Wa,option -Xassembler option
Linker Options
See Section 3.13 [Options for Linking], page 86.
object-file-name -llibrary
-nostartfiles -nodefaultlibs -nostdlib -pie
-s -static -static-libgcc -shared -shared-libgcc -symbolic
-Wl,option -Xlinker option
-u symbol
Directory Options
See Section 3.14 [Options for Directory Search], page 89.
-Bprefix -Idir -I- -Ldir -specs=file
Target Options
See Section 3.16 [Target Options], page 97.
-V version -b machine
-mcpu=cpu-type
-mtune=cpu-type
-mpower -mno-power -mpower2 -mno-power2
-mpowerpc -mpowerpc64 -mno-powerpc
-maltivec -mno-altivec
-mpowerpc-gpopt -mno-powerpc-gpopt
-mpowerpc-gfxopt -mno-powerpc-gfxopt
-mnew-mnemonics -mold-mnemonics
-mfull-toc -mminimal-toc -mno-fp-in-toc -mno-sum-in-toc
-m64 -m32 -mxl-compat -mno-xl-compat -mpe
-malign-power -malign-natural
-msoft-float -mhard-float -mmultiple -mno-multiple
-mstring -mno-string -mupdate -mno-update
-mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd -mbit-align -mno-bit-align
-mstrict-align -mno-strict-align -mrelocatable
-mno-relocatable -mrelocatable-lib -mno-relocatable-lib
-mtoc -mno-toc -mlittle -mlittle-endian -mbig -mbig-endian
-mdynamic-no-pic
-mprioritize-restricted-insns=priority
-msched-costly-dep=dependence_type
-minsert-sched-nops=scheme
-mcall-sysv -mcall-netbsd
-maix-struct-return -msvr4-struct-return
-mabi=altivec -mabi=no-altivec
-mabi=spe -mabi=no-spe
-misel=yes -misel=no
-mspe=yes -mspe=no
-mfloat-gprs=yes -mfloat-gprs=no
-mprototype -mno-prototype
-msim -mmvme -mads -myellowknife -memb -msdata
-msdata=opt -mvxworks -mwindiss -G num -pthread
Darwin Options
-all_load -allowable_client -arch -arch_errors_fatal
-arch_only -bind_at_load -bundle -bundle_loader
-client_name -compatibility_version -current_version
-dependency-file -dylib_file -dylinker_install_name
-dynamic -dynamiclib -exported_symbols_list
-filelist -flat_namespace -force_cpusubtype_ALL
-force_flat_namespace -headerpad_max_install_names
-image_base -init -install_name -keep_private_externs
-multi_module -multiply_defined -multiply_defined_unused
-noall_load -nofixprebinding -nomultidefs -noprebind -noseglinkedit
-pagezero_size -prebind -prebind_all_twolevel_modules
-private_bundle -read_only_relocs -sectalign
-sectobjectsymbols -whyload -seg1addr
-sectcreate -sectobjectsymbols -sectorder
-seg_addr_table -seg_addr_table_filename -seglinkedit
-segprot -segs_read_only_addr -segs_read_write_addr
-single_module -static -sub_library -sub_umbrella
-twolevel_namespace -umbrella -undefined
-unexported_symbols_list -weak_reference_mismatches
-whatsloaded
MIPS Options
-EL -EB -march=arch -mtune=arch
-mips1 -mips2 -mips3 -mips4 -mips32 -mips32r2 -mips64
-mips16 -mno-mips16 -mabi=abi -mabicalls -mno-abicalls
-mxgot -mno-xgot -membedded-pic -mno-embedded-pic
-mgp32 -mgp64 -mfp32 -mfp64 -mhard-float -msoft-float
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 15
-msmall-text -mlarge-text
-mmemory-latency=time
DEC Alpha/VMS Options
-mvms-return-codes
H8/300 Options
-mrelax -mh -ms -mn -mint32 -malign-300
SH Options
-m1 -m2 -m2e -m3 -m3e
-m4-nofpu -m4-single-only -m4-single -m4
-m5-64media -m5-64media-nofpu
-m5-32media -m5-32media-nofpu
-m5-compact -m5-compact-nofpu
-mb -ml -mdalign -mrelax
-mbigtable -mfmovd -mhitachi -mnomacsave
-mieee -misize -mpadstruct -mspace
-mprefergot -musermode
System V Options
-Qy -Qn -YP,paths -Ym,dir
ARC Options
-EB -EL
-mmangle-cpu -mcpu=cpu -mtext=text-section
-mdata=data-section -mrodata=readonly-data-section
TMS320C3x/C4x Options
-mcpu=cpu -mbig -msmall -mregparm -mmemparm
-mfast-fix -mmpyi -mbk -mti -mdp-isr-reload
-mrpts=count -mrptb -mdb -mloop-unsigned
-mparallel-insns -mparallel-mpy -mpreserve-float
V850 Options
-mlong-calls -mno-long-calls -mep -mno-ep
-mprolog-function -mno-prolog-function -mspace
-mtda=n -msda=n -mzda=n
-mapp-regs -mno-app-regs
-mdisable-callt -mno-disable-callt
-mv850e1
-mv850e
-mv850 -mbig-switch
NS32K Options
-m32032 -m32332 -m32532 -m32081 -m32381
-mmult-add -mnomult-add -msoft-float -mrtd -mnortd
-mregparam -mnoregparam -msb -mnosb
-mbitfield -mnobitfield -mhimem -mnohimem
AVR Options
-mmcu=mcu -msize -minit-stack=n -mno-interrupts
-mcall-prologues -mno-tablejump -mtiny-stack
MCore Options
-mhardlit -mno-hardlit -mdiv -mno-div -mrelax-immediates
-mno-relax-immediates -mwide-bitfields -mno-wide-bitfields
-m4byte-functions -mno-4byte-functions -mcallgraph-data
-mno-callgraph-data -mslow-bytes -mno-slow-bytes -mno-lsim
-mlittle-endian -mbig-endian -m210 -m340 -mstack-increment
MMIX Options
-mlibfuncs -mno-libfuncs -mepsilon -mno-epsilon -mabi=gnu
-mabi=mmixware -mzero-extend -mknuthdiv -mtoplevel-symbols
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 17
file.f
file.for
file.FOR Fortran source code which should not be preprocessed.
file.F
file.fpp
file.FPP Fortran source code which must be preprocessed (with the traditional prepro-
cessor).
file.r Fortran source code which must be preprocessed with a RATFOR preprocessor
(not included with GCC).
See section “Options Controlling the Kind of Output” in Using and Porting
GNU Fortran, for more details of the handling of Fortran input files.
file.ads Ada source code file which contains a library unit declaration (a declaration of
a package, subprogram, or generic, or a generic instantiation), or a library unit
renaming declaration (a package, generic, or subprogram renaming declaration).
Such files are also called specs.
file.adb Ada source code file containing a library unit body (a subprogram or package
body). Such files are also called bodies.
file.s Assembler code.
file.S Assembler code which must be preprocessed.
other An object file to be fed straight into linking. Any file name with no recognized
suffix is treated this way.
You can specify the input language explicitly with the ‘-x’ option:
-x language
Specify explicitly the language for the following input files (rather than letting
the compiler choose a default based on the file name suffix). This option applies
to all following input files until the next ‘-x’ option. Possible values for language
are:
c c-header cpp-output
c++ c++-header c++-cpp-output
objective-c objective-c-header objc-cpp-output
assembler assembler-with-cpp
ada
f77 f77-cpp-input ratfor
java
treelang
-x none Turn off any specification of a language, so that subsequent files are handled
according to their file name suffixes (as they are if ‘-x’ has not been used at
all).
-pass-exit-codes
Normally the gcc program will exit with the code of 1 if any phase of the
compiler returns a non-success return code. If you specify ‘-pass-exit-codes’,
the gcc program will instead return with numerically highest error produced
by any phase that returned an error indication.
20 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
If you only want some of the stages of compilation, you can use ‘-x’ (or filename suffixes)
to tell gcc where to start, and one of the options ‘-c’, ‘-S’, or ‘-E’ to say where gcc is to
stop. Note that some combinations (for example, ‘-x cpp-output -E’) instruct gcc to do
nothing at all.
-c Compile or assemble the source files, but do not link. The linking stage simply
is not done. The ultimate output is in the form of an object file for each source
file.
By default, the object file name for a source file is made by replacing the suffix
‘.c’, ‘.i’, ‘.s’, etc., with ‘.o’.
Unrecognized input files, not requiring compilation or assembly, are ignored.
-S Stop after the stage of compilation proper; do not assemble. The output is in
the form of an assembler code file for each non-assembler input file specified.
By default, the assembler file name for a source file is made by replacing the
suffix ‘.c’, ‘.i’, etc., with ‘.s’.
Input files that don’t require compilation are ignored.
-E Stop after the preprocessing stage; do not run the compiler proper. The output
is in the form of preprocessed source code, which is sent to the standard output.
Input files which don’t require preprocessing are ignored.
-o file Place output in file file. This applies regardless to whatever sort of output is
being produced, whether it be an executable file, an object file, an assembler
file or preprocessed C code.
If you specify ‘-o’ when compiling more than one input file, or you are producing
an executable file as output, all the source files on the command line will be
compiled at once.
If ‘-o’ is not specified, the default is to put an executable file in ‘a.out’, the
object file for ‘source.suffix ’ in ‘source.o’, its assembler file in ‘source.s’,
and all preprocessed C source on standard output.
-v Print (on standard error output) the commands executed to run the stages of
compilation. Also print the version number of the compiler driver program and
of the preprocessor and the compiler proper.
-### Like ‘-v’ except the commands are not executed and all command arguments
are quoted. This is useful for shell scripts to capture the driver-generated
command lines.
-pipe Use pipes rather than temporary files for communication between the various
stages of compilation. This fails to work on some systems where the assembler
is unable to read from a pipe; but the GNU assembler has no trouble.
--help Print (on the standard output) a description of the command line options un-
derstood by gcc. If the ‘-v’ option is also specified then ‘--help’ will also be
passed on to the various processes invoked by gcc, so that they can display the
command line options they accept. If the ‘-Wextra’ option is also specified then
command line options which have no documentation associated with them will
also be displayed.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 21
--target-help
Print (on the standard output) a description of target specific command line
options for each tool.
--version
Display the version number and copyrights of the invoked GCC.
-ansi In C mode, support all ISO C90 programs. In C++ mode, remove GNU exten-
sions that conflict with ISO C++.
This turns off certain features of GCC that are incompatible with ISO C90
(when compiling C code), or of standard C++ (when compiling C++ code), such
as the asm and typeof keywords, and predefined macros such as unix and vax
that identify the type of system you are using. It also enables the undesirable
and rarely used ISO trigraph feature. For the C compiler, it disables recognition
of C++ style ‘//’ comments as well as the inline keyword.
The alternate keywords __asm__, __extension__, __inline__ and __typeof_
_ continue to work despite ‘-ansi’. You would not want to use them in an ISO
C program, of course, but it is useful to put them in header files that might be
included in compilations done with ‘-ansi’. Alternate predefined macros such
as __unix__ and __vax__ are also available, with or without ‘-ansi’.
22 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
The ‘-ansi’ option does not cause non-ISO programs to be rejected gratu-
itously. For that, ‘-pedantic’ is required in addition to ‘-ansi’. See Section 3.8
[Warning Options], page 35.
The macro __STRICT_ANSI__ is predefined when the ‘-ansi’ option is used.
Some header files may notice this macro and refrain from declaring certain
functions or defining certain macros that the ISO standard doesn’t call for; this
is to avoid interfering with any programs that might use these names for other
things.
Functions which would normally be built in but do not have semantics defined
by ISO C (such as alloca and ffs) are not built-in functions with ‘-ansi’ is
used. See Section 5.44 [Other built-in functions provided by GCC], page 248,
for details of the functions affected.
-std= Determine the language standard. This option is currently only supported when
compiling C or C++. A value for this option must be provided; possible values
are
‘c89’
‘iso9899:1990’
ISO C90 (same as ‘-ansi’).
‘iso9899:199409’
ISO C90 as modified in amendment 1.
‘c99’
‘c9x’
‘iso9899:1999’
‘iso9899:199x’
ISO C99. Note that this standard is not yet fully supported;
see http://gcc.gnu.org/gcc-3.4/c99status.html for more in-
formation. The names ‘c9x’ and ‘iso9899:199x’ are deprecated.
‘gnu89’ Default, ISO C90 plus GNU extensions (including some C99 fea-
tures).
‘gnu99’
‘gnu9x’ ISO C99 plus GNU extensions. When ISO C99 is fully implemented
in GCC, this will become the default. The name ‘gnu9x’ is depre-
cated.
‘c++98’ The 1998 ISO C++ standard plus amendments.
‘gnu++98’ The same as ‘-std=c++98’ plus GNU extensions. This is the default
for C++ code.
Even when this option is not specified, you can still use some of the features of
newer standards in so far as they do not conflict with previous C standards. For
example, you may use __restrict__ even when ‘-std=c99’ is not specified.
The ‘-std’ options specifying some version of ISO C have the same effects as
‘-ansi’, except that features that were not in ISO C90 but are in the specified
version (for example, ‘//’ comments and the inline keyword in ISO C99) are
not disabled.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 23
is available, and in which main has a return type of int. Examples are nearly
everything except a kernel. This is equivalent to ‘-fno-freestanding’.
-ffreestanding
Assert that compilation takes place in a freestanding environment. This implies
‘-fno-builtin’. A freestanding environment is one in which the standard
library may not exist, and program startup may not necessarily be at main. The
most obvious example is an OS kernel. This is equivalent to ‘-fno-hosted’.
See Chapter 2 [Language Standards Supported by GCC], page 5, for details of
freestanding and hosted environments.
-fms-extensions
Accept some non-standard constructs used in Microsoft header files.
-trigraphs
Support ISO C trigraphs. The ‘-ansi’ option (and ‘-std’ options for strict ISO
C conformance) implies ‘-trigraphs’.
-no-integrated-cpp
Performs a compilation in two passes: preprocessing and compiling. This option
allows a user supplied "cc1", "cc1plus", or "cc1obj" via the ‘-B’ option. The
user supplied compilation step can then add in an additional preprocessing
step after normal preprocessing but before compiling. The default is to use the
integrated cpp (internal cpp)
The semantics of this option will change if "cc1", "cc1plus", and "cc1obj" are
merged.
-traditional
-traditional-cpp
Formerly, these options caused GCC to attempt to emulate a pre-standard C
compiler. They are now only supported with the ‘-E’ switch. The preprocessor
continues to support a pre-standard mode. See the GNU CPP manual for
details.
-fcond-mismatch
Allow conditional expressions with mismatched types in the second and third
arguments. The value of such an expression is void. This option is not supported
for C++.
-funsigned-char
Let the type char be unsigned, like unsigned char.
Each kind of machine has a default for what char should be. It is either like
unsigned char by default or like signed char by default.
Ideally, a portable program should always use signed char or unsigned char
when it depends on the signedness of an object. But many programs have been
written to use plain char and expect it to be signed, or expect it to be unsigned,
depending on the machines they were written for. This option, and its inverse,
let you make such a program work with the opposite default.
The type char is always a distinct type from each of signed char or unsigned
char, even though its behavior is always just like one of those two.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 25
-fsigned-char
Let the type char be signed, like signed char.
Note that this is equivalent to ‘-fno-unsigned-char’, which is the negative
form of ‘-funsigned-char’. Likewise, the option ‘-fno-signed-char’ is equiv-
alent to ‘-funsigned-char’.
-fsigned-bitfields
-funsigned-bitfields
-fno-signed-bitfields
-fno-unsigned-bitfields
These options control whether a bit-field is signed or unsigned, when the dec-
laration does not use either signed or unsigned. By default, such a bit-field is
signed, because this is consistent: the basic integer types such as int are signed
types.
-fwritable-strings
Store string constants in the writable data segment and don’t uniquize them.
This is for compatibility with old programs which assume they can write into
string constants.
Writing into string constants is a very bad idea; “constants” should be constant.
This option is deprecated.
without this option. In all other cases, when operator new has a non-empty
exception specification, memory exhaustion is signalled by throwing std::bad_
alloc. See also ‘new (nothrow)’.
-fconserve-space
Put uninitialized or runtime-initialized global variables into the common seg-
ment, as C does. This saves space in the executable at the cost of not diagnosing
duplicate definitions. If you compile with this flag and your program mysteri-
ously crashes after main() has completed, you may have an object that is being
destroyed twice because two definitions were merged.
This option is no longer useful on most targets, now that support has been
added for putting variables into BSS without making them common.
-fno-const-strings
Give string constants type char * instead of type const char *. By default,
G++ uses type const char * as required by the standard. Even if you use
‘-fno-const-strings’, you cannot actually modify the value of a string con-
stant, unless you also use ‘-fwritable-strings’.
This option might be removed in a future release of G++. For maximum porta-
bility, you should structure your code so that it works with string constants
that have type const char *.
-fno-elide-constructors
The C++ standard allows an implementation to omit creating a temporary which
is only used to initialize another object of the same type. Specifying this option
disables that optimization, and forces G++ to call the copy constructor in all
cases.
-fno-enforce-eh-specs
Don’t check for violation of exception specifications at runtime. This option
violates the C++ standard, but may be useful for reducing code size in produc-
tion builds, much like defining ‘NDEBUG’. The compiler will still optimize based
on the exception specifications.
-ffor-scope
-fno-for-scope
If ‘-ffor-scope’ is specified, the scope of variables declared in a for-init-
statement is limited to the ‘for’ loop itself, as specified by the C++ standard.
If ‘-fno-for-scope’ is specified, the scope of variables declared in a for-init-
statement extends to the end of the enclosing scope, as was the case in old
versions of G++, and other (traditional) implementations of C++.
The default if neither flag is given to follow the standard, but to allow and give
a warning for old-style code that would otherwise be invalid, or have different
behavior.
-fno-gnu-keywords
Do not recognize typeof as a keyword, so that code can use this word as
an identifier. You can use the keyword __typeof__ instead. ‘-ansi’ implies
‘-fno-gnu-keywords’.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 27
-fno-implicit-templates
Never emit code for non-inline templates which are instantiated implicitly (i.e.
by use); only emit code for explicit instantiations. See Section 6.6 [Template
Instantiation], page 305, for more information.
-fno-implicit-inline-templates
Don’t emit code for implicit instantiations of inline templates, either. The
default is to handle inlines differently so that compiles with and without opti-
mization will need the same set of explicit instantiations.
-fno-implement-inlines
To save space, do not emit out-of-line copies of inline functions controlled by
‘#pragma implementation’. This will cause linker errors if these functions are
not inlined everywhere they are called.
-fms-extensions
Disable pedantic warnings about constructs used in MFC, such as implicit int
and getting a pointer to member function via non-standard syntax.
-fno-nonansi-builtins
Disable built-in declarations of functions that are not mandated by ANSI/ISO
C. These include ffs, alloca, _exit, index, bzero, conjf, and other related
functions.
-fno-operator-names
Do not treat the operator name keywords and, bitand, bitor, compl, not, or
and xor as synonyms as keywords.
-fno-optional-diags
Disable diagnostics that the standard says a compiler does not need to issue.
Currently, the only such diagnostic issued by G++ is the one for a name having
multiple meanings within a class.
-fpermissive
Downgrade some diagnostics about nonconformant code from errors to warn-
ings. Thus, using ‘-fpermissive’ will allow some nonconforming code to com-
pile.
-frepo Enable automatic template instantiation at link time. This option also im-
plies ‘-fno-implicit-templates’. See Section 6.6 [Template Instantiation],
page 305, for more information.
-fno-rtti
Disable generation of information about every class with virtual functions
for use by the C++ runtime type identification features (‘dynamic_cast’
and ‘typeid’). If you don’t use those parts of the language, you can save
some space by using this flag. Note that exception handling uses the same
information, but it will generate it as needed.
-fstats Emit statistics about front-end processing at the end of the compilation. This
information is generally only useful to the G++ development team.
28 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-ftemplate-depth-n
Set the maximum instantiation depth for template classes to n. A limit on
the template instantiation depth is needed to detect endless recursions during
template class instantiation. ANSI/ISO C++ conforming programs must not
rely on a maximum depth greater than 17.
-fuse-cxa-atexit
Register destructors for objects with static storage duration with the __cxa_
atexit function rather than the atexit function. This option is required for
fully standards-compliant handling of static destructors, but will only work if
your C library supports __cxa_atexit.
-fno-weak
Do not use weak symbol support, even if it is provided by the linker. By
default, G++ will use weak symbols if they are available. This option exists
only for testing, and should not be used by end-users; it will result in inferior
code and has no benefits. This option may be removed in a future release of
G++.
-nostdinc++
Do not search for header files in the standard directories specific to C++, but do
still search the other standard directories. (This option is used when building
the C++ library.)
In addition, these optimization, warning, and code generation options have meanings only
for C++ programs:
-fno-default-inline
Do not assume ‘inline’ for functions defined inside a class scope. See Sec-
tion 3.10 [Options That Control Optimization], page 56. Note that these func-
tions will have linkage like inline functions; they just won’t be inlined by default.
-Wabi (C++ only)
Warn when G++ generates code that is probably not compatible with the
vendor-neutral C++ ABI. Although an effort has been made to warn about
all such cases, there are probably some cases that are not warned about, even
though G++ is generating incompatible code. There may also be cases where
warnings are emitted even though the code that is generated will be compatible.
You should rewrite your code to avoid these warnings if you are concerned about
the fact that code generated by G++ may not be binary compatible with code
generated by other compilers.
The known incompatibilities at this point include:
• Incorrect handling of tail-padding for bit-fields. G++ may attempt to pack
data into the same byte as a base class. For example:
struct A { virtual void f(); int f1 : 1; };
struct B : public A { int f2 : 1; };
In this case, G++ will place B::f2 into the same byte asA::f1; other com-
pilers will not. You can avoid this problem by explicitly padding A so that
its size is a multiple of the byte size on your platform; that will cause G++
and other compilers to layout B identically.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 29
• Incorrect handling of tail-padding for virtual bases. G++ does not use tail
padding when laying out virtual bases. For example:
struct A { virtual void f(); char c1; };
struct B { B(); char c2; };
struct C : public A, public virtual B {};
In this case, G++ will not place B into the tail-padding for A; other compilers
will. You can avoid this problem by explicitly padding A so that its size is
a multiple of its alignment (ignoring virtual base classes); that will cause
G++ and other compilers to layout C identically.
• Incorrect handling of bit-fields with declared widths greater than that of
their underlying types, when the bit-fields appear in a union. For example:
union U { int i : 4096; };
Assuming that an int does not have 4096 bits, G++ will make the union
too small by the number of bits in an int.
• Empty classes can be placed at incorrect offsets. For example:
struct A {};
struct B {
A a;
virtual void f ();
};
struct B: public A {
void f(int);
};
the A class version of f is hidden in B, and code like:
B* b;
b->f();
will fail to compile.
-Wno-pmf-conversions (C++ only)
Disable the diagnostic for converting a bound pointer to member function to a
plain pointer.
-Wsign-promo (C++ only)
Warn when overload resolution chooses a promotion from unsigned or enumer-
ated type to a signed type, over a conversion to an unsigned type of the same
size. Previous versions of G++ would try to preserve unsignedness, but the
standard mandates the current behavior.
struct A {
operator int ();
A& operator = (int);
};
main ()
{
A a,b;
a = b;
}
In this example, G++ will synthesize a default ‘A& operator = (const A&);’,
while cfront will use the user-defined ‘operator =’.
if the GNU runtime is being used, and NSConstantString if the NeXT runtime
is being used (see below). The ‘-fconstant-cfstrings’ option, if also present,
will override the ‘-fconstant-string-class’ setting and cause @"..." literals
to be laid out as constant CoreFoundation strings.
-fgnu-runtime
Generate object code compatible with the standard GNU Objective-C runtime.
This is the default for most types of systems.
-fnext-runtime
Generate output compatible with the NeXT runtime. This is the default for
NeXT-based systems, including Darwin and Mac OS X. The macro __NEXT_
RUNTIME__ is predefined if (and only if) this option is used.
-fno-nil-receivers
Assume that all Objective-C message dispatches (e.g., [receiver
message:arg]) in this translation unit ensure that the receiver is not nil.
This allows for more efficient entry points in the runtime to be used. Currently,
this option is only available in conjunction with the NeXT runtime on Mac
OS X 10.3 and later.
-fobjc-exceptions
Enable syntactic support for structured exception handling in Objective-C, sim-
ilar to what is offered by C++ and Java. Currently, this option is only available
in conjunction with the NeXT runtime on Mac OS X 10.3 and later.
@try {
...
@throw expr;
...
}
@catch (AnObjCClass *exc) {
...
@throw expr;
...
@throw;
...
}
@catch (AnotherClass *exc) {
...
}
@catch (id allOthers) {
...
}
@finally {
...
@throw expr;
...
}
The @throw statement may appear anywhere in an Objective-C or Objective-
C++ program; when used inside of a @catch block, the @throw may appear
without an argument (as shown above), in which case the object caught by the
@catch will be rethrown.
Note that only (pointers to) Objective-C objects may be thrown and caught
using this scheme. When an object is thrown, it will be caught by the nearest
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 33
-gen-decls
Dump interface declarations for all classes seen in the source file to a file named
‘sourcename.decl’.
-Wno-protocol
If a class is declared to implement a protocol, a warning is issued for every
method in the protocol that is not implemented by the class. The default
behavior is to issue a warning for every method not explicitly implemented in
the class, even if a method implementation is inherited from the superclass. If
you use the -Wno-protocol option, then methods inherited from the superclass
are considered to be implemented, and no warning is issued for them.
-Wselector
Warn if multiple methods of different types for the same selector are found
during compilation. The check is performed on the list of methods in the
final stage of compilation. Additionally, a check is performed for each selector
appearing in a @selector(...) expression, and a corresponding method for
that selector has been found during compilation. Because these checks scan the
method table only at the end of compilation, these warnings are not produced
if the final stage of compilation is not reached, for example because an error is
found during compilation, or because the -fsyntax-only option is being used.
-Wundeclared-selector
Warn if a @selector(...) expression referring to an undeclared selector is
found. A selector is considered undeclared if no method with that name has
been declared before the @selector(...) expression, either explicitly in an
@interface or @protocol declaration, or implicitly in an @implementation
section. This option always performs its checks as soon as a @selector(...)
expression is found, while -Wselector only performs its checks in the final stage
of compilation. This also enforces the coding style convention that methods and
selectors must be declared before being used.
-print-objc-runtime-info
Generate C header describing the largest structure that is passed by value, if
any.
-fmessage-length=n
Try to format error messages so that they fit on lines of about n characters. The
default is 72 characters for g++ and 0 for the rest of the front ends supported
by GCC. If n is zero, then no line-wrapping will be done; each error message
will appear on a single line.
-fdiagnostics-show-location=once
Only meaningful in line-wrapping mode. Instructs the diagnostic messages re-
porter to emit once source location information; that is, in case the message
is too long to fit on a single physical line and has to be wrapped, the source
location won’t be emitted (as prefix) again, over and over, in subsequent con-
tinuation lines. This is the default behavior.
-fdiagnostics-show-location=every-line
Only meaningful in line-wrapping mode. Instructs the diagnostic messages
reporter to emit the same source location information (as prefix) for physical
lines that result from the process of breaking a message which is too long to fit
on a single line.
should use these escape routes; application programs should avoid them. See
Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 244.
Some users try to use ‘-pedantic’ to check programs for strict ISO C con-
formance. They soon find that it does not do quite what they want: it finds
some non-ISO practices, but not all—only those for which ISO C requires a
diagnostic, and some others for which diagnostics have been added.
A feature to report any failure to conform to ISO C might be useful in some
instances, but would require considerable additional work and would be quite
different from ‘-pedantic’. We don’t have plans to support such a feature in
the near future.
Where the standard specified with ‘-std’ represents a GNU extended dialect
of C, such as ‘gnu89’ or ‘gnu99’, there is a corresponding base standard, the
version of ISO C on which the GNU extended dialect is based. Warnings from
‘-pedantic’ are given where they are required by the base standard. (It would
not make sense for such warnings to be given only for features not in the spec-
ified GNU C dialect, since by definition the GNU dialects of C include all fea-
tures the compiler supports with the given option, and there would be nothing
to warn about.)
-pedantic-errors
Like ‘-pedantic’, except that errors are produced rather than warnings.
-w Inhibit all warning messages.
-Wno-import
Inhibit warning messages about the use of ‘#import’.
-Wchar-subscripts
Warn if an array subscript has type char. This is a common cause of error, as
programmers often forget that this type is signed on some machines.
-Wcomment
Warn whenever a comment-start sequence ‘/*’ appears in a ‘/*’ comment, or
whenever a Backslash-Newline appears in a ‘//’ comment.
-Wformat Check calls to printf and scanf, etc., to make sure that the arguments supplied
have types appropriate to the format string specified, and that the conversions
specified in the format string make sense. This includes standard functions,
and others specified by format attributes (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes],
page 195), in the printf, scanf, strftime and strfmon (an X/Open extension,
not in the C standard) families.
The formats are checked against the format features supported by GNU libc
version 2.2. These include all ISO C90 and C99 features, as well as features
from the Single Unix Specification and some BSD and GNU extensions. Other
library implementations may not support all these features; GCC does not sup-
port warning about features that go beyond a particular library’s limitations.
However, if ‘-pedantic’ is used with ‘-Wformat’, warnings will be given about
format features not in the selected standard version (but not for strfmon for-
mats, since those are not in any version of the C standard). See Section 3.4
[Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 37
Since ‘-Wformat’ also checks for null format arguments for several functions,
‘-Wformat’ also implies ‘-Wnonnull’.
‘-Wformat’ is included in ‘-Wall’. For more control over some aspects of
format checking, the options ‘-Wformat-y2k’, ‘-Wno-format-extra-args’,
‘-Wno-format-zero-length’, ‘-Wformat-nonliteral’, ‘-Wformat-security’,
and ‘-Wformat=2’ are available, but are not included in ‘-Wall’.
-Wformat-y2k
If ‘-Wformat’ is specified, also warn about strftime formats which may yield
only a two-digit year.
-Wno-format-extra-args
If ‘-Wformat’ is specified, do not warn about excess arguments to a printf
or scanf format function. The C standard specifies that such arguments are
ignored.
Where the unused arguments lie between used arguments that are specified
with ‘$’ operand number specifications, normally warnings are still given, since
the implementation could not know what type to pass to va_arg to skip the
unused arguments. However, in the case of scanf formats, this option will
suppress the warning if the unused arguments are all pointers, since the Single
Unix Specification says that such unused arguments are allowed.
-Wno-format-zero-length
If ‘-Wformat’ is specified, do not warn about zero-length formats. The C stan-
dard specifies that zero-length formats are allowed.
-Wformat-nonliteral
If ‘-Wformat’ is specified, also warn if the format string is not a string literal and
so cannot be checked, unless the format function takes its format arguments as
a va_list.
-Wformat-security
If ‘-Wformat’ is specified, also warn about uses of format functions that repre-
sent possible security problems. At present, this warns about calls to printf
and scanf functions where the format string is not a string literal and there
are no format arguments, as in printf (foo);. This may be a security hole
if the format string came from untrusted input and contains ‘%n’. (This is
currently a subset of what ‘-Wformat-nonliteral’ warns about, but in fu-
ture warnings may be added to ‘-Wformat-security’ that are not included in
‘-Wformat-nonliteral’.)
-Wformat=2
Enable ‘-Wformat’ plus format checks not included in ‘-Wformat’. Currently
equivalent to ‘-Wformat -Wformat-nonliteral -Wformat-security
-Wformat-y2k’.
-Wnonnull
Warn about passing a null pointer for arguments marked as requiring a non-null
value by the nonnull function attribute.
‘-Wnonnull’ is included in ‘-Wall’ and ‘-Wformat’. It can be disabled with the
‘-Wno-nonnull’ option.
38 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-Wimplicit-int
Warn when a declaration does not specify a type.
-Wimplicit-function-declaration
-Werror-implicit-function-declaration
Give a warning (or error) whenever a function is used before being declared.
-Wimplicit
Same as ‘-Wimplicit-int’ and ‘-Wimplicit-function-declaration’.
-Wmain Warn if the type of ‘main’ is suspicious. ‘main’ should be a function with
external linkage, returning int, taking either zero arguments, two, or three
arguments of appropriate types.
-Wmissing-braces
Warn if an aggregate or union initializer is not fully bracketed. In the following
example, the initializer for ‘a’ is not fully bracketed, but that for ‘b’ is fully
bracketed.
int a[2][2] = { 0, 1, 2, 3 };
int b[2][2] = { { 0, 1 }, { 2, 3 } };
-Wparentheses
Warn if parentheses are omitted in certain contexts, such as when there is an
assignment in a context where a truth value is expected, or when operators are
nested whose precedence people often get confused about.
Also warn about constructions where there may be confusion to which if state-
ment an else branch belongs. Here is an example of such a case:
{
if (a)
if (b)
foo ();
else
bar ();
}
In C, every else branch belongs to the innermost possible if statement, which
in this example is if (b). This is often not what the programmer expected, as
illustrated in the above example by indentation the programmer chose. When
there is the potential for this confusion, GCC will issue a warning when this flag
is specified. To eliminate the warning, add explicit braces around the innermost
if statement so there is no way the else could belong to the enclosing if. The
resulting code would look like this:
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 39
{
if (a)
{
if (b)
foo ();
else
bar ();
}
}
-Wsequence-point
Warn about code that may have undefined semantics because of violations of
sequence point rules in the C standard.
The C standard defines the order in which expressions in a C program are eval-
uated in terms of sequence points, which represent a partial ordering between
the execution of parts of the program: those executed before the sequence point,
and those executed after it. These occur after the evaluation of a full expression
(one which is not part of a larger expression), after the evaluation of the first
operand of a &&, ||, ? : or , (comma) operator, before a function is called (but
after the evaluation of its arguments and the expression denoting the called
function), and in certain other places. Other than as expressed by the sequence
point rules, the order of evaluation of subexpressions of an expression is not
specified. All these rules describe only a partial order rather than a total order,
since, for example, if two functions are called within one expression with no
sequence point between them, the order in which the functions are called is not
specified. However, the standards committee have ruled that function calls do
not overlap.
It is not specified when between sequence points modifications to the values of
objects take effect. Programs whose behavior depends on this have undefined
behavior; the C standard specifies that “Between the previous and next se-
quence point an object shall have its stored value modified at most once by the
evaluation of an expression. Furthermore, the prior value shall be read only to
determine the value to be stored.”. If a program breaks these rules, the results
on any particular implementation are entirely unpredictable.
Examples of code with undefined behavior are a = a++;, a[n] = b[n++] and
a[i++] = i;. Some more complicated cases are not diagnosed by this option,
and it may give an occasional false positive result, but in general it has been
found fairly effective at detecting this sort of problem in programs.
The present implementation of this option only works for C programs. A future
implementation may also work for C++ programs.
The C standard is worded confusingly, therefore there is some debate over the
precise meaning of the sequence point rules in subtle cases. Links to discussions
of the problem, including proposed formal definitions, may be found on the GCC
readings page, at http://gcc.gnu.org/readings.html.
-Wreturn-type
Warn whenever a function is defined with a return-type that defaults to int.
Also warn about any return statement with no return-value in a function whose
return-type is not void.
40 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
For C++, a function without return type always produces a diagnostic message,
even when ‘-Wno-return-type’ is specified. The only exceptions are ‘main’ and
functions defined in system headers.
-Wswitch Warn whenever a switch statement has an index of enumerated type and lacks
a case for one or more of the named codes of that enumeration. (The presence
of a default label prevents this warning.) case labels outside the enumeration
range also provoke warnings when this option is used.
-Wswitch-default
Warn whenever a switch statement does not have a default case.
-Wswitch-enum
Warn whenever a switch statement has an index of enumerated type and lacks
a case for one or more of the named codes of that enumeration. case labels
outside the enumeration range also provoke warnings when this option is used.
-Wtrigraphs
Warn if any trigraphs are encountered that might change the meaning of the
program (trigraphs within comments are not warned about).
-Wunused-function
Warn whenever a static function is declared but not defined or a non\-inline
static function is unused.
-Wunused-label
Warn whenever a label is declared but not used.
To suppress this warning use the ‘unused’ attribute (see Section 5.32 [Variable
Attributes], page 210).
-Wunused-parameter
Warn whenever a function parameter is unused aside from its declaration.
To suppress this warning use the ‘unused’ attribute (see Section 5.32 [Variable
Attributes], page 210).
-Wunused-variable
Warn whenever a local variable or non-constant static variable is unused aside
from its declaration
To suppress this warning use the ‘unused’ attribute (see Section 5.32 [Variable
Attributes], page 210).
-Wunused-value
Warn whenever a statement computes a result that is explicitly not used.
To suppress this warning cast the expression to ‘void’.
-Wunused All the above ‘-Wunused’ options combined.
In order to get a warning about an unused function parameter, you must either
specify ‘-Wextra -Wunused’ (note that ‘-Wall’ implies ‘-Wunused’), or sepa-
rately specify ‘-Wunused-parameter’.
-Wuninitialized
Warn if an automatic variable is used without first being initialized or if a
variable may be clobbered by a setjmp call.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 41
These warnings are possible only in optimizing compilation, because they re-
quire data flow information that is computed only when optimizing. If you
don’t specify ‘-O’, you simply won’t get these warnings.
If you want to warn about code which uses the uninitialized value of the variable
in its own initializer, use the ‘-Winit-self’ option.
These warnings occur only for variables that are candidates for register alloca-
tion. Therefore, they do not occur for a variable that is declared volatile, or
whose address is taken, or whose size is other than 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes. Also, they
do not occur for structures, unions or arrays, even when they are in registers.
Note that there may be no warning about a variable that is used only to compute
a value that itself is never used, because such computations may be deleted by
data flow analysis before the warnings are printed.
These warnings are made optional because GCC is not smart enough to see all
the reasons why the code might be correct despite appearing to have an error.
Here is one example of how this can happen:
{
int x;
switch (y)
{
case 1: x = 1;
break;
case 2: x = 4;
break;
case 3: x = 5;
}
foo (x);
}
-Wunknown-pragmas
Warn when a #pragma directive is encountered which is not understood by
GCC. If this command line option is used, warnings will even be issued for
unknown pragmas in system header files. This is not the case if the warnings
were only enabled by the ‘-Wall’ command line option.
-Wstrict-aliasing
This option is only active when ‘-fstrict-aliasing’ is active. It warns about
code which might break the strict aliasing rules that the compiler is using for
optimization. The warning does not catch all cases, but does attempt to catch
the more common pitfalls. It is included in ‘-Wall’.
-Wall All of the above ‘-W’ options combined. This enables all the warnings about
constructions that some users consider questionable, and that are easy to avoid
(or modify to prevent the warning), even in conjunction with macros. This also
enables some language-specific warnings described in Section 3.5 [C++ Dialect
Options], page 25 and Section 3.6 [Objective-C Dialect Options], page 31.
The following ‘-W...’ options are not implied by ‘-Wall’. Some of them warn about
constructions that users generally do not consider questionable, but which occasionally you
might wish to check for; others warn about constructions that are necessary or hard to
avoid in some cases, and there is no simple way to modify the code to suppress the warning.
-Wextra (This option used to be called ‘-W’. The older name is still supported, but the
newer name is more descriptive.) Print extra warning messages for these events:
• A function can return either with or without a value. (Falling off the end of
the function body is considered returning without a value.) For example,
this function would evoke such a warning:
foo (a)
{
if (a > 0)
return a;
}
• An expression-statement or the left-hand side of a comma expression con-
tains no side effects. To suppress the warning, cast the unused expression
to void. For example, an expression such as ‘x[i,j]’ will cause a warning,
but ‘x[(void)i,j]’ will not.
• An unsigned value is compared against zero with ‘<’ or ‘>=’.
• A comparison like ‘x<=y<=z’ appears; this is equivalent to ‘(x<=y ? 1 : 0)
<= z’, which is a different interpretation from that of ordinary mathemat-
ical notation.
• Storage-class specifiers like static are not the first things in a declaration.
According to the C Standard, this usage is obsolescent.
• The return type of a function has a type qualifier such as const. Such a
type qualifier has no effect, since the value returned by a function is not an
lvalue. (But don’t warn about the GNU extension of volatile void return
types. That extension will be warned about if ‘-pedantic’ is specified.)
• If ‘-Wall’ or ‘-Wunused’ is also specified, warn about unused arguments.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 43
code, or in some other way) the maximum or likely maximum error that the
computation introduces, and allow for it when performing comparisons (and
when producing output, but that’s a different problem). In particular, instead
of testing for equality, you would check to see whether the two values have
ranges that overlap; and this is done with the relational operators, so equality
comparisons are probably mistaken.
-Wtraditional (C only)
Warn about certain constructs that behave differently in traditional and ISO
C. Also warn about ISO C constructs that have no traditional C equivalent,
and/or problematic constructs which should be avoided.
• Macro parameters that appear within string literals in the macro body. In
traditional C macro replacement takes place within string literals, but does
not in ISO C.
• In traditional C, some preprocessor directives did not exist. Traditional
preprocessors would only consider a line to be a directive if the ‘#’ appeared
in column 1 on the line. Therefore ‘-Wtraditional’ warns about directives
that traditional C understands but would ignore because the ‘#’ does not
appear as the first character on the line. It also suggests you hide directives
like ‘#pragma’ not understood by traditional C by indenting them. Some
traditional implementations would not recognize ‘#elif’, so it suggests
avoiding it altogether.
• A function-like macro that appears without arguments.
• The unary plus operator.
• The ‘U’ integer constant suffix, or the ‘F’ or ‘L’ floating point constant
suffixes. (Traditional C does support the ‘L’ suffix on integer constants.)
Note, these suffixes appear in macros defined in the system headers of most
modern systems, e.g. the ‘_MIN’/‘_MAX’ macros in <limits.h>. Use of these
macros in user code might normally lead to spurious warnings, however
GCC’s integrated preprocessor has enough context to avoid warning in
these cases.
• A function declared external in one block and then used after the end of
the block.
• A switch statement has an operand of type long.
• A non-static function declaration follows a static one. This construct
is not accepted by some traditional C compilers.
• The ISO type of an integer constant has a different width or signedness
from its traditional type. This warning is only issued if the base of the
constant is ten. I.e. hexadecimal or octal values, which typically represent
bit patterns, are not warned about.
• Usage of ISO string concatenation is detected.
• Initialization of automatic aggregates.
• Identifier conflicts with labels. Traditional C lacks a separate namespace
for labels.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 45
when compiling C++, warn about the deprecated conversion from string con-
stants to char *. These warnings will help you find at compile time code that
can try to write into a string constant, but only if you have been very careful
about using const in declarations and prototypes. Otherwise, it will just be a
nuisance; this is why we did not make ‘-Wall’ request these warnings.
-Wconversion
Warn if a prototype causes a type conversion that is different from what would
happen to the same argument in the absence of a prototype. This includes
conversions of fixed point to floating and vice versa, and conversions changing
the width or signedness of a fixed point argument except when the same as the
default promotion.
Also, warn if a negative integer constant expression is implicitly converted to an
unsigned type. For example, warn about the assignment x = -1 if x is unsigned.
But do not warn about explicit casts like (unsigned) -1.
-Wsign-compare
Warn when a comparison between signed and unsigned values could produce an
incorrect result when the signed value is converted to unsigned. This warning
is also enabled by ‘-Wextra’; to get the other warnings of ‘-Wextra’ without
this warning, use ‘-Wextra -Wno-sign-compare’.
-Waggregate-return
Warn if any functions that return structures or unions are defined or called. (In
languages where you can return an array, this also elicits a warning.)
-Wstrict-prototypes (C only)
Warn if a function is declared or defined without specifying the argument types.
(An old-style function definition is permitted without a warning if preceded by
a declaration which specifies the argument types.)
-Wold-style-definition (C only)
Warn if an old-style function definition is used. A warning is given even if there
is a previous prototype.
-Wmissing-prototypes (C only)
Warn if a global function is defined without a previous prototype declaration.
This warning is issued even if the definition itself provides a prototype. The
aim is to detect global functions that fail to be declared in header files.
-Wmissing-declarations (C only)
Warn if a global function is defined without a previous declaration. Do so even
if the definition itself provides a prototype. Use this option to detect global
functions that are not declared in header files.
-Wmissing-noreturn
Warn about functions which might be candidates for attribute noreturn. Note
these are only possible candidates, not absolute ones. Care should be taken
to manually verify functions actually do not ever return before adding the
noreturn attribute, otherwise subtle code generation bugs could be introduced.
You will not get a warning for main in hosted C environments.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 47
-Wmissing-format-attribute
If ‘-Wformat’ is enabled, also warn about functions which might be candidates
for format attributes. Note these are only possible candidates, not absolute
ones. GCC will guess that format attributes might be appropriate for any
function that calls a function like vprintf or vscanf, but this might not always
be the case, and some functions for which format attributes are appropriate
may not be detected. This option has no effect unless ‘-Wformat’ is enabled
(possibly by ‘-Wall’).
-Wno-multichar
Do not warn if a multicharacter constant (‘’FOOF’’) is used. Usually they
indicate a typo in the user’s code, as they have implementation-defined values,
and should not be used in portable code.
-Wno-deprecated-declarations
Do not warn about uses of functions, variables, and types marked as deprecated
by using the deprecated attribute. (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes],
page 195, see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 210, see Section 5.33
[Type Attributes], page 215.)
-Wpacked Warn if a structure is given the packed attribute, but the packed attribute has
no effect on the layout or size of the structure. Such structures may be mis-
aligned for little benefit. For instance, in this code, the variable f.x in struct
bar will be misaligned even though struct bar does not itself have the packed
attribute:
struct foo {
int x;
char a, b, c, d;
} __attribute__((packed));
struct bar {
char z;
struct foo f;
};
It is possible for this option to produce a warning even though there are circum-
stances under which part of the affected line can be executed, so care should
be taken when removing apparently-unreachable code.
For instance, when a function is inlined, a warning may mean that the line is
unreachable in only one inlined copy of the function.
This option is not made part of ‘-Wall’ because in a debugging version of a
program there is often substantial code which checks correct functioning of the
program and is, hopefully, unreachable because the program does work. An-
other common use of unreachable code is to provide behavior which is selectable
at compile-time.
-Winline Warn if a function can not be inlined and it was declared as inline. Even with
this option, the compiler will not warn about failures to inline functions declared
in system headers.
The compiler uses a variety of heuristics to determine whether or not to inline a
function. For example, the compiler takes into account the size of the function
being inlined and the the amount of inlining that has already been done in
the current function. Therefore, seemingly insignificant changes in the source
program can cause the warnings produced by ‘-Winline’ to appear or disappear.
-Wno-invalid-offsetof (C++ only)
Suppress warnings from applying the ‘offsetof’ macro to a non-POD type.
According to the 1998 ISO C++ standard, applying ‘offsetof’ to a non-POD
type is undefined. In existing C++ implementations, however, ‘offsetof’ typi-
cally gives meaningful results even when applied to certain kinds of non-POD
types. (Such as a simple ‘struct’ that fails to be a POD type only by virtue of
having a constructor.) This flag is for users who are aware that they are writ-
ing nonportable code and who have deliberately chosen to ignore the warning
about it.
The restrictions on ‘offsetof’ may be relaxed in a future version of the C++
standard.
-Winvalid-pch
Warn if a precompiled header (see Section 3.20 [Precompiled Headers],
page 171) is found in the search path but can’t be used.
-Wlong-long
Warn if ‘long long’ type is used. This is default. To inhibit the warning
messages, use ‘-Wno-long-long’. Flags ‘-Wlong-long’ and ‘-Wno-long-long’
are taken into account only when ‘-pedantic’ flag is used.
-Wdisabled-optimization
Warn if a requested optimization pass is disabled. This warning does not gen-
erally indicate that there is anything wrong with your code; it merely indicates
that GCC’s optimizers were unable to handle the code effectively. Often, the
problem is that your code is too big or too complex; GCC will refuse to optimize
programs when the optimization itself is likely to take inordinate amounts of
time.
-Werror Make all warnings into errors.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 49
these extensions is likely to make other debuggers crash or refuse to read the
program, and may cause assemblers other than the GNU assembler (GAS) to
fail with an error.
-gdwarf-2
Produce debugging information in DWARF version 2 format (if that is sup-
ported). This is the format used by DBX on IRIX 6.
-gvms Produce debugging information in VMS debug format (if that is supported).
This is the format used by DEBUG on VMS systems.
-glevel
-ggdblevel
-gstabslevel
-gcofflevel
-gxcofflevel
-gvmslevel
Request debugging information and also use level to specify how much infor-
mation. The default level is 2.
Level 1 produces minimal information, enough for making backtraces in parts
of the program that you don’t plan to debug. This includes descriptions of
functions and external variables, but no information about local variables and
no line numbers.
Level 3 includes extra information, such as all the macro definitions present in
the program. Some debuggers support macro expansion when you use ‘-g3’.
Note that in order to avoid confusion between DWARF1 debug level 2, and
DWARF2 ‘-gdwarf-2’ does not accept a concatenated debug level. Instead use
an additional ‘-glevel ’ option to change the debug level for DWARF2.
-feliminate-dwarf2-dups
Compress DWARF2 debugging information by eliminating duplicated infor-
mation about each symbol. This option only makes sense when generating
DWARF2 debugging information with ‘-gdwarf-2’.
-p Generate extra code to write profile information suitable for the analysis pro-
gram prof. You must use this option when compiling the source files you want
data about, and you must also use it when linking.
-pg Generate extra code to write profile information suitable for the analysis pro-
gram gprof. You must use this option when compiling the source files you want
data about, and you must also use it when linking.
-Q Makes the compiler print out each function name as it is compiled, and print
some statistics about each pass when it finishes.
-ftime-report
Makes the compiler print some statistics about the time consumed by each pass
when it finishes.
-fmem-report
Makes the compiler print some statistics about permanent memory allocation
when it finishes.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 51
-fprofile-arcs
Add code so that program flow arcs are instrumented. During execution the
program records how many times each branch and call is executed and how
many times it is taken or returns. When the compiled program exits it saves
this data to a file called ‘auxname.gcda’ for each source file. The data may be
used for profile-directed optimizations (‘-fbranch-probabilities’), or for test
coverage analysis (‘-ftest-coverage’). Each object file’s auxname is generated
from the name of the output file, if explicitly specified and it is not the final
executable, otherwise it is the basename of the source file. In both cases any
suffix is removed (e.g. ‘foo.gcda’ for input file ‘dir/foo.c’, or ‘dir/foo.gcda’
for output file specified as ‘-o dir/foo.o’).
• Link your object files with ‘-lgcov’ or ‘-fprofile-arcs’ (the latter implies
the former).
• For test coverage analysis, use gcov to produce human readable information
from the ‘.gcno’ and ‘.gcda’ files. Refer to the gcov documentation for
further information.
-ftest-coverage
Produce a notes file that the gcov code-coverage utility (see Chapter 9 [gcov—a
Test Coverage Program], page 323) can use to show program coverage. Each
source file’s note file is called ‘auxname.gcno’. Refer to the ‘-fprofile-arcs’
option above for a description of auxname and instructions on how to generate
test coverage data. Coverage data will match the source files more closely, if
you do not optimize.
-dletters
Says to make debugging dumps during compilation at times specified by letters.
This is used for debugging the compiler. The file names for most of the dumps
are made by appending a pass number and a word to the dumpname. dump-
name is generated from the name of the output file, if explicitly specified and
it is not an executable, otherwise it is the basename of the source file. In both
cases any suffix is removed (e.g. ‘foo.01.rtl’ or ‘foo.02.sibling’). Here are
the possible letters for use in letters, and their meanings:
‘A’ Annotate the assembler output with miscellaneous debugging in-
formation.
‘b’ Dump after computing branch probabilities, to ‘file.12.bp’.
‘B’ Dump after block reordering, to ‘file.31.bbro’.
‘c’ Dump after instruction combination, to the file ‘file.20.combine’.
‘C’ Dump after the first if conversion, to the file ‘file.14.ce1’. Also
dump after the second if conversion, to the file ‘file.21.ce2’.
‘d’ Dump after branch target load optimization, to to ‘file.32.btl’.
Also dump after delayed branch scheduling, to ‘file.36.dbr’.
‘D’ Dump all macro definitions, at the end of preprocessing, in addition
to normal output.
‘E’ Dump after the third if conversion, to ‘file.30.ce3’.
‘f’ Dump after control and data flow analysis, to ‘file.11.cfg’. Also
dump after life analysis, to ‘file.19.life’.
‘F’ Dump after purging ADDRESSOF codes, to ‘file.07.addressof’.
‘g’ Dump after global register allocation, to ‘file.25.greg’.
‘G’ Dump after GCSE, to ‘file.08.gcse’. Also dump after jump by-
passing and control flow optimizations, to ‘file.10.bypass’.
‘h’ Dump after finalization of EH handling code, to ‘file.03.eh’.
‘i’ Dump after sibling call optimizations, to ‘file.02.sibling’.
‘j’ Dump after the first jump optimization, to ‘file.04.jump’.
‘k’ Dump after conversion from registers to stack, to ‘file.34.stack’.
‘l’ Dump after local register allocation, to ‘file.24.lreg’.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 53
-fdump-unnumbered
When doing debugging dumps (see ‘-d’ option above), suppress instruction
numbers and line number note output. This makes it more feasible to use
diff on debugging dumps for compiler invocations with different options, in
particular with and without ‘-g’.
-fdump-translation-unit (C and C++ only)
-fdump-translation-unit-options (C and C++ only)
Dump a representation of the tree structure for the entire translation unit to a
file. The file name is made by appending ‘.tu’ to the source file name. If the
‘-options ’ form is used, options controls the details of the dump as described
for the ‘-fdump-tree’ options.
-fdump-class-hierarchy (C++ only)
-fdump-class-hierarchy-options (C++ only)
Dump a representation of each class’s hierarchy and virtual function table layout
to a file. The file name is made by appending ‘.class’ to the source file name.
If the ‘-options ’ form is used, options controls the details of the dump as
described for the ‘-fdump-tree’ options.
-fdump-tree-switch (C++ only)
-fdump-tree-switch -options (C++ only)
Control the dumping at various stages of processing the intermediate language
tree to a file. The file name is generated by appending a switch specific suffix
to the source file name. If the ‘-options ’ form is used, options is a list of
‘-’ separated options that control the details of the dump. Not all options are
applicable to all dumps, those which are not meaningful will be ignored. The
following options are available
‘address’ Print the address of each node. Usually this is not meaningful as it
changes according to the environment and source file. Its primary
use is for tying up a dump file with a debug environment.
‘slim’ Inhibit dumping of members of a scope or body of a function merely
because that scope has been reached. Only dump such items when
they are directly reachable by some other path.
‘all’ Turn on all options.
The following tree dumps are possible:
‘original’
Dump before any tree based optimization, to ‘file.original’.
‘optimized’
Dump after all tree based optimization, to ‘file.optimized’.
‘inlined’ Dump after function inlining, to ‘file.inlined’.
-frandom-seed=string
This option provides a seed that GCC uses when it would otherwise use random
numbers. It is used to generate certain symbol names that have to be different
in every compiled file. It is also used to place unique stamps in coverage data
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 55
files and the object files that produce them. You can use the ‘-frandom-seed’
option to produce reproducibly identical object files.
The string should be different for every file you compile.
-fsched-verbose=n
On targets that use instruction scheduling, this option controls the amount of
debugging output the scheduler prints. This information is written to standard
error, unless ‘-dS’ or ‘-dR’ is specified, in which case it is output to the usual
dump listing file, ‘.sched’ or ‘.sched2’ respectively. However for n greater
than nine, the output is always printed to standard error.
For n greater than zero, ‘-fsched-verbose’ outputs the same information as
‘-dRS’. For n greater than one, it also output basic block probabilities, de-
tailed ready list information and unit/insn info. For n greater than two, it
includes RTL at abort point, control-flow and regions info. And for n over four,
‘-fsched-verbose’ also includes dependence info.
-save-temps
Store the usual “temporary” intermediate files permanently; place them in the
current directory and name them based on the source file. Thus, compiling
‘foo.c’ with ‘-c -save-temps’ would produce files ‘foo.i’ and ‘foo.s’, as well
as ‘foo.o’. This creates a preprocessed ‘foo.i’ output file even though the
compiler now normally uses an integrated preprocessor.
-time Report the CPU time taken by each subprocess in the compilation sequence.
For C source files, this is the compiler proper and assembler (plus the linker if
linking is done). The output looks like this:
# cc1 0.12 0.01
# as 0.00 0.01
The first number on each line is the “user time,” that is time spent executing
the program itself. The second number is “system time,” time spent executing
operating system routines on behalf of the program. Both numbers are in
seconds.
-print-file-name=library
Print the full absolute name of the library file library that would be used when
linking—and don’t do anything else. With this option, GCC does not compile
or link anything; it just prints the file name.
-print-multi-directory
Print the directory name corresponding to the multilib selected by any other
switches present in the command line. This directory is supposed to exist in
GCC_EXEC_PREFIX.
-print-multi-lib
Print the mapping from multilib directory names to compiler switches that
enable them. The directory name is separated from the switches by ‘;’, and
each switch starts with an ‘@’ instead of the ‘-’, without spaces between multiple
switches. This is supposed to ease shell-processing.
-print-prog-name=program
Like ‘-print-file-name’, but searches for a program such as ‘cpp’.
56 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-print-libgcc-file-name
Same as ‘-print-file-name=libgcc.a’.
This is useful when you use ‘-nostdlib’ or ‘-nodefaultlibs’ but you do want
to link with ‘libgcc.a’. You can do
gcc -nostdlib files ... ‘gcc -print-libgcc-file-name‘
-print-search-dirs
Print the name of the configured installation directory and a list of program
and library directories gcc will search—and don’t do anything else.
This is useful when gcc prints the error message ‘installation problem,
cannot exec cpp0: No such file or directory’. To resolve this you either
need to put ‘cpp0’ and the other compiler components where gcc expects to
find them, or you can set the environment variable GCC_EXEC_PREFIX to the di-
rectory where you installed them. Don’t forget the trailing ’/’. See Section 3.19
[Environment Variables], page 168.
-dumpmachine
Print the compiler’s target machine (for example, ‘i686-pc-linux-gnu’)—and
don’t do anything else.
-dumpversion
Print the compiler version (for example, ‘3.0’)—and don’t do anything else.
-dumpspecs
Print the compiler’s built-in specs—and don’t do anything else. (This is used
when GCC itself is being built.) See Section 3.15 [Spec Files], page 90.
-feliminate-unused-debug-types
Normally, when producing DWARF2 output, GCC will emit debugging infor-
mation for all types declared in a compilation unit, regardless of whether or not
they are actually used in that compilation unit. Sometimes this is useful, such
as if, in the debugger, you want to cast a value to a type that is not actually
used in your program (but is declared). More often, however, this results in
a significant amount of wasted space. With this option, GCC will avoid pro-
ducing debug symbol output for types that are nowhere used in the source file
being compiled.
later functions in the file when compiling a function. Compiling multiple files at once to a
single output file (and using ‘-funit-at-a-time’) will allow the compiler to use information
gained from all of the files when compiling each of them.
Not all optimizations are controlled directly by a flag. Only optimizations that have a
flag are listed.
-O
-O1 Optimize. Optimizing compilation takes somewhat more time, and a lot more
memory for a large function.
With ‘-O’, the compiler tries to reduce code size and execution time, without
performing any optimizations that take a great deal of compilation time.
‘-O’ turns on the following optimization flags:
-fdefer-pop
-fmerge-constants
-fthread-jumps
-floop-optimize
-fif-conversion
-fif-conversion2
-fdelayed-branch
-fguess-branch-probability
-fcprop-registers
‘-O’ also turns on ‘-fomit-frame-pointer’ on machines where doing so does
not interfere with debugging.
-O2 Optimize even more. GCC performs nearly all supported optimizations that
do not involve a space-speed tradeoff. The compiler does not perform loop
unrolling or function inlining when you specify ‘-O2’. As compared to ‘-O’, this
option increases both compilation time and the performance of the generated
code.
‘-O2’ turns on all optimization flags specified by ‘-O’. It also turns on the
following optimization flags:
-fforce-mem
-foptimize-sibling-calls
-fstrength-reduce
-fcse-follow-jumps -fcse-skip-blocks
-frerun-cse-after-loop -frerun-loop-opt
-fgcse -fgcse-lm -fgcse-sm -fgcse-las
-fdelete-null-pointer-checks
-fexpensive-optimizations
-fregmove
-fschedule-insns -fschedule-insns2
-fsched-interblock -fsched-spec
-fcaller-saves
-fpeephole2
-freorder-blocks -freorder-functions
-fstrict-aliasing
-funit-at-a-time
-falign-functions -falign-jumps
-falign-loops -falign-labels
-fcrossjumping
Please note the warning under ‘-fgcse’ about invoking ‘-O2’ on programs that
use computed gotos.
58 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-O3 Optimize yet more. ‘-O3’ turns on all optimizations specified by ‘-O2’ and
also turns on the ‘-finline-functions’, ‘-fweb’, ‘-frename-registers’ and
‘-funswitch-loops’ options.
-O0 Do not optimize. This is the default.
-Os Optimize for size. ‘-Os’ enables all ‘-O2’ optimizations that do not typically
increase code size. It also performs further optimizations designed to reduce
code size.
‘-Os’ disables the following optimization flags:
-falign-functions -falign-jumps -falign-loops
-falign-labels -freorder-blocks -fprefetch-loop-arrays
If you use multiple ‘-O’ options, with or without level numbers, the last such
option is the one that is effective.
Options of the form ‘-fflag ’ specify machine-independent flags. Most flags have both
positive and negative forms; the negative form of ‘-ffoo’ would be ‘-fno-foo’. In the table
below, only one of the forms is listed—the one you typically will use. You can figure out
the other form by either removing ‘no-’ or adding it.
The following options control specific optimizations. They are either activated by ‘-O’
options or are related to ones that are. You can use the following flags in the rare cases
when “fine-tuning” of optimizations to be performed is desired.
-fno-default-inline
Do not make member functions inline by default merely because they are defined
inside the class scope (C++ only). Otherwise, when you specify ‘-O’, member
functions defined inside class scope are compiled inline by default; i.e., you don’t
need to add ‘inline’ in front of the member function name.
-fno-defer-pop
Always pop the arguments to each function call as soon as that function returns.
For machines which must pop arguments after a function call, the compiler
normally lets arguments accumulate on the stack for several function calls and
pops them all at once.
Disabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fforce-mem
Force memory operands to be copied into registers before doing arithmetic on
them. This produces better code by making all memory references potential
common subexpressions. When they are not common subexpressions, instruc-
tion combination should eliminate the separate register-load.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fforce-addr
Force memory address constants to be copied into registers before doing arith-
metic on them. This may produce better code just as ‘-fforce-mem’ may.
-fomit-frame-pointer
Don’t keep the frame pointer in a register for functions that don’t need one.
This avoids the instructions to save, set up and restore frame pointers; it also
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 59
max-inline-insns-rtl
is set to n.
See below for a documentation of the individual parameters controlling inlining.
Note: pseudo instruction represents, in this particular context, an abstract
measurement of function’s size. In no way, it represents a count of assembly
instructions and as such its exact meaning might change from one release to an
another.
-fkeep-inline-functions
Even if all calls to a given function are integrated, and the function is declared
static, nevertheless output a separate run-time callable version of the function.
This switch does not affect extern inline functions.
-fkeep-static-consts
Emit variables declared static const when optimization isn’t turned on, even
if the variables aren’t referenced.
GCC enables this option by default. If you want to force the compiler to check if
the variable was referenced, regardless of whether or not optimization is turned
on, use the ‘-fno-keep-static-consts’ option.
-fmerge-constants
Attempt to merge identical constants (string constants and floating point con-
stants) across compilation units.
This option is the default for optimized compilation if the assembler and linker
support it. Use ‘-fno-merge-constants’ to inhibit this behavior.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fmerge-all-constants
Attempt to merge identical constants and identical variables.
This option implies ‘-fmerge-constants’. In addition to ‘-fmerge-constants’
this considers e.g. even constant initialized arrays or initialized constant vari-
ables with integral or floating point types. Languages like C or C++ require
each non-automatic variable to have distinct location, so using this option will
result in non-conforming behavior.
-fnew-ra Use a graph coloring register allocator. Currently this option is meant only
for testing. Users should not specify this option, since it is not yet ready for
production use.
-fno-branch-count-reg
Do not use “decrement and branch” instructions on a count register, but instead
generate a sequence of instructions that decrement a register, compare it against
zero, then branch based upon the result. This option is only meaningful on
architectures that support such instructions, which include x86, PowerPC, IA-
64 and S/390.
The default is ‘-fbranch-count-reg’, enabled when ‘-fstrength-reduce’ is
enabled.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 61
-fno-function-cse
Do not put function addresses in registers; make each instruction that calls a
constant function contain the function’s address explicitly.
This option results in less efficient code, but some strange hacks that alter the
assembler output may be confused by the optimizations performed when this
option is not used.
The default is ‘-ffunction-cse’
-fno-zero-initialized-in-bss
If the target supports a BSS section, GCC by default puts variables that are
initialized to zero into BSS. This can save space in the resulting code.
This option turns off this behavior because some programs explicitly rely on
variables going to the data section. E.g., so that the resulting executable can
find the beginning of that section and/or make assumptions based on that.
The default is ‘-fzero-initialized-in-bss’.
-fstrength-reduce
Perform the optimizations of loop strength reduction and elimination of itera-
tion variables.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fthread-jumps
Perform optimizations where we check to see if a jump branches to a location
where another comparison subsumed by the first is found. If so, the first branch
is redirected to either the destination of the second branch or a point immedi-
ately following it, depending on whether the condition is known to be true or
false.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fcse-follow-jumps
In common subexpression elimination, scan through jump instructions when
the target of the jump is not reached by any other path. For example, when
CSE encounters an if statement with an else clause, CSE will follow the jump
when the condition tested is false.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fcse-skip-blocks
This is similar to ‘-fcse-follow-jumps’, but causes CSE to follow jumps which
conditionally skip over blocks. When CSE encounters a simple if statement
with no else clause, ‘-fcse-skip-blocks’ causes CSE to follow the jump around
the body of the if.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-frerun-cse-after-loop
Re-run common subexpression elimination after loop optimizations has been
performed.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
62 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-frerun-loop-opt
Run the loop optimizer twice.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fgcse Perform a global common subexpression elimination pass. This pass also per-
forms global constant and copy propagation.
Note: When compiling a program using computed gotos, a GCC extension,
you may get better runtime performance if you disable the global common
subexpression elimination pass by adding ‘-fno-gcse’ to the command line.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fgcse-lm
When ‘-fgcse-lm’ is enabled, global common subexpression elimination will
attempt to move loads which are only killed by stores into themselves. This
allows a loop containing a load/store sequence to be changed to a load outside
the loop, and a copy/store within the loop.
Enabled by default when gcse is enabled.
-fgcse-sm
When ‘-fgcse-sm’ is enabled, a store motion pass is run after global common
subexpression elimination. This pass will attempt to move stores out of loops.
When used in conjunction with ‘-fgcse-lm’, loops containing a load/store se-
quence can be changed to a load before the loop and a store after the loop.
Enabled by default when gcse is enabled.
-fgcse-las
When ‘-fgcse-las’ is enabled, the global common subexpression elimination
pass eliminates redundant loads that come after stores to the same memory
location (both partial and full redundancies).
Enabled by default when gcse is enabled.
-floop-optimize
Perform loop optimizations: move constant expressions out of loops, simplify
exit test conditions and optionally do strength-reduction and loop unrolling as
well.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fcrossjumping
Perform cross-jumping transformation. This transformation unifies equivalent
code and save code size. The resulting code may or may not perform better
than without cross-jumping.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fif-conversion
Attempt to transform conditional jumps into branch-less equivalents. This
include use of conditional moves, min, max, set flags and abs instructions, and
some tricks doable by standard arithmetics. The use of conditional execution
on chips where it is available is controlled by if-conversion2.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 63
-fif-conversion2
Use conditional execution (where available) to transform conditional jumps into
branch-less equivalents.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fdelete-null-pointer-checks
Use global dataflow analysis to identify and eliminate useless checks for null
pointers. The compiler assumes that dereferencing a null pointer would have
halted the program. If a pointer is checked after it has already been derefer-
enced, it cannot be null.
In some environments, this assumption is not true, and programs can safely
dereference null pointers. Use ‘-fno-delete-null-pointer-checks’ to disable
this optimization for programs which depend on that behavior.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fexpensive-optimizations
Perform a number of minor optimizations that are relatively expensive.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-foptimize-register-move
-fregmove
Attempt to reassign register numbers in move instructions and as operands of
other simple instructions in order to maximize the amount of register tying.
This is especially helpful on machines with two-operand instructions.
Note ‘-fregmove’ and ‘-foptimize-register-move’ are the same optimiza-
tion.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fdelayed-branch
If supported for the target machine, attempt to reorder instructions to exploit
instruction slots available after delayed branch instructions.
Enabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fschedule-insns
If supported for the target machine, attempt to reorder instructions to eliminate
execution stalls due to required data being unavailable. This helps machines
that have slow floating point or memory load instructions by allowing other
instructions to be issued until the result of the load or floating point instruction
is required.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fschedule-insns2
Similar to ‘-fschedule-insns’, but requests an additional pass of instruction
scheduling after register allocation has been done. This is especially useful on
machines with a relatively small number of registers and where memory load
instructions take more than one cycle.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
64 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-fno-sched-interblock
Don’t schedule instructions across basic blocks. This is normally enabled by
default when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with ‘-fschedule-insns’
or at ‘-O2’ or higher.
-fno-sched-spec
Don’t allow speculative motion of non-load instructions. This is normally
enabled by default when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with
‘-fschedule-insns’ or at ‘-O2’ or higher.
-fsched-spec-load
Allow speculative motion of some load instructions. This only makes sense
when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with ‘-fschedule-insns’ or at
‘-O2’ or higher.
-fsched-spec-load-dangerous
Allow speculative motion of more load instructions. This only makes sense
when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with ‘-fschedule-insns’ or at
‘-O2’ or higher.
-fsched-stalled-insns=n
Define how many insns (if any) can be moved prematurely from the queue of
stalled insns into the ready list, during the second scheduling pass.
-fsched-stalled-insns-dep=n
Define how many insn groups (cycles) will be examined for a dependency
on a stalled insn that is candidate for premature removal from the queue of
stalled insns. Has an effect only during the second scheduling pass, and only if
‘-fsched-stalled-insns’ is used and its value is not zero.
-fsched2-use-superblocks
When scheduling after register allocation, do use superblock scheduling algo-
rithm. Superblock scheduling allows motion across basic block boundaries re-
sulting on faster schedules. This option is experimental, as not all machine
descriptions used by GCC model the CPU closely enough to avoid unreliable
results from the algorithm.
This only makes sense when scheduling after register allocation, i.e. with
‘-fschedule-insns2’ or at ‘-O2’ or higher.
-fsched2-use-traces
Use ‘-fsched2-use-superblocks’ algorithm when scheduling after register al-
location and additionally perform code duplication in order to increase the size
of superblocks using tracer pass. See ‘-ftracer’ for details on trace formation.
This mode should produce faster but significantly longer programs. Also with-
out -fbranch-probabilities the traces constructed may not match the reality
and hurt the performance. This only makes sense when scheduling after register
allocation, i.e. with ‘-fschedule-insns2’ or at ‘-O2’ or higher.
-fcaller-saves
Enable values to be allocated in registers that will be clobbered by function
calls, by emitting extra instructions to save and restore the registers around
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 65
such calls. Such allocation is done only when it seems to result in better code
than would otherwise be produced.
This option is always enabled by default on certain machines, usually those
which have no call-preserved registers to use instead.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fmove-all-movables
Forces all invariant computations in loops to be moved outside the loop.
-freduce-all-givs
Forces all general-induction variables in loops to be strength-reduced.
Note: When compiling programs written in Fortran, ‘-fmove-all-movables’
and ‘-freduce-all-givs’ are enabled by default when you use the optimizer.
These options may generate better or worse code; results are highly dependent
on the structure of loops within the source code.
These two options are intended to be removed someday, once they have helped
determine the efficacy of various approaches to improving loop optimizations.
Please contact [email protected], and describe how use of these options affects
the performance of your production code. Examples of code that runs slower
when these options are enabled are very valuable.
-fno-peephole
-fno-peephole2
Disable any machine-specific peephole optimizations. The difference between
‘-fno-peephole’ and ‘-fno-peephole2’ is in how they are implemented in the
compiler; some targets use one, some use the other, a few use both.
‘-fpeephole’ is enabled by default. ‘-fpeephole2’ enabled at levels ‘-O2’,
‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fno-guess-branch-probability
Do not guess branch probabilities using a randomized model.
Sometimes GCC will opt to use a randomized model to guess branch probabili-
ties, when none are available from either profiling feedback (‘-fprofile-arcs’)
or ‘__builtin_expect’. This means that different runs of the compiler on the
same program may produce different object code.
In a hard real-time system, people don’t want different runs of the compiler
to produce code that has different behavior; minimizing non-determinism is
of paramount import. This switch allows users to reduce non-determinism,
possibly at the expense of inferior optimization.
The default is ‘-fguess-branch-probability’ at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-freorder-blocks
Reorder basic blocks in the compiled function in order to reduce number of
taken branches and improve code locality.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’.
-freorder-functions
Reorder basic blocks in the compiled function in order to reduce number
of taken branches and improve code locality. This is implemented by using
66 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
int f() {
a_union t;
t.d = 3.0;
return t.i;
}
The practice of reading from a different union member than the one
most recently written to (called “type-punning”) is common. Even with
‘-fstrict-aliasing’, type-punning is allowed, provided the memory is
accessed through the union type. So, the code above will work as expected.
However, this code might not:
int f() {
a_union t;
int* ip;
t.d = 3.0;
ip = &t.i;
return *ip;
}
Every language that wishes to perform language-specific alias analysis should
define a function that computes, given an tree node, an alias set for the node.
Nodes in different alias sets are not allowed to alias. For an example, see the C
front-end function c_get_alias_set.
Enabled at levels ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-falign-functions
-falign-functions=n
Align the start of functions to the next power-of-two greater than n, skipping
up to n bytes. For instance, ‘-falign-functions=32’ aligns functions to the
next 32-byte boundary, but ‘-falign-functions=24’ would align to the next
32-byte boundary only if this can be done by skipping 23 bytes or less.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 67
-fweb Constructs webs as commonly used for register allocation purposes and assign
each web individual pseudo register. This allows the register allocation pass
to operate on pseudos directly, but also strengthens several other optimization
passes, such as CSE, loop optimizer and trivial dead code remover. It can,
however, make debugging impossible, since variables will no longer stay in a
“home register”.
Enabled at levels ‘-O3’.
-fno-cprop-registers
After register allocation and post-register allocation instruction splitting, we
perform a copy-propagation pass to try to reduce scheduling dependencies and
occasionally eliminate the copy.
Disabled at levels ‘-O’, ‘-O2’, ‘-O3’, ‘-Os’.
-fprofile-generate
Enable options usually used for instrumenting application to produce profile
useful for later recompilation with profile feedback based optimization. You
must use -fprofile-generate both when compiling and when linking your
program.
The following options are enabled: -fprofile-arcs, -fprofile-values, -
fvpt.
-fprofile-use
Enable profile feedback directed optimizations, and optimizations generally
profitable only with profile feedback available.
The following options are enabled: -fbranch-probabilities, -fvpt,
-funroll-loops, -fpeel-loops, -ftracer.
The following options control compiler behavior regarding floating point arithmetic.
These options trade off between speed and correctness. All must be specifically enabled.
-ffloat-store
Do not store floating point variables in registers, and inhibit other options that
might change whether a floating point value is taken from a register or memory.
This option prevents undesirable excess precision on machines such as the 68000
where the floating registers (of the 68881) keep more precision than a double
is supposed to have. Similarly for the x86 architecture. For most programs,
the excess precision does only good, but a few programs rely on the precise
definition of IEEE floating point. Use ‘-ffloat-store’ for such programs, after
modifying them to store all pertinent intermediate computations into variables.
-ffast-math
Sets ‘-fno-math-errno’, ‘-funsafe-math-optimizations’,
‘-fno-trapping-math’, ‘-ffinite-math-only’, ‘-fno-rounding-math’ and
‘-fno-signaling-nans’.
This option causes the preprocessor macro __FAST_MATH__ to be defined.
This option should never be turned on by any ‘-O’ option since it can result
in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of
IEEE or ISO rules/specifications for math functions.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 69
-fno-math-errno
Do not set ERRNO after calling math functions that are executed with a single
instruction, e.g., sqrt. A program that relies on IEEE exceptions for math error
handling may want to use this flag for speed while maintaining IEEE arithmetic
compatibility.
This option should never be turned on by any ‘-O’ option since it can result
in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of
IEEE or ISO rules/specifications for math functions.
The default is ‘-fmath-errno’.
-funsafe-math-optimizations
Allow optimizations for floating-point arithmetic that (a) assume that argu-
ments and results are valid and (b) may violate IEEE or ANSI standards.
When used at link-time, it may include libraries or startup files that change the
default FPU control word or other similar optimizations.
This option should never be turned on by any ‘-O’ option since it can result
in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of
IEEE or ISO rules/specifications for math functions.
The default is ‘-fno-unsafe-math-optimizations’.
-ffinite-math-only
Allow optimizations for floating-point arithmetic that assume that arguments
and results are not NaNs or +-Infs.
This option should never be turned on by any ‘-O’ option since it can result
in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of
IEEE or ISO rules/specifications.
The default is ‘-fno-finite-math-only’.
-fno-trapping-math
Compile code assuming that floating-point operations cannot generate user-
visible traps. These traps include division by zero, overflow, underflow, inex-
act result and invalid operation. This option implies ‘-fno-signaling-nans’.
Setting this option may allow faster code if one relies on “non-stop” IEEE
arithmetic, for example.
This option should never be turned on by any ‘-O’ option since it can result
in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of
IEEE or ISO rules/specifications for math functions.
The default is ‘-ftrapping-math’.
-frounding-math
Disable transformations and optimizations that assume default floating point
rounding behavior. This is round-to-zero for all floating point to integer con-
versions, and round-to-nearest for all other arithmetic truncations. This option
should be specified for programs that change the FP rounding mode dynami-
cally, or that may be executed with a non-default rounding mode. This option
disables constant folding of floating point expressions at compile-time (which
may be affected by rounding mode) and arithmetic transformations that are
unsafe in the presence of sign-dependent rounding modes.
70 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-fnew-ra Use a graph coloring register allocator. Currently this option is meant for
testing, so we are interested to hear about miscompilations with ‘-fnew-ra’.
-ftracer Perform tail duplication to enlarge superblock size. This transformation sim-
plifies the control flow of the function allowing other optimizations to do better
job.
-funit-at-a-time
Parse the whole compilation unit before starting to produce code. This allows
some extra optimizations to take place but consumes more memory.
-funroll-loops
Unroll loops whose number of iterations can be determined at compile time or
upon entry to the loop. ‘-funroll-loops’ implies ‘-frerun-cse-after-loop’.
It also turns on complete loop peeling (i.e. complete removal of loops with small
constant number of iterations). This option makes code larger, and may or may
not make it run faster.
-funroll-all-loops
Unroll all loops, even if their number of iterations is uncertain when the loop is
entered. This usually makes programs run more slowly. ‘-funroll-all-loops’
implies the same options as ‘-funroll-loops’.
-fpeel-loops
Peels the loops for that there is enough information that they do not roll much
(from profile feedback). It also turns on complete loop peeling (i.e. complete
removal of loops with small constant number of iterations).
-funswitch-loops
Move branches with loop invariant conditions out of the loop, with duplicates
of the loop on both branches (modified according to result of the condition).
-fold-unroll-loops
Unroll loops whose number of iterations can be determined at compile time
or upon entry to the loop, using the old loop unroller whose loop recognition
is based on notes from frontend. ‘-fold-unroll-loops’ implies both
‘-fstrength-reduce’ and ‘-frerun-cse-after-loop’. This option makes
code larger, and may or may not make it run faster.
-fold-unroll-all-loops
Unroll all loops, even if their number of iterations is uncertain when
the loop is entered. This is done using the old loop unroller whose loop
recognition is based on notes from frontend. This usually makes programs
run more slowly. ‘-fold-unroll-all-loops’ implies the same options as
‘-fold-unroll-loops’.
72 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-funswitch-loops
Move branches with loop invariant conditions out of the loop, with duplicates
of the loop on both branches (modified according to result of the condition).
-funswitch-loops
Move branches with loop invariant conditions out of the loop, with duplicates
of the loop on both branches (modified according to result of the condition).
-fprefetch-loop-arrays
If supported by the target machine, generate instructions to prefetch memory
to improve the performance of loops that access large arrays.
Disabled at level ‘-Os’.
-ffunction-sections
-fdata-sections
Place each function or data item into its own section in the output file if the
target supports arbitrary sections. The name of the function or the name of
the data item determines the section’s name in the output file.
Use these options on systems where the linker can perform optimizations to
improve locality of reference in the instruction space. Most systems using the
ELF object format and SPARC processors running Solaris 2 have linkers with
such optimizations. AIX may have these optimizations in the future.
Only use these options when there are significant benefits from doing so. When
you specify these options, the assembler and linker will create larger object and
executable files and will also be slower. You will not be able to use gprof on all
systems if you specify this option and you may have problems with debugging
if you specify both this option and ‘-g’.
-fbranch-target-load-optimize
Perform branch target register load optimization before prologue / epilogue
threading. The use of target registers can typically be exposed only during
reload, thus hoisting loads out of loops and doing inter-block scheduling needs
a separate optimization pass.
-fbranch-target-load-optimize2
Perform branch target register load optimization after prologue / epilogue
threading.
--param name =value
In some places, GCC uses various constants to control the amount of optimiza-
tion that is done. For example, GCC will not inline functions that contain more
that a certain number of instructions. You can control some of these constants
on the command-line using the ‘--param’ option.
The names of specific parameters, and the meaning of the values, are tied to
the internals of the compiler, and are subject to change without notice in future
releases.
In each case, the value is an integer. The allowable choices for name are given
in the following table:
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 73
max-crossjump-edges
The maximum number of incoming edges to consider for crossjump-
ing. The algorithm used by ‘-fcrossjumping’ is O(N 2 ) in the
number of edges incoming to each block. Increasing values mean
more aggressive optimization, making the compile time increase
with probably small improvement in executable size.
max-delay-slot-insn-search
The maximum number of instructions to consider when looking for
an instruction to fill a delay slot. If more than this arbitrary number
of instructions is searched, the time savings from filling the delay
slot will be minimal so stop searching. Increasing values mean
more aggressive optimization, making the compile time increase
with probably small improvement in executable run time.
max-delay-slot-live-search
When trying to fill delay slots, the maximum number of instruc-
tions to consider when searching for a block with valid live register
information. Increasing this arbitrarily chosen value means more
aggressive optimization, increasing the compile time. This param-
eter should be removed when the delay slot code is rewritten to
maintain the control-flow graph.
max-gcse-memory
The approximate maximum amount of memory that will be allo-
cated in order to perform the global common subexpression elim-
ination optimization. If more memory than specified is required,
the optimization will not be done.
max-gcse-passes
The maximum number of passes of GCSE to run.
max-pending-list-length
The maximum number of pending dependencies scheduling will al-
low before flushing the current state and starting over. Large func-
tions with few branches or calls can create excessively large lists
which needlessly consume memory and resources.
max-inline-insns-single
Several parameters control the tree inliner used in gcc. This num-
ber sets the maximum number of instructions (counted in GCC’s
internal representation) in a single function that the tree inliner
will consider for inlining. This only affects functions declared in-
line and methods implemented in a class declaration (C++). The
default value is 500.
max-inline-insns-auto
When you use ‘-finline-functions’ (included in ‘-O3’), a lot of
functions that would otherwise not be considered for inlining by
the compiler will be investigated. To those functions, a different
74 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
max-completely-peel-times
The maximum number of iterations of a loop to be suitable for
complete peeling.
max-unswitch-insns
The maximum number of insns of an unswitched loop.
max-unswitch-level
The maximum number of branches unswitched in a single loop.
hot-bb-count-fraction
Select fraction of the maximal count of repetitions of basic block in
program given basic block needs to have to be considered hot.
hot-bb-frequency-fraction
Select fraction of the maximal frequency of executions of basic block
in function given basic block needs to have to be considered hot
tracer-dynamic-coverage
tracer-dynamic-coverage-feedback
This value is used to limit superblock formation once the given per-
centage of executed instructions is covered. This limits unnecessary
code size expansion.
The ‘tracer-dynamic-coverage-feedback’ is used only when pro-
file feedback is available. The real profiles (as opposed to statically
estimated ones) are much less balanced allowing the threshold to
be larger value.
tracer-max-code-growth
Stop tail duplication once code growth has reached given percent-
age. This is rather hokey argument, as most of the duplicates will
be eliminated later in cross jumping, so it may be set to much
higher values than is the desired code growth.
tracer-min-branch-ratio
Stop reverse growth when the reverse probability of best edge is
less than this threshold (in percent).
tracer-min-branch-ratio
tracer-min-branch-ratio-feedback
Stop forward growth if the best edge do have probability lower than
this threshold.
Similarly to ‘tracer-dynamic-coverage’ two values are present,
one for compilation for profile feedback and one for compilation
without. The value for compilation with profile feedback needs to
be more conservative (higher) in order to make tracer effective.
max-cse-path-length
Maximum number of basic blocks on path that cse considers.
76 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
max-last-value-rtl
The maximum size measured as number of RTLs that can be
recorded in an expression in combiner for a pseudo register as last
known value of that register. The default is 10000.
ggc-min-expand
GCC uses a garbage collector to manage its own memory alloca-
tion. This parameter specifies the minimum percentage by which
the garbage collector’s heap should be allowed to expand between
collections. Tuning this may improve compilation speed; it has no
effect on code generation.
The default is 30% + 70% * (RAM/1GB) with an upper bound
of 100% when RAM >= 1GB. If getrlimit is available, the
notion of "RAM" is the smallest of actual RAM, RLIMIT RSS,
RLIMIT DATA and RLIMIT AS. If GCC is not able to calculate
RAM on a particular platform, the lower bound of 30% is used.
Setting this parameter and ‘ggc-min-heapsize’ to zero causes a
full collection to occur at every opportunity. This is extremely
slow, but can be useful for debugging.
ggc-min-heapsize
Minimum size of the garbage collector’s heap before it begins
bothering to collect garbage. The first collection occurs after the
heap expands by ‘ggc-min-expand’% beyond ‘ggc-min-heapsize’.
Again, tuning this may improve compilation speed, and has no
effect on code generation.
The default is RAM/8, with a lower bound of 4096 (four megabytes)
and an upper bound of 131072 (128 megabytes). If getrlimit is
available, the notion of "RAM" is the smallest of actual RAM,
RLIMIT RSS, RLIMIT DATA and RLIMIT AS. If GCC is not
able to calculate RAM on a particular platform, the lower bound is
used. Setting this parameter very large effectively disables garbage
collection. Setting this parameter and ‘ggc-min-expand’ to zero
causes a full collection to occur at every opportunity.
max-reload-search-insns
The maximum number of instruction reload should look backward
for equivalent register. Increasing values mean more aggressive op-
timization, making the compile time increase with probably slightly
better performance. The default value is 100.
max-cselib-memory-location
The maximum number of memory locations cselib should take into
acount. Increasing values mean more aggressive optimization, mak-
ing the compile time increase with probably slightly better perfor-
mance. The default value is 500.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 77
reorder-blocks-duplicate
reorder-blocks-duplicate-feedback
Used by basic block reordering pass to decide whether to use un-
conditional branch or duplicate the code on its destination. Code
is duplicated when its estimated size is smaller than this value mul-
tiplied by the estimated size of unconditional jump in the hot spots
of the program.
The ‘reorder-block-duplicate-feedback’ is used only when pro-
file feedback is available and may be set to higher values than
‘reorder-block-duplicate’ since information about the hot spots
is more accurate.
‘-D’ and ‘-U’ options are processed in the order they are given on the command
line. All ‘-imacros file ’ and ‘-include file ’ options are processed after all
‘-D’ and ‘-U’ options.
-U name Cancel any previous definition of name, either built in or provided with a ‘-D’
option.
-I dir Add the directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for header files.
Directories named by ‘-I’ are searched before the standard system include di-
rectories. If the directory dir is a standard system include directory, the option
is ignored to ensure that the default search order for system directories and the
special treatment of system headers are not defeated .
-o file Write output to file. This is the same as specifying file as the second non-option
argument to cpp. gcc has a different interpretation of a second non-option
argument, so you must use ‘-o’ to specify the output file.
-Wall Turns on all optional warnings which are desirable for normal code. At present
this is ‘-Wcomment’, ‘-Wtrigraphs’, ‘-Wmultichar’ and a warning about integer
promotion causing a change of sign in #if expressions. Note that many of the
preprocessor’s warnings are on by default and have no options to control them.
-Wcomment
-Wcomments
Warn whenever a comment-start sequence ‘/*’ appears in a ‘/*’ comment, or
whenever a backslash-newline appears in a ‘//’ comment. (Both forms have
the same effect.)
-Wtrigraphs
Most trigraphs in comments cannot affect the meaning of the program. How-
ever, a trigraph that would form an escaped newline (‘??/’ at the end of a line)
can, by changing where the comment begins or ends. Therefore, only trigraphs
that would form escaped newlines produce warnings inside a comment.
This option is implied by ‘-Wall’. If ‘-Wall’ is not given, this option
is still enabled unless trigraphs are enabled. To get trigraph conversion
without warnings, but get the other ‘-Wall’ warnings, use ‘-trigraphs -Wall
-Wno-trigraphs’.
-Wtraditional
Warn about certain constructs that behave differently in traditional and ISO
C. Also warn about ISO C constructs that have no traditional C equivalent,
and problematic constructs which should be avoided.
-Wunused-macros
Warn about macros defined in the main file that are unused. A macro is used if
it is expanded or tested for existence at least once. The preprocessor will also
warn if the macro has not been used at the time it is redefined or undefined.
Built-in macros, macros defined on the command line, and macros defined in
include files are not warned about.
Note: If a macro is actually used, but only used in skipped conditional blocks,
then CPP will report it as unused. To avoid the warning in such a case, you
might improve the scope of the macro’s definition by, for example, moving it
into the first skipped block. Alternatively, you could provide a dummy use with
something like:
#if defined the_macro_causing_the_warning
#endif
-Wendif-labels
Warn whenever an ‘#else’ or an ‘#endif’ are followed by text. This usually
happens in code of the form
#if FOO
...
#else FOO
...
#endif FOO
The second and third FOO should be in comments, but often are not in older
programs. This warning is on by default.
-Werror Make all warnings into hard errors. Source code which triggers warnings will
be rejected.
-Wsystem-headers
Issue warnings for code in system headers. These are normally unhelpful in
finding bugs in your own code, therefore suppressed. If you are responsible for
the system library, you may want to see them.
-w Suppress all warnings, including those which GNU CPP issues by default.
-pedantic
Issue all the mandatory diagnostics listed in the C standard. Some of them are
left out by default, since they trigger frequently on harmless code.
-pedantic-errors
Issue all the mandatory diagnostics, and make all mandatory diagnostics
into errors. This includes mandatory diagnostics that GCC issues without
‘-pedantic’ but treats as warnings.
-M Instead of outputting the result of preprocessing, output a rule suitable for make
describing the dependencies of the main source file. The preprocessor outputs
one make rule containing the object file name for that source file, a colon, and
the names of all the included files, including those coming from ‘-include’ or
‘-imacros’ command line options.
Unless specified explicitly (with ‘-MT’ or ‘-MQ’), the object file name consists of
the basename of the source file with any suffix replaced with object file suffix.
80 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
If there are many included files then the rule is split into several lines using
‘\’-newline. The rule has no commands.
This option does not suppress the preprocessor’s debug output, such as ‘-dM’.
To avoid mixing such debug output with the dependency rules you should ex-
plicitly specify the dependency output file with ‘-MF’, or use an environment
variable like DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT (see Section 3.19 [Environment Variables],
page 168). Debug output will still be sent to the regular output stream as
normal.
Passing ‘-M’ to the driver implies ‘-E’, and suppresses warnings with an implicit
‘-w’.
-MM Like ‘-M’ but do not mention header files that are found in system header
directories, nor header files that are included, directly or indirectly, from such
a header.
This implies that the choice of angle brackets or double quotes in an ‘#include’
directive does not in itself determine whether that header will appear in ‘-MM’
dependency output. This is a slight change in semantics from GCC versions
3.0 and earlier.
-MF file When used with ‘-M’ or ‘-MM’, specifies a file to write the dependencies to. If
no ‘-MF’ switch is given the preprocessor sends the rules to the same place it
would have sent preprocessed output.
When used with the driver options ‘-MD’ or ‘-MMD’, ‘-MF’ overrides the default
dependency output file.
-MG In conjunction with an option such as ‘-M’ requesting dependency generation,
‘-MG’ assumes missing header files are generated files and adds them to the
dependency list without raising an error. The dependency filename is taken
directly from the #include directive without prepending any path. ‘-MG’ also
suppresses preprocessed output, as a missing header file renders this useless.
This feature is used in automatic updating of makefiles.
-MP This option instructs CPP to add a phony target for each dependency other
than the main file, causing each to depend on nothing. These dummy rules
work around errors make gives if you remove header files without updating the
‘Makefile’ to match.
This is typical output:
test.o: test.c test.h
test.h:
-MT target
Change the target of the rule emitted by dependency generation. By default
CPP takes the name of the main input file, including any path, deletes any file
suffix such as ‘.c’, and appends the platform’s usual object suffix. The result
is the target.
An ‘-MT’ option will set the target to be exactly the string you specify. If you
want multiple targets, you can specify them as a single argument to ‘-MT’, or
use multiple ‘-MT’ options.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 81
All files specified by ‘-imacros’ are processed before all files specified by
‘-include’.
-idirafter dir
Search dir for header files, but do it after all directories specified with ‘-I’ and
the standard system directories have been exhausted. dir is treated as a system
include directory.
-iprefix prefix
Specify prefix as the prefix for subsequent ‘-iwithprefix’ options. If the prefix
represents a directory, you should include the final ‘/’.
-iwithprefix dir
-iwithprefixbefore dir
Append dir to the prefix specified previously with ‘-iprefix’, and add the
resulting directory to the include search path. ‘-iwithprefixbefore’ puts it
in the same place ‘-I’ would; ‘-iwithprefix’ puts it where ‘-idirafter’ would.
-isystem dir
Search dir for header files, after all directories specified by ‘-I’ but before the
standard system directories. Mark it as a system directory, so that it gets the
same special treatment as is applied to the standard system directories.
-fdollars-in-identifiers
Accept ‘$’ in identifiers.
-fpreprocessed
Indicate to the preprocessor that the input file has already been preprocessed.
This suppresses things like macro expansion, trigraph conversion, escaped new-
line splicing, and processing of most directives. The preprocessor still recognizes
and removes comments, so that you can pass a file preprocessed with ‘-C’ to the
compiler without problems. In this mode the integrated preprocessor is little
more than a tokenizer for the front ends.
‘-fpreprocessed’ is implicit if the input file has one of the extensions ‘.i’,
‘.ii’ or ‘.mi’. These are the extensions that GCC uses for preprocessed files
created by ‘-save-temps’.
-ftabstop=width
Set the distance between tab stops. This helps the preprocessor report correct
column numbers in warnings or errors, even if tabs appear on the line. If the
value is less than 1 or greater than 100, the option is ignored. The default is 8.
-fexec-charset=charset
Set the execution character set, used for string and character constants. The
default is UTF-8. charset can be any encoding supported by the system’s iconv
library routine.
-fwide-exec-charset=charset
Set the wide execution character set, used for wide string and character con-
stants. The default is UTF-32 or UTF-16, whichever corresponds to the width
of wchar_t. As with ‘-ftarget-charset’, charset can be any encoding sup-
ported by the system’s iconv library routine; however, you will have problems
with encodings that do not fit exactly in wchar_t.
84 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-finput-charset=charset
Set the input character set, used for translation from the character set of the
input file to the source character set used by GCC. If the locale does not specify,
or GCC cannot get this information from the locale, the default is UTF-8. This
can be overridden by either the locale or this command line option. Currently
the command line option takes precedence if there’s a conflict. charset can be
any encoding supported by the system’s iconv library routine.
-fworking-directory
Enable generation of linemarkers in the preprocessor output that will let the
compiler know the current working directory at the time of preprocessing.
When this option is enabled, the preprocessor will emit, after the initial line-
marker, a second linemarker with the current working directory followed by
two slashes. GCC will use this directory, when it’s present in the prepro-
cessed input, as the directory emitted as the current working directory in some
debugging information formats. This option is implicitly enabled if debug-
ging information is enabled, but this can be inhibited with the negated form
‘-fno-working-directory’. If the ‘-P’ flag is present in the command line,
this option has no effect, since no #line directives are emitted whatsoever.
-fno-show-column
Do not print column numbers in diagnostics. This may be necessary if diag-
nostics are being scanned by a program that does not understand the column
numbers, such as dejagnu.
-A predicate =answer
Make an assertion with the predicate predicate and answer answer. This form is
preferred to the older form ‘-A predicate (answer )’, which is still supported,
because it does not use shell special characters.
-A -predicate =answer
Cancel an assertion with the predicate predicate and answer answer.
-dCHARS CHARS is a sequence of one or more of the following characters, and must
not be preceded by a space. Other characters are interpreted by the compiler
proper, or reserved for future versions of GCC, and so are silently ignored. If
you specify characters whose behavior conflicts, the result is undefined.
‘M’ Instead of the normal output, generate a list of ‘#define’ directives
for all the macros defined during the execution of the preprocessor,
including predefined macros. This gives you a way of finding out
what is predefined in your version of the preprocessor. Assuming
you have no file ‘foo.h’, the command
touch foo.h; cpp -dM foo.h
will show all the predefined macros.
‘D’ Like ‘M’ except in two respects: it does not include the predefined
macros, and it outputs both the ‘#define’ directives and the result
of preprocessing. Both kinds of output go to the standard output
file.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 85
‘N’ Like ‘D’, but emit only the macro names, not their expansions.
‘I’ Output ‘#include’ directives in addition to the result of prepro-
cessing.
-P Inhibit generation of linemarkers in the output from the preprocessor. This
might be useful when running the preprocessor on something that is not C code,
and will be sent to a program which might be confused by the linemarkers.
-C Do not discard comments. All comments are passed through to the output file,
except for comments in processed directives, which are deleted along with the
directive.
You should be prepared for side effects when using ‘-C’; it causes the prepro-
cessor to treat comments as tokens in their own right. For example, comments
appearing at the start of what would be a directive line have the effect of turn-
ing that line into an ordinary source line, since the first token on the line is no
longer a ‘#’.
-CC Do not discard comments, including during macro expansion. This is like ‘-C’,
except that comments contained within macros are also passed through to the
output file where the macro is expanded.
In addition to the side-effects of the ‘-C’ option, the ‘-CC’ option causes all
C++-style comments inside a macro to be converted to C-style comments. This
is to prevent later use of that macro from inadvertently commenting out the
remainder of the source line.
The ‘-CC’ option is generally used to support lint comments.
-traditional-cpp
Try to imitate the behavior of old-fashioned C preprocessors, as opposed to ISO
C preprocessors.
-trigraphs
Process trigraph sequences. These are three-character sequences, all starting
with ‘??’, that are defined by ISO C to stand for single characters. For example,
‘??/’ stands for ‘\’, so ‘’??/n’’ is a character constant for a newline. By default,
GCC ignores trigraphs, but in standard-conforming modes it converts them. See
the ‘-std’ and ‘-ansi’ options.
The nine trigraphs and their replacements are
Trigraph: ??( ??) ??< ??> ??= ??/ ??’ ??! ??-
Replacement: [ ] { } # \ ^ | ~
-remap Enable special code to work around file systems which only permit very short
file names, such as MS-DOS.
--help
--target-help
Print text describing all the command line options instead of preprocessing
anything.
-v Verbose mode. Print out GNU CPP’s version number at the beginning of
execution, and report the final form of the include path.
86 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-H Print the name of each header file used, in addition to other normal activities.
Each name is indented to show how deep in the ‘#include’ stack it is. Precom-
piled header files are also printed, even if they are found to be invalid; an invalid
precompiled header file is printed with ‘...x’ and a valid one with ‘...!’ .
-version
--version
Print out GNU CPP’s version number. With one dash, proceed to preprocess
as normal. With two dashes, exit immediately.
-Wa,option
Pass option as an option to the assembler. If option contains commas, it is split
into multiple options at the commas.
-Xassembler option
Pass option as an option to the assembler. You can use this to supply system-
specific assembler options which GCC does not know how to recognize.
If you want to pass an option that takes an argument, you must use
‘-Xassembler’ twice, once for the option and once for the argument.
object-file-name
A file name that does not end in a special recognized suffix is considered to
name an object file or library. (Object files are distinguished from libraries by
the linker according to the file contents.) If linking is done, these object files
are used as input to the linker.
-c
-S
-E If any of these options is used, then the linker is not run, and object file names
should not be used as arguments. See Section 3.2 [Overall Options], page 18.
-llibrary
-l library
Search the library named library when linking. (The second alternative with
the library as a separate argument is only for POSIX compliance and is not
recommended.)
It makes a difference where in the command you write this option; the linker
searches and processes libraries and object files in the order they are speci-
fied. Thus, ‘foo.o -lz bar.o’ searches library ‘z’ after file ‘foo.o’ but before
‘bar.o’. If ‘bar.o’ refers to functions in ‘z’, those functions may not be loaded.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 87
The linker searches a standard list of directories for the library, which is actually
a file named ‘liblibrary.a’. The linker then uses this file as if it had been
specified precisely by name.
The directories searched include several standard system directories plus any
that you specify with ‘-L’.
Normally the files found this way are library files—archive files whose members
are object files. The linker handles an archive file by scanning through it for
members which define symbols that have so far been referenced but not defined.
But if the file that is found is an ordinary object file, it is linked in the usual
fashion. The only difference between using an ‘-l’ option and specifying a file
name is that ‘-l’ surrounds library with ‘lib’ and ‘.a’ and searches several
directories.
-lobjc You need this special case of the ‘-l’ option in order to link an Objective-C
program.
-nostartfiles
Do not use the standard system startup files when linking. The standard system
libraries are used normally, unless ‘-nostdlib’ or ‘-nodefaultlibs’ is used.
-nodefaultlibs
Do not use the standard system libraries when linking. Only the libraries you
specify will be passed to the linker. The standard startup files are used normally,
unless ‘-nostartfiles’ is used. The compiler may generate calls to memcmp,
memset, and memcpy for System V (and ISO C) environments or to bcopy and
bzero for BSD environments. These entries are usually resolved by entries in
libc. These entry points should be supplied through some other mechanism
when this option is specified.
-nostdlib
Do not use the standard system startup files or libraries when linking. No
startup files and only the libraries you specify will be passed to the linker. The
compiler may generate calls to memcmp, memset, and memcpy for System V
(and ISO C) environments or to bcopy and bzero for BSD environments. These
entries are usually resolved by entries in libc. These entry points should be
supplied through some other mechanism when this option is specified.
One of the standard libraries bypassed by ‘-nostdlib’ and ‘-nodefaultlibs’
is ‘libgcc.a’, a library of internal subroutines that GCC uses to overcome
shortcomings of particular machines, or special needs for some languages. (See
section “Interfacing to GCC Output” in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) In-
ternals, for more discussion of ‘libgcc.a’.) In most cases, you need ‘libgcc.a’
even when you want to avoid other standard libraries. In other words, when you
specify ‘-nostdlib’ or ‘-nodefaultlibs’ you should usually specify ‘-lgcc’ as
well. This ensures that you have no unresolved references to internal GCC
library subroutines. (For example, ‘__main’, used to ensure C++ constructors
will be called; see section “collect2” in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) In-
ternals.)
-pie Produce a position independent executable on targets which support it. For
predictable results, you must also specify the same set of options that were
88 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
used to generate code (‘-fpie’, ‘-fPIE’, or model suboptions) when you specify
this option.
-s Remove all symbol table and relocation information from the executable.
-static On systems that support dynamic linking, this prevents linking with the shared
libraries. On other systems, this option has no effect.
-shared Produce a shared object which can then be linked with other objects to form
an executable. Not all systems support this option. For predictable results,
you must also specify the same set of options that were used to generate code
(‘-fpic’, ‘-fPIC’, or model suboptions) when you specify this option.1
-shared-libgcc
-static-libgcc
On systems that provide ‘libgcc’ as a shared library, these options force the
use of either the shared or static version respectively. If no shared version of
‘libgcc’ was built when the compiler was configured, these options have no
effect.
There are several situations in which an application should use the shared
‘libgcc’ instead of the static version. The most common of these is when
the application wishes to throw and catch exceptions across different shared li-
braries. In that case, each of the libraries as well as the application itself should
use the shared ‘libgcc’.
Therefore, the G++ and GCJ drivers automatically add ‘-shared-libgcc’
whenever you build a shared library or a main executable, because C++ and
Java programs typically use exceptions, so this is the right thing to do.
If, instead, you use the GCC driver to create shared libraries, you may find
that they will not always be linked with the shared ‘libgcc’. If GCC finds, at
its configuration time, that you have a non-GNU linker or a GNU linker that
does not support option ‘--eh-frame-hdr’, it will link the shared version of
‘libgcc’ into shared libraries by default. Otherwise, it will take advantage of
the linker and optimize away the linking with the shared version of ‘libgcc’,
linking with the static version of libgcc by default. This allows exceptions to
propagate through such shared libraries, without incurring relocation costs at
library load time.
However, if a library or main executable is supposed to throw or catch excep-
tions, you must link it using the G++ or GCJ driver, as appropriate for the
languages used in the program, or using the option ‘-shared-libgcc’, such
that it is linked with the shared ‘libgcc’.
-symbolic
Bind references to global symbols when building a shared object. Warn about
any unresolved references (unless overridden by the link editor option ‘-Xlinker
-z -Xlinker defs’). Only a few systems support this option.
1
On some systems, ‘gcc -shared’ needs to build supplementary stub code for constructors to work. On
multi-libbed systems, ‘gcc -shared’ must select the correct support libraries to link against. Failing to
supply the correct flags may lead to subtle defects. Supplying them in cases where they are not necessary
is innocuous.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 89
-Xlinker option
Pass option as an option to the linker. You can use this to supply system-specific
linker options which GCC does not know how to recognize.
If you want to pass an option that takes an argument, you must use ‘-Xlinker’
twice, once for the option and once for the argument. For example, to
pass ‘-assert definitions’, you must write ‘-Xlinker -assert -Xlinker
definitions’. It does not work to write ‘-Xlinker "-assert definitions"’,
because this passes the entire string as a single argument, which is not what
the linker expects.
-Wl,option
Pass option as an option to the linker. If option contains commas, it is split
into multiple options at the commas.
-u symbol
Pretend the symbol symbol is undefined, to force linking of library modules
to define it. You can use ‘-u’ multiple times with different symbols to force
loading of additional library modules.
invoked. That is not exactly the same as what the preprocessor does by default,
but it is often satisfactory.
‘-I-’ does not inhibit the use of the standard system directories for header files.
Thus, ‘-I-’ and ‘-nostdinc’ are independent.
-Ldir Add directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for ‘-l’.
-Bprefix This option specifies where to find the executables, libraries, include files, and
data files of the compiler itself.
The compiler driver program runs one or more of the subprograms ‘cpp’, ‘cc1’,
‘as’ and ‘ld’. It tries prefix as a prefix for each program it tries to run, both with
and without ‘machine /version /’ (see Section 3.16 [Target Options], page 97).
For each subprogram to be run, the compiler driver first tries the ‘-B’ prefix, if
any. If that name is not found, or if ‘-B’ was not specified, the driver tries two
standard prefixes, which are ‘/usr/lib/gcc/’ and ‘/usr/local/lib/gcc/’. If
neither of those results in a file name that is found, the unmodified program
name is searched for using the directories specified in your PATH environment
variable.
The compiler will check to see if the path provided by the ‘-B’ refers to a
directory, and if necessary it will add a directory separator character at the end
of the path.
‘-B’ prefixes that effectively specify directory names also apply to libraries in
the linker, because the compiler translates these options into ‘-L’ options for
the linker. They also apply to includes files in the preprocessor, because the
compiler translates these options into ‘-isystem’ options for the preprocessor.
In this case, the compiler appends ‘include’ to the prefix.
The run-time support file ‘libgcc.a’ can also be searched for using the ‘-B’
prefix, if needed. If it is not found there, the two standard prefixes above are
tried, and that is all. The file is left out of the link if it is not found by those
means.
Another way to specify a prefix much like the ‘-B’ prefix is to use the envi-
ronment variable GCC_EXEC_PREFIX. See Section 3.19 [Environment Variables],
page 168.
As a special kludge, if the path provided by ‘-B’ is ‘[dir/]stageN /’, where N
is a number in the range 0 to 9, then it will be replaced by ‘[dir/]include’.
This is to help with boot-strapping the compiler.
-specs=file
Process file after the compiler reads in the standard ‘specs’ file, in order
to override the defaults that the ‘gcc’ driver program uses when determin-
ing what switches to pass to ‘cc1’, ‘cc1plus’, ‘as’, ‘ld’, etc. More than one
‘-specs=file ’ can be specified on the command line, and they are processed
in order, from left to right.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 91
@language
This says that the suffix is an alias for a known language. This is
similar to using the ‘-x’ command-line switch to GCC to specify a
language explicitly. For example:
.ZZ:
@c++
Says that .ZZ files are, in fact, C++ source files.
#name This causes an error messages saying:
name compiler not installed on this system.
GCC already has an extensive list of suffixes built into it. This directive will
add an entry to the end of the list of suffixes, but since the list is searched from
the end backwards, it is effectively possible to override earlier entries using this
technique.
GCC has the following spec strings built into it. Spec files can override these strings or
create their own. Note that individual targets can also add their own spec strings to this
list.
asm Options to pass to the assembler
asm_final Options to pass to the assembler post-processor
cpp Options to pass to the C preprocessor
cc1 Options to pass to the C compiler
cc1plus Options to pass to the C++ compiler
endfile Object files to include at the end of the link
link Options to pass to the linker
lib Libraries to include on the command line to the linker
libgcc Decides which GCC support library to pass to the linker
linker Sets the name of the linker
predefines Defines to be passed to the C preprocessor
signed_char Defines to pass to CPP to say whether char is signed
by default
startfile Object files to include at the start of the link
Here is a small example of a spec file:
%rename lib old_lib
*lib:
--start-group -lgcc -lc -leval1 --end-group %(old_lib)
This example renames the spec called ‘lib’ to ‘old_lib’ and then overrides the previous
definition of ‘lib’ with a new one. The new definition adds in some extra command-line
options before including the text of the old definition.
Spec strings are a list of command-line options to be passed to their corresponding pro-
gram. In addition, the spec strings can contain ‘%’-prefixed sequences to substitute variable
text or to conditionally insert text into the command line. Using these constructs it is
possible to generate quite complex command lines.
Here is a table of all defined ‘%’-sequences for spec strings. Note that spaces are not
generated automatically around the results of expanding these sequences. Therefore you
can concatenate them together or combine them with constant text in a single argument.
%% Substitute one ‘%’ into the program name or argument.
%i Substitute the name of the input file being processed.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 93
%b Substitute the basename of the input file being processed. This is the substring
up to (and not including) the last period and not including the directory.
%B This is the same as ‘%b’, but include the file suffix (text after the last period).
%d Marks the argument containing or following the ‘%d’ as a temporary file name,
so that that file will be deleted if GCC exits successfully. Unlike ‘%g’, this
contributes no text to the argument.
%gsuffix Substitute a file name that has suffix suffix and is chosen once per compilation,
and mark the argument in the same way as ‘%d’. To reduce exposure to denial-
of-service attacks, the file name is now chosen in a way that is hard to predict
even when previously chosen file names are known. For example, ‘%g.s ...
%g.o ... %g.s’ might turn into ‘ccUVUUAU.s ccXYAXZ12.o ccUVUUAU.s’. suffix
matches the regexp ‘[.A-Za-z]*’ or the special string ‘%O’, which is treated
exactly as if ‘%O’ had been preprocessed. Previously, ‘%g’ was simply substituted
with a file name chosen once per compilation, without regard to any appended
suffix (which was therefore treated just like ordinary text), making such attacks
more likely to succeed.
%usuffix Like ‘%g’, but generates a new temporary file name even if ‘%usuffix ’ was
already seen.
%Usuffix Substitutes the last file name generated with ‘%usuffix ’, generating a new one
if there is no such last file name. In the absence of any ‘%usuffix ’, this is
just like ‘%gsuffix ’, except they don’t share the same suffix space, so ‘%g.s
... %U.s ... %g.s ... %U.s’ would involve the generation of two distinct file
names, one for each ‘%g.s’ and another for each ‘%U.s’. Previously, ‘%U’ was
simply substituted with a file name chosen for the previous ‘%u’, without regard
to any appended suffix.
%jsuffix Substitutes the name of the HOST_BIT_BUCKET, if any, and if it is writable, and
if save-temps is off; otherwise, substitute the name of a temporary file, just like
‘%u’. This temporary file is not meant for communication between processes,
but rather as a junk disposal mechanism.
%|suffix
%msuffix Like ‘%g’, except if ‘-pipe’ is in effect. In that case ‘%|’ substitutes a single
dash and ‘%m’ substitutes nothing at all. These are the two most common
ways to instruct a program that it should read from standard input or write
to standard output. If you need something more elaborate you can use an
‘%{pipe:X}’ construct: see for example ‘f/lang-specs.h’.
%.SUFFIX Substitutes .SUFFIX for the suffixes of a matched switch’s args when it is
subsequently output with ‘%*’. SUFFIX is terminated by the next space or %.
%w Marks the argument containing or following the ‘%w’ as the designated output
file of this compilation. This puts the argument into the sequence of arguments
that ‘%o’ will substitute later.
%o Substitutes the names of all the output files, with spaces automatically placed
around them. You should write spaces around the ‘%o’ as well or the results are
94 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
undefined. ‘%o’ is for use in the specs for running the linker. Input files whose
names have no recognized suffix are not compiled at all, but they are included
among the output files, so they will be linked.
%O Substitutes the suffix for object files. Note that this is handled specially when
it immediately follows ‘%g, %u, or %U’, because of the need for those to form
complete file names. The handling is such that ‘%O’ is treated exactly as if it
had already been substituted, except that ‘%g, %u, and %U’ do not currently
support additional suffix characters following ‘%O’ as they would following, for
example, ‘.o’.
%p Substitutes the standard macro predefinitions for the current target machine.
Use this when running cpp.
%P Like ‘%p’, but puts ‘__’ before and after the name of each predefined macro,
except for macros that start with ‘__’ or with ‘_L ’, where L is an uppercase
letter. This is for ISO C.
%I Substitute any of ‘-iprefix’ (made from GCC_EXEC_PREFIX), ‘-isysroot’
(made from TARGET_SYSTEM_ROOT), and ‘-isystem’ (made from
COMPILER_PATH and ‘-B’ options) as necessary.
%s Current argument is the name of a library or startup file of some sort. Search
for that file in a standard list of directories and substitute the full name found.
%estr Print str as an error message. str is terminated by a newline. Use this when
inconsistent options are detected.
%(name ) Substitute the contents of spec string name at this point.
%[name ] Like ‘%(...)’ but put ‘__’ around ‘-D’ arguments.
%x{option }
Accumulate an option for ‘%X’.
%X Output the accumulated linker options specified by ‘-Wl’ or a ‘%x’ spec string.
%Y Output the accumulated assembler options specified by ‘-Wa’.
%Z Output the accumulated preprocessor options specified by ‘-Wp’.
%a Process the asm spec. This is used to compute the switches to be passed to the
assembler.
%A Process the asm_final spec. This is a spec string for passing switches to an
assembler post-processor, if such a program is needed.
%l Process the link spec. This is the spec for computing the command line passed
to the linker. Typically it will make use of the ‘%L %G %S %D and %E’ sequences.
%D Dump out a ‘-L’ option for each directory that GCC believes might contain
startup files. If the target supports multilibs then the current multilib directory
will be prepended to each of these paths.
%M Output the multilib directory with directory separators replaced with ‘_’. If
multilib directories are not set, or the multilib directory is ‘.’ then this option
emits nothing.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 95
%L Process the lib spec. This is a spec string for deciding which libraries should
be included on the command line to the linker.
%G Process the libgcc spec. This is a spec string for deciding which GCC support
library should be included on the command line to the linker.
%S Process the startfile spec. This is a spec for deciding which object files
should be the first ones passed to the linker. Typically this might be a file
named ‘crt0.o’.
%E Process the endfile spec. This is a spec string that specifies the last object
files that will be passed to the linker.
%C Process the cpp spec. This is used to construct the arguments to be passed to
the C preprocessor.
%c Process the signed_char spec. This is intended to be used to tell cpp whether
a char is signed. It typically has the definition:
%{funsigned-char:-D__CHAR_UNSIGNED__}
%1 Process the cc1 spec. This is used to construct the options to be passed to the
actual C compiler (‘cc1’).
%2 Process the cc1plus spec. This is used to construct the options to be passed
to the actual C++ compiler (‘cc1plus’).
%* Substitute the variable part of a matched option. See below. Note that each
comma in the substituted string is replaced by a single space.
%<S Remove all occurrences of -S from the command line. Note—this command is
position dependent. ‘%’ commands in the spec string before this one will see -S,
‘%’ commands in the spec string after this one will not.
%:function (args )
Call the named function function, passing it args. args is first processed as a
nested spec string, then split into an argument vector in the usual fashion. The
function returns a string which is processed as if it had appeared literally as
part of the current spec.
The following built-in spec functions are provided:
if-exists
The if-exists spec function takes one argument, an absolute
pathname to a file. If the file exists, if-exists returns the path-
name. Here is a small example of its usage:
*startfile:
crt0%O%s %:if-exists(crti%O%s) crtbegin%O%s
if-exists-else
The if-exists-else spec function is similar to the if-exists spec
function, except that it takes two arguments. The first argument is
an absolute pathname to a file. If the file exists, if-exists-else
returns the pathname. If it does not exist, it returns the second
argument. This way, if-exists-else can be used to select one
file or another, based on the existence of the first. Here is a small
example of its usage:
96 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
*startfile:
crt0%O%s %:if-exists(crti%O%s) \
%:if-exists-else(crtbeginT%O%s crtbegin%O%s)
%{S} Substitutes the -S switch, if that switch was given to GCC. If that switch was
not specified, this substitutes nothing. Note that the leading dash is omitted
when specifying this option, and it is automatically inserted if the substitution
is performed. Thus the spec string ‘%{foo}’ would match the command-line
option ‘-foo’ and would output the command line option ‘-foo’.
%W{S} Like %{S} but mark last argument supplied within as a file to be deleted on
failure.
%{S*} Substitutes all the switches specified to GCC whose names start with -S, but
which also take an argument. This is used for switches like ‘-o’, ‘-D’, ‘-I’,
etc. GCC considers ‘-o foo’ as being one switch whose names starts with ‘o’.
%{o*} would substitute this text, including the space. Thus two arguments
would be generated.
%{S*&T*} Like %{S*}, but preserve order of S and T options (the order of S and T in
the spec is not significant). There can be any number of ampersand-separated
variables; for each the wild card is optional. Useful for CPP as ‘%{D*&U*&A*}’.
%{S:X} Substitutes X, if the ‘-S’ switch was given to GCC.
%{!S:X} Substitutes X, if the ‘-S’ switch was not given to GCC.
%{S*:X} Substitutes X if one or more switches whose names start with -S are specified to
GCC. Normally X is substituted only once, no matter how many such switches
appeared. However, if %* appears somewhere in X, then X will be substituted
once for each matching switch, with the %* replaced by the part of that switch
that matched the *.
%{.S:X} Substitutes X, if processing a file with suffix S.
%{!.S:X} Substitutes X, if not processing a file with suffix S.
%{S|P:X} Substitutes X if either -S or -P was given to GCC. This may be combined with
‘!’, ‘.’, and * sequences as well, although they have a stronger binding than
the ‘|’. If %* appears in X, all of the alternatives must be starred, and only the
first matching alternative is substituted.
For example, a spec string like this:
%{.c:-foo} %{!.c:-bar} %{.c|d:-baz} %{!.c|d:-boggle}
will output the following command-line options from the following input
command-line options:
fred.c -foo -baz
jim.d -bar -boggle
-d fred.c -foo -baz -boggle
-d jim.d -bar -baz -boggle
The conditional text X in a %{S:X} or similar construct may contain other nested ‘%’
constructs or spaces, or even newlines. They are processed as usual, as described above.
Trailing white space in X is ignored. White space may also appear anywhere on the left side
of the colon in these constructs, except between . or * and the corresponding word.
The ‘-O’, ‘-f’, ‘-m’, and ‘-W’ switches are handled specifically in these constructs. If
another value of ‘-O’ or the negated form of a ‘-f’, ‘-m’, or ‘-W’ switch is found later in
the command line, the earlier switch value is ignored, except with {S*} where S is just one
letter, which passes all matching options.
The character ‘|’ at the beginning of the predicate text is used to indicate that a command
should be piped to the following command, but only if ‘-pipe’ is specified.
It is built into GCC which switches take arguments and which do not. (You might think
it would be useful to generalize this to allow each compiler’s spec to say which switches
take arguments. But this cannot be done in a consistent fashion. GCC cannot even decide
which input files have been specified without knowing which switches take arguments, and
it must know which input files to compile in order to tell which compilers to run).
GCC also knows implicitly that arguments starting in ‘-l’ are to be treated as compiler
output files, and passed to the linker in their proper position among the other output files.
Some configurations of the compiler also support additional special options, usually for
compatibility with other compilers on the same platform.
These options are defined by the macro TARGET_SWITCHES in the machine description.
The default for the options is also defined by that macro, which enables you to change the
defaults.
-m68020-40
Generate output for a 68040, without using any of the new instructions. This
results in code which can run relatively efficiently on either a 68020/68881 or a
68030 or a 68040. The generated code does use the 68881 instructions that are
emulated on the 68040.
-m68020-60
Generate output for a 68060, without using any of the new instructions. This
results in code which can run relatively efficiently on either a 68020/68881 or a
68030 or a 68040. The generated code does use the 68881 instructions that are
emulated on the 68060.
-msoft-float
Generate output containing library calls for floating point. Warning: the req-
uisite libraries are not available for all m68k targets. Normally the facilities
of the machine’s usual C compiler are used, but this can’t be done directly in
cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable
library functions for cross-compilation. The embedded targets ‘m68k-*-aout’
and ‘m68k-*-coff’ do provide software floating point support.
-mshort Consider type int to be 16 bits wide, like short int.
-mnobitfield
Do not use the bit-field instructions. The ‘-m68000’, ‘-mcpu32’ and ‘-m5200’
options imply ‘-mnobitfield’.
-mbitfield
Do use the bit-field instructions. The ‘-m68020’ option implies ‘-mbitfield’.
This is the default if you use a configuration designed for a 68020.
-mrtd Use a different function-calling convention, in which functions that take a fixed
number of arguments return with the rtd instruction, which pops their argu-
ments while returning. This saves one instruction in the caller since there is no
need to pop the arguments there.
This calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so
you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler.
Also, you must provide function prototypes for all functions that take variable
numbers of arguments (including printf); otherwise incorrect code will be
generated for calls to those functions.
In addition, seriously incorrect code will result if you call a function with too
many arguments. (Normally, extra arguments are harmlessly ignored.)
The rtd instruction is supported by the 68010, 68020, 68030, 68040, 68060 and
CPU32 processors, but not by the 68000 or 5200.
-malign-int
-mno-align-int
Control whether GCC aligns int, long, long long, float, double, and long
double variables on a 32-bit boundary (‘-malign-int’) or a 16-bit boundary
(‘-mno-align-int’). Aligning variables on 32-bit boundaries produces code
100 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
that runs somewhat faster on processors with 32-bit busses at the expense of
more memory.
Warning: if you use the ‘-malign-int’ switch, GCC will align structures con-
taining the above types differently than most published application binary in-
terface specifications for the m68k.
-mpcrel Use the pc-relative addressing mode of the 68000 directly, instead of using a
global offset table. At present, this option implies ‘-fpic’, allowing at most a
16-bit offset for pc-relative addressing. ‘-fPIC’ is not presently supported with
‘-mpcrel’, though this could be supported for 68020 and higher processors.
-mno-strict-align
-mstrict-align
Do not (do) assume that unaligned memory references will be handled by the
system.
-msep-data
Generate code that allows the data segment to be located in a different area of
memory from the text segment. This allows for execute in place in an environ-
ment without virtual memory management. This option implies -fPIC.
-mno-sep-data
Generate code that assumes that the data segment follows the text segment.
This is the default.
-mid-shared-library
Generate code that supports shared libraries via the library ID method. This al-
lows for execute in place and shared libraries in an environment without virtual
memory management. This option implies -fPIC.
-mno-id-shared-library
Generate code that doesn’t assume ID based shared libraries are being used.
This is the default.
-mshared-library-id=n
Specified the identification number of the ID based shared library being com-
piled. Specifying a value of 0 will generate more compact code, specifying other
values will force the allocation of that number to the current library but is no
more space or time efficient than omitting this option.
-m68S12
-m68hcs12
Generate output for a 68HCS12.
-mauto-incdec
Enable the use of 68HC12 pre and post auto-increment and auto-decrement
addressing modes.
-minmax
-nominmax
Enable the use of 68HC12 min and max instructions.
-mlong-calls
-mno-long-calls
Treat all calls as being far away (near). If calls are assumed to be far away, the
compiler will use the call instruction to call a function and the rtc instruction
for returning.
-mshort Consider type int to be 16 bits wide, like short int.
-msoft-reg-count=count
Specify the number of pseudo-soft registers which are used for the code gener-
ation. The maximum number is 32. Using more pseudo-soft register may or
may not result in better code depending on the program. The default is 4 for
68HC11 and 2 for 68HC12.
-mno-fpu
-msoft-float
Generate output containing library calls for floating point. Warning: the req-
uisite libraries are not available for all SPARC targets. Normally the facilities
of the machine’s usual C compiler are used, but this cannot be done directly in
cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable
library functions for cross-compilation. The embedded targets ‘sparc-*-aout’
and ‘sparclite-*-*’ do provide software floating point support.
‘-msoft-float’ changes the calling convention in the output file; therefore, it
is only useful if you compile all of a program with this option. In particu-
lar, you need to compile ‘libgcc.a’, the library that comes with GCC, with
‘-msoft-float’ in order for this to work.
-mhard-quad-float
Generate output containing quad-word (long double) floating point instructions.
-msoft-quad-float
Generate output containing library calls for quad-word (long double) floating
point instructions. The functions called are those specified in the SPARC ABI.
This is the default.
As of this writing, there are no SPARC implementations that have hardware
support for the quad-word floating point instructions. They all invoke a trap
handler for one of these instructions, and then the trap handler emulates the
effect of the instruction. Because of the trap handler overhead, this is much
slower than calling the ABI library routines. Thus the ‘-msoft-quad-float’
option is the default.
-mno-flat
-mflat With ‘-mflat’, the compiler does not generate save/restore instructions and
will use a “flat” or single register window calling convention. This model uses
%i7 as the frame pointer and is compatible with the normal register window
model. Code from either may be intermixed. The local registers and the input
registers (0–5) are still treated as “call saved” registers and will be saved on the
stack as necessary.
With ‘-mno-flat’ (the default), the compiler emits save/restore instructions
(except for leaf functions) and is the normal mode of operation.
These options are deprecated and will be deleted in a future GCC release.
-mno-unaligned-doubles
-munaligned-doubles
Assume that doubles have 8 byte alignment. This is the default.
With ‘-munaligned-doubles’, GCC assumes that doubles have 8 byte align-
ment only if they are contained in another type, or if they have an absolute
address. Otherwise, it assumes they have 4 byte alignment. Specifying this
option avoids some rare compatibility problems with code generated by other
compilers. It is not the default because it results in a performance loss, espe-
cially for floating point code.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 103
-mno-faster-structs
-mfaster-structs
With ‘-mfaster-structs’, the compiler assumes that structures should have
8 byte alignment. This enables the use of pairs of ldd and std instructions
for copies in structure assignment, in place of twice as many ld and st pairs.
However, the use of this changed alignment directly violates the SPARC ABI.
Thus, it’s intended only for use on targets where the developer acknowledges
that their resulting code will not be directly in line with the rules of the ABI.
-mimpure-text
‘-mimpure-text’, used in addition to ‘-shared’, tells the compiler to not pass
‘-z text’ to the linker when linking a shared object. Using this option, you can
link position-dependent code into a shared object.
‘-mimpure-text’ suppresses the “relocations remain against allocatable but
non-writable sections” linker error message. However, the necessary reloca-
tions will trigger copy-on-write, and the shared object is not actually shared
across processes. Instead of using ‘-mimpure-text’, you should compile all
source code with ‘-fpic’ or ‘-fPIC’.
This option is only available on SunOS and Solaris.
-mv8
-msparclite
These two options select variations on the SPARC architecture. These options
are deprecated and will be deleted in a future GCC release. They have been
replaced with ‘-mcpu=xxx’.
-mcypress
-msupersparc
-mf930
-mf934 These four options select the processor for which the code is optimized. These
options are deprecated and will be deleted in a future GCC release. They have
been replaced with ‘-mcpu=xxx’.
-mcpu=cpu_type
Set the instruction set, register set, and instruction scheduling parameters for
machine type cpu type. Supported values for cpu type are ‘v7’, ‘cypress’,
‘v8’, ‘supersparc’, ‘sparclite’, ‘f930’, ‘f934’, ‘hypersparc’, ‘sparclite86x’,
‘sparclet’, ‘tsc701’, ‘v9’, ‘ultrasparc’, and ‘ultrasparc3’.
Default instruction scheduling parameters are used for values that select an
architecture and not an implementation. These are ‘v7’, ‘v8’, ‘sparclite’,
‘sparclet’, ‘v9’.
Here is a list of each supported architecture and their supported implementa-
tions.
v7: cypress
v8: supersparc, hypersparc
sparclite: f930, f934, sparclite86x
sparclet: tsc701
v9: ultrasparc, ultrasparc3
104 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
By default (unless configured otherwise), GCC generates code for the V7 vari-
ant of the SPARC architecture. With ‘-mcpu=cypress’, the compiler addition-
ally optimizes it for the Cypress CY7C602 chip, as used in the SPARCSta-
tion/SPARCServer 3xx series. This is also appropriate for the older SPARC-
Station 1, 2, IPX etc.
With ‘-mcpu=v8’, GCC generates code for the V8 variant of the SPARC archi-
tecture. The only difference from V7 code is that the compiler emits the integer
multiply and integer divide instructions which exist in SPARC-V8 but not in
SPARC-V7. With ‘-mcpu=supersparc’, the compiler additionally optimizes it
for the SuperSPARC chip, as used in the SPARCStation 10, 1000 and 2000
series.
With ‘-mcpu=sparclite’, GCC generates code for the SPARClite variant of the
SPARC architecture. This adds the integer multiply, integer divide step and
scan (ffs) instructions which exist in SPARClite but not in SPARC-V7. With
‘-mcpu=f930’, the compiler additionally optimizes it for the Fujitsu MB86930
chip, which is the original SPARClite, with no FPU. With ‘-mcpu=f934’, the
compiler additionally optimizes it for the Fujitsu MB86934 chip, which is the
more recent SPARClite with FPU.
With ‘-mcpu=sparclet’, GCC generates code for the SPARClet variant of the
SPARC architecture. This adds the integer multiply, multiply/accumulate,
integer divide step and scan (ffs) instructions which exist in SPARClet but
not in SPARC-V7. With ‘-mcpu=tsc701’, the compiler additionally optimizes
it for the TEMIC SPARClet chip.
With ‘-mcpu=v9’, GCC generates code for the V9 variant of the SPARC archi-
tecture. This adds 64-bit integer and floating-point move instructions, 3 addi-
tional floating-point condition code registers and conditional move instructions.
With ‘-mcpu=ultrasparc’, the compiler additionally optimizes it for the Sun
UltraSPARC I/II chips. With ‘-mcpu=ultrasparc3’, the compiler additionally
optimizes it for the Sun UltraSPARC III chip.
-mtune=cpu_type
Set the instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type, but do
not set the instruction set or register set that the option ‘-mcpu=cpu_type ’
would.
The same values for ‘-mcpu=cpu_type ’ can be used for ‘-mtune=cpu_type ’,
but the only useful values are those that select a particular cpu implemen-
tation. Those are ‘cypress’, ‘supersparc’, ‘hypersparc’, ‘f930’, ‘f934’,
‘sparclite86x’, ‘tsc701’, ‘ultrasparc’, and ‘ultrasparc3’.
-mv8plus
-mno-v8plus
With ‘-mv8plus’, GCC generates code for the SPARC-V8+ ABI. The difference
from the V8 ABI is that the global and out registers are considered 64-bit
wide. This is enabled by default on Solaris in 32-bit mode for all SPARC-V9
processors.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 105
-mvis
-mno-vis With ‘-mvis’, GCC generates code that takes advantage of the UltraSPARC
Visual Instruction Set extensions. The default is ‘-mno-vis’.
These ‘-m’ options are supported in addition to the above on SPARC-V9 processors in
64-bit environments:
-mlittle-endian
Generate code for a processor running in little-endian mode. It is only available
for a few configurations and most notably not on Solaris and Linux.
-m32
-m64 Generate code for a 32-bit or 64-bit environment. The 32-bit environment sets
int, long and pointer to 32 bits. The 64-bit environment sets int to 32 bits and
long and pointer to 64 bits.
-mcmodel=medlow
Generate code for the Medium/Low code model: 64-bit addresses, programs
must be linked in the low 32 bits of memory. Programs can be statically or
dynamically linked.
-mcmodel=medmid
Generate code for the Medium/Middle code model: 64-bit addresses, programs
must be linked in the low 44 bits of memory, the text and data segments must
be less than 2GB in size and the data segment must be located within 2GB of
the text segment.
-mcmodel=medany
Generate code for the Medium/Anywhere code model: 64-bit addresses, pro-
grams may be linked anywhere in memory, the text and data segments must
be less than 2GB in size and the data segment must be located within 2GB of
the text segment.
-mcmodel=embmedany
Generate code for the Medium/Anywhere code model for embedded systems:
64-bit addresses, the text and data segments must be less than 2GB in size, both
starting anywhere in memory (determined at link time). The global register
%g4 points to the base of the data segment. Programs are statically linked and
PIC is not supported.
-mstack-bias
-mno-stack-bias
With ‘-mstack-bias’, GCC assumes that the stack pointer, and frame pointer
if present, are offset by −2047 which must be added back when making stack
frame references. This is the default in 64-bit mode. Otherwise, assume no
such offset is present.
These switches are supported in addition to the above on Solaris:
-threads Add support for multithreading using the Solaris threads library. This option
sets flags for both the preprocessor and linker. This option does not affect
the thread safety of object code produced by the compiler or that of libraries
supplied with it.
106 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-pthreads
Add support for multithreading using the POSIX threads library. This option
sets flags for both the preprocessor and linker. This option does not affect
the thread safety of object code produced by the compiler or that of libraries
supplied with it.
Even if this switch is enabled, not all function calls will be turned into long calls.
The heuristic is that static functions, functions which have the ‘short-call’
attribute, functions that are inside the scope of a ‘#pragma no_long_calls’
directive and functions whose definitions have already been compiled within
the current compilation unit, will not be turned into long calls. The exception
to this rule is that weak function definitions, functions with the ‘long-call’
attribute or the ‘section’ attribute, and functions that are within the scope of
a ‘#pragma long_calls’ directive, will always be turned into long calls.
This feature is not enabled by default. Specifying ‘-mno-long-calls’ will re-
store the default behavior, as will placing the function calls within the scope of
a ‘#pragma long_calls_off’ directive. Note these switches have no effect on
how the compiler generates code to handle function calls via function pointers.
-mnop-fun-dllimport
Disable support for the dllimport attribute.
-msingle-pic-base
Treat the register used for PIC addressing as read-only, rather than loading
it in the prologue for each function. The run-time system is responsible for
initializing this register with an appropriate value before execution begins.
-mpic-register=reg
Specify the register to be used for PIC addressing. The default is R10 unless
stack-checking is enabled, when R9 is used.
-mcirrus-fix-invalid-insns
Insert NOPs into the instruction stream to in order to work around problems
with invalid Maverick instruction combinations. This option is only valid if the
‘-mcpu=ep9312’ option has been used to enable generation of instructions for
the Cirrus Maverick floating point co-processor. This option is not enabled by
default, since the problem is only present in older Maverick implementations.
The default can be re-enabled by use of the ‘-mno-cirrus-fix-invalid-insns’
switch.
-mpoke-function-name
Write the name of each function into the text section, directly preceding the
function prologue. The generated code is similar to this:
t0
.ascii "arm_poke_function_name", 0
.align
t1
.word 0xff000000 + (t1 - t0)
arm_poke_function_name
mov ip, sp
stmfd sp!, {fp, ip, lr, pc}
sub fp, ip, #4
When performing a stack backtrace, code can inspect the value of pc stored at
fp + 0. If the trace function then looks at location pc - 12 and the top 8 bits
are set, then we know that there is a function name embedded immediately
preceding this location and has length ((pc[-3]) & 0xff000000).
110 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mthumb Generate code for the 16-bit Thumb instruction set. The default is to use the
32-bit ARM instruction set.
-mtpcs-frame
Generate a stack frame that is compliant with the Thumb Procedure Call Stan-
dard for all non-leaf functions. (A leaf function is one that does not call any
other functions.) The default is ‘-mno-tpcs-frame’.
-mtpcs-leaf-frame
Generate a stack frame that is compliant with the Thumb Procedure Call Stan-
dard for all leaf functions. (A leaf function is one that does not call any other
functions.) The default is ‘-mno-apcs-leaf-frame’.
-mcallee-super-interworking
Gives all externally visible functions in the file being compiled an ARM instruc-
tion set header which switches to Thumb mode before executing the rest of the
function. This allows these functions to be called from non-interworking code.
-mcaller-super-interworking
Allows calls via function pointers (including virtual functions) to execute cor-
rectly regardless of whether the target code has been compiled for interworking
or not. There is a small overhead in the cost of executing a function pointer if
this option is enabled.
-missue-rate=number
Issue number instructions per cycle. number can only be 1 or 2.
-mbranch-cost=number
number can only be 1 or 2. If it is 1 then branches will be preferred over
conditional code, if it is 2, then the opposite will apply.
-mflush-trap=number
Specifies the trap number to use to flush the cache. The default is 12. Valid
numbers are between 0 and 15 inclusive.
-mno-flush-trap
Specifies that the cache cannot be flushed by using a trap.
-mflush-func=name
Specifies the name of the operating system function to call to flush the cache.
The default is flush cache, but a function call will only be used if a trap is not
available.
-mno-flush-func
Indicates that there is no OS function for flushing the cache.
The ‘-mpower’ option allows GCC to generate instructions that are found only
in the POWER architecture and to use the MQ register. Specifying ‘-mpower2’
implies ‘-power’ and also allows GCC to generate instructions that are present
in the POWER2 architecture but not the original POWER architecture.
The ‘-mpowerpc’ option allows GCC to generate instructions that are
found only in the 32-bit subset of the PowerPC architecture. Specifying
‘-mpowerpc-gpopt’ implies ‘-mpowerpc’ and also allows GCC to use the
optional PowerPC architecture instructions in the General Purpose group,
including floating-point square root. Specifying ‘-mpowerpc-gfxopt’ implies
‘-mpowerpc’ and also allows GCC to use the optional PowerPC architecture
instructions in the Graphics group, including floating-point select.
The ‘-mpowerpc64’ option allows GCC to generate the additional 64-bit instruc-
tions that are found in the full PowerPC64 architecture and to treat GPRs as
64-bit, doubleword quantities. GCC defaults to ‘-mno-powerpc64’.
If you specify both ‘-mno-power’ and ‘-mno-powerpc’, GCC will use only the
instructions in the common subset of both architectures plus some special
AIX common-mode calls, and will not use the MQ register. Specifying both
‘-mpower’ and ‘-mpowerpc’ permits GCC to use any instruction from either
architecture and to allow use of the MQ register; specify this for the Motorola
MPC601.
-mnew-mnemonics
-mold-mnemonics
Select which mnemonics to use in the generated assembler code. With
‘-mnew-mnemonics’, GCC uses the assembler mnemonics defined for the
PowerPC architecture. With ‘-mold-mnemonics’ it uses the assembler
mnemonics defined for the POWER architecture. Instructions defined in
only one architecture have only one mnemonic; GCC uses that mnemonic
irrespective of which of these options is specified.
GCC defaults to the mnemonics appropriate for the architecture in use. Spec-
ifying ‘-mcpu=cpu_type ’ sometimes overrides the value of these option. Un-
less you are building a cross-compiler, you should normally not specify either
‘-mnew-mnemonics’ or ‘-mold-mnemonics’, but should instead accept the de-
fault.
-mcpu=cpu_type
Set architecture type, register usage, choice of mnemonics, and instruction
scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. Supported values for
cpu type are ‘401’, ‘403’, ‘405’, ‘405fp’, ‘440’, ‘440fp’, ‘505’, ‘601’, ‘602’,
‘603’, ‘603e’, ‘604’, ‘604e’, ‘620’, ‘630’, ‘740’, ‘7400’, ‘7450’, ‘750’, ‘801’, ‘821’,
‘823’, ‘860’, ‘970’, ‘8540’, ‘common’, ‘ec603e’, ‘G3’, ‘G4’, ‘G5’, ‘power’, ‘power2’,
‘power3’, ‘power4’, ‘power5’, ‘powerpc’, ‘powerpc64’, ‘rios’, ‘rios1’, ‘rios2’,
‘rsc’, and ‘rs64a’.
‘-mcpu=common’ selects a completely generic processor. Code generated under
this option will run on any POWER or PowerPC processor. GCC will use
only the instructions in the common subset of both architectures, and will not
114 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
use the MQ register. GCC assumes a generic processor model for scheduling
purposes.
‘-mcpu=power’, ‘-mcpu=power2’, ‘-mcpu=powerpc’, and ‘-mcpu=powerpc64’
specify generic POWER, POWER2, pure 32-bit PowerPC (i.e., not MPC601),
and 64-bit PowerPC architecture machine types, with an appropriate, generic
processor model assumed for scheduling purposes.
The other options specify a specific processor. Code generated under those
options will run best on that processor, and may not run at all on others.
The ‘-mcpu’ options automatically enable or disable the following options:
‘-maltivec’, ‘-mhard-float’, ‘-mmfcrf’, ‘-mmultiple’, ‘-mnew-mnemonics’,
‘-mpower’, ‘-mpower2’, ‘-mpowerpc64’, ‘-mpowerpc-gpopt’, ‘-mpowerpc-gfxopt’,
‘-mstring’. The particular options set for any particular CPU will vary
between compiler versions, depending on what setting seems to produce
optimal code for that CPU; it doesn’t necessarily reflect the actual hardware’s
capabilities. If you wish to set an individual option to a particular value, you
may specify it after the ‘-mcpu’ option, like ‘-mcpu=970 -mno-altivec’.
On AIX, the ‘-maltivec’ and ‘-mpowerpc64’ options are not enabled or disabled
by the ‘-mcpu’ option at present, since AIX does not have full support for these
options. You may still enable or disable them individually if you’re sure it’ll
work in your environment.
-mtune=cpu_type
Set the instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type, but
do not set the architecture type, register usage, or choice of mnemonics,
as ‘-mcpu=cpu_type ’ would. The same values for cpu type are used for
‘-mtune’ as for ‘-mcpu’. If both are specified, the code generated will use
the architecture, registers, and mnemonics set by ‘-mcpu’, but the scheduling
parameters set by ‘-mtune’.
-maltivec
-mno-altivec
These switches enable or disable the use of built-in functions that allow access
to the AltiVec instruction set. You may also need to set ‘-mabi=altivec’ to
adjust the current ABI with AltiVec ABI enhancements.
-mabi=spe
Extend the current ABI with SPE ABI extensions. This does not change the
default ABI, instead it adds the SPE ABI extensions to the current ABI.
-mabi=no-spe
Disable Booke SPE ABI extensions for the current ABI.
-misel=yes/no
-misel This switch enables or disables the generation of ISEL instructions.
-mspe=yes/no
-mspe This switch enables or disables the generation of SPE simd instructions.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 115
-mfloat-gprs=yes/no
-mfloat-gprs
This switch enables or disables the generation of floating point operations on
the general purpose registers for architectures that support it. This option is
currently only available on the MPC8540.
-mfull-toc
-mno-fp-in-toc
-mno-sum-in-toc
-mminimal-toc
Modify generation of the TOC (Table Of Contents), which is created for every
executable file. The ‘-mfull-toc’ option is selected by default. In that case,
GCC will allocate at least one TOC entry for each unique non-automatic vari-
able reference in your program. GCC will also place floating-point constants in
the TOC. However, only 16,384 entries are available in the TOC.
If you receive a linker error message that saying you have overflowed the avail-
able TOC space, you can reduce the amount of TOC space used with the
‘-mno-fp-in-toc’ and ‘-mno-sum-in-toc’ options. ‘-mno-fp-in-toc’ prevents
GCC from putting floating-point constants in the TOC and ‘-mno-sum-in-toc’
forces GCC to generate code to calculate the sum of an address and a constant
at run-time instead of putting that sum into the TOC. You may specify one
or both of these options. Each causes GCC to produce very slightly slower and
larger code at the expense of conserving TOC space.
If you still run out of space in the TOC even when you specify both of these
options, specify ‘-mminimal-toc’ instead. This option causes GCC to make
only one TOC entry for every file. When you specify this option, GCC will
produce code that is slower and larger but which uses extremely little TOC
space. You may wish to use this option only on files that contain less frequently
executed code.
-maix64
-maix32 Enable 64-bit AIX ABI and calling convention: 64-bit pointers, 64-bit long
type, and the infrastructure needed to support them. Specifying ‘-maix64’
implies ‘-mpowerpc64’ and ‘-mpowerpc’, while ‘-maix32’ disables the 64-bit
ABI and implies ‘-mno-powerpc64’. GCC defaults to ‘-maix32’.
-mxl-compat
-mno-xl-compat
Produce code that conforms more closely to IBM XLC semantics when using
AIX-compatible ABI. Pass floating-point arguments to prototyped functions
beyond the register save area (RSA) on the stack in addition to argument
FPRs. Do not assume that most significant double in 128 bit long double value
is properly rounded when comparing values.
The AIX calling convention was extended but not initially documented to han-
dle an obscure K&R C case of calling a function that takes the address of
its arguments with fewer arguments than declared. AIX XL compilers access
floating point arguments which do not fit in the RSA from the stack when a
subroutine is compiled without optimization. Because always storing floating-
116 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
point arguments on the stack is inefficient and rarely needed, this option is not
enabled by default and only is necessary when calling subroutines compiled by
AIX XL compilers without optimization.
-mpe Support IBM RS/6000 SP Parallel Environment (PE). Link an application
written to use message passing with special startup code to enable the ap-
plication to run. The system must have PE installed in the standard loca-
tion (‘/usr/lpp/ppe.poe/’), or the ‘specs’ file must be overridden with the
‘-specs=’ option to specify the appropriate directory location. The Parallel
Environment does not support threads, so the ‘-mpe’ option and the ‘-pthread’
option are incompatible.
-malign-natural
-malign-power
On AIX, Darwin, and 64-bit PowerPC GNU/Linux, the option
‘-malign-natural’ overrides the ABI-defined alignment of larger types, such
as floating-point doubles, on their natural size-based boundary. The option
‘-malign-power’ instructs GCC to follow the ABI-specified alignment rules.
GCC defaults to the standard alignment defined in the ABI.
-msoft-float
-mhard-float
Generate code that does not use (uses) the floating-point register set. Software
floating point emulation is provided if you use the ‘-msoft-float’ option, and
pass the option to GCC when linking.
-mmultiple
-mno-multiple
Generate code that uses (does not use) the load multiple word instructions
and the store multiple word instructions. These instructions are generated by
default on POWER systems, and not generated on PowerPC systems. Do not
use ‘-mmultiple’ on little endian PowerPC systems, since those instructions
do not work when the processor is in little endian mode. The exceptions are
PPC740 and PPC750 which permit the instructions usage in little endian mode.
-mstring
-mno-string
Generate code that uses (does not use) the load string instructions and the
store string word instructions to save multiple registers and do small block
moves. These instructions are generated by default on POWER systems, and
not generated on PowerPC systems. Do not use ‘-mstring’ on little endian
PowerPC systems, since those instructions do not work when the processor is
in little endian mode. The exceptions are PPC740 and PPC750 which permit
the instructions usage in little endian mode.
-mupdate
-mno-update
Generate code that uses (does not use) the load or store instructions that update
the base register to the address of the calculated memory location. These
instructions are generated by default. If you use ‘-mno-update’, there is a small
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 117
window between the time that the stack pointer is updated and the address of
the previous frame is stored, which means code that walks the stack frame
across interrupts or signals may get corrupted data.
-mfused-madd
-mno-fused-madd
Generate code that uses (does not use) the floating point multiply and accu-
mulate instructions. These instructions are generated by default if hardware
floating is used.
-mno-bit-align
-mbit-align
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do not (do) force structures
and unions that contain bit-fields to be aligned to the base type of the bit-field.
For example, by default a structure containing nothing but 8 unsigned bit-
fields of length 1 would be aligned to a 4 byte boundary and have a size of 4
bytes. By using ‘-mno-bit-align’, the structure would be aligned to a 1 byte
boundary and be one byte in size.
-mno-strict-align
-mstrict-align
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do not (do) assume that un-
aligned memory references will be handled by the system.
-mrelocatable
-mno-relocatable
On embedded PowerPC systems generate code that allows (does not allow)
the program to be relocated to a different address at runtime. If you use
‘-mrelocatable’ on any module, all objects linked together must be compiled
with ‘-mrelocatable’ or ‘-mrelocatable-lib’.
-mrelocatable-lib
-mno-relocatable-lib
On embedded PowerPC systems generate code that allows (does not allow) the
program to be relocated to a different address at runtime. Modules compiled
with ‘-mrelocatable-lib’ can be linked with either modules compiled without
‘-mrelocatable’ and ‘-mrelocatable-lib’ or with modules compiled with the
‘-mrelocatable’ options.
-mno-toc
-mtoc On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do not (do) assume that reg-
ister 2 contains a pointer to a global area pointing to the addresses used in the
program.
-mlittle
-mlittle-endian
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the processor
in little endian mode. The ‘-mlittle-endian’ option is the same as ‘-mlittle’.
118 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mbig
-mbig-endian
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the processor
in big endian mode. The ‘-mbig-endian’ option is the same as ‘-mbig’.
-mdynamic-no-pic
On Darwin and Mac OS X systems, compile code so that it is not relocatable,
but that its external references are relocatable. The resulting code is suitable
for applications, but not shared libraries.
-mprioritize-restricted-insns=priority
This option controls the priority that is assigned to dispatch-slot restricted
instructions during the second scheduling pass. The argument priority takes
the value 0/1/2 to assign no/highest/second-highest priority to dispatch slot
restricted instructions.
-msched-costly-dep=dependence_type
This option controls which dependences are considered costly by the target
during instruction scheduling. The argument dependence type takes one of the
following values: no: no dependence is costly, all: all dependences are costly,
true store to load: a true dependence from store to load is costly, store to load:
any dependence from store to load is costly, number: any dependence which
latency >= number is costly.
-minsert-sched-nops=scheme
This option controls which nop insertion scheme will be used during the second
scheduling pass. The argument scheme takes one of the following values: no:
Don’t insert nops. pad: Pad with nops any dispatch group which has vacant
issue slots, according to the scheduler’s grouping. regroup exact: Insert nops
to force costly dependent insns into separate groups. Insert exactly as many
nops as needed to force an insn to a new group, according to the estimated
processor grouping. number: Insert nops to force costly dependent insns into
separate groups. Insert number nops to force an insn to a new group.
-mcall-sysv
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code using calling
conventions that adheres to the March 1995 draft of the System V Application
Binary Interface, PowerPC processor supplement. This is the default unless
you configured GCC using ‘powerpc-*-eabiaix’.
-mcall-sysv-eabi
Specify both ‘-mcall-sysv’ and ‘-meabi’ options.
-mcall-sysv-noeabi
Specify both ‘-mcall-sysv’ and ‘-mno-eabi’ options.
-mcall-solaris
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the Solaris
operating system.
-mcall-linux
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the Linux-
based GNU system.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 119
-mcall-gnu
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the Hurd-
based GNU system.
-mcall-netbsd
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the NetBSD
operating system.
-maix-struct-return
Return all structures in memory (as specified by the AIX ABI).
-msvr4-struct-return
Return structures smaller than 8 bytes in registers (as specified by the SVR4
ABI).
-mabi=altivec
Extend the current ABI with AltiVec ABI extensions. This does not change
the default ABI, instead it adds the AltiVec ABI extensions to the current ABI.
-mabi=no-altivec
Disable AltiVec ABI extensions for the current ABI.
-mprototype
-mno-prototype
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems assume that all calls to vari-
able argument functions are properly prototyped. Otherwise, the compiler must
insert an instruction before every non prototyped call to set or clear bit 6
of the condition code register (CR) to indicate whether floating point values
were passed in the floating point registers in case the function takes a variable
arguments. With ‘-mprototype’, only calls to prototyped variable argument
functions will set or clear the bit.
-msim On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called
‘sim-crt0.o’ and that the standard C libraries are ‘libsim.a’ and ‘libc.a’.
This is the default for ‘powerpc-*-eabisim’. configurations.
-mmvme On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called
‘crt0.o’ and the standard C libraries are ‘libmvme.a’ and ‘libc.a’.
-mads On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called
‘crt0.o’ and the standard C libraries are ‘libads.a’ and ‘libc.a’.
-myellowknife
On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called
‘crt0.o’ and the standard C libraries are ‘libyk.a’ and ‘libc.a’.
-mvxworks
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, specify that you are compiling
for a VxWorks system.
-mwindiss
Specify that you are compiling for the WindISS simulation environment.
-memb On embedded PowerPC systems, set the PPC EMB bit in the ELF flags header
to indicate that ‘eabi’ extended relocations are used.
120 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-meabi
-mno-eabi
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do (do not) adhere to the
Embedded Applications Binary Interface (eabi) which is a set of modifications
to the System V.4 specifications. Selecting ‘-meabi’ means that the stack is
aligned to an 8 byte boundary, a function __eabi is called to from main to set
up the eabi environment, and the ‘-msdata’ option can use both r2 and r13
to point to two separate small data areas. Selecting ‘-mno-eabi’ means that
the stack is aligned to a 16 byte boundary, do not call an initialization function
from main, and the ‘-msdata’ option will only use r13 to point to a single small
data area. The ‘-meabi’ option is on by default if you configured GCC using
one of the ‘powerpc*-*-eabi*’ options.
-msdata=eabi
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, put small initialized const
global and static data in the ‘.sdata2’ section, which is pointed to by register
r2. Put small initialized non-const global and static data in the ‘.sdata’
section, which is pointed to by register r13. Put small uninitialized global and
static data in the ‘.sbss’ section, which is adjacent to the ‘.sdata’ section.
The ‘-msdata=eabi’ option is incompatible with the ‘-mrelocatable’ option.
The ‘-msdata=eabi’ option also sets the ‘-memb’ option.
-msdata=sysv
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, put small global and static
data in the ‘.sdata’ section, which is pointed to by register r13. Put small
uninitialized global and static data in the ‘.sbss’ section, which is adjacent
to the ‘.sdata’ section. The ‘-msdata=sysv’ option is incompatible with the
‘-mrelocatable’ option.
-msdata=default
-msdata On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, if ‘-meabi’ is used, com-
pile code the same as ‘-msdata=eabi’, otherwise compile code the same as
‘-msdata=sysv’.
-msdata-data
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, put small global and static
data in the ‘.sdata’ section. Put small uninitialized global and static data in
the ‘.sbss’ section. Do not use register r13 to address small data however.
This is the default behavior unless other ‘-msdata’ options are used.
-msdata=none
-mno-sdata
On embedded PowerPC systems, put all initialized global and static data in
the ‘.data’ section, and all uninitialized data in the ‘.bss’ section.
-G num On embedded PowerPC systems, put global and static items less than or equal
to num bytes into the small data or bss sections instead of the normal data or
bss section. By default, num is 8. The ‘-G num ’ switch is also passed to the
linker. All modules should be compiled with the same ‘-G num ’ value.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 121
-mregnames
-mno-regnames
On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do (do not) emit register
names in the assembly language output using symbolic forms.
-mlongcall
-mno-longcall
Default to making all function calls via pointers, so that functions which reside
further than 64 megabytes (67,108,864 bytes) from the current location can be
called. This setting can be overridden by the shortcall function attribute, or
by #pragma longcall(0).
Some linkers are capable of detecting out-of-range calls and generating glue
code on the fly. On these systems, long calls are unnecessary and generate
slower code. As of this writing, the AIX linker can do this, as can the GNU
linker for PowerPC/64. It is planned to add this feature to the GNU linker for
32-bit PowerPC systems as well.
On Mach-O (Darwin) systems, this option directs the compiler emit to the glue
for every direct call, and the Darwin linker decides whether to use or discard
it.
In the future, we may cause GCC to ignore all longcall specifications when the
linker is known to generate glue.
-pthread Adds support for multithreading with the pthreads library. This option sets
flags for both the preprocessor and linker.
-all_load
Loads all members of static archive libraries. See man ld(1) for more informa-
tion.
-arch_errors_fatal
Cause the errors having to do with files that have the wrong architecture to be
fatal.
-bind_at_load
Causes the output file to be marked such that the dynamic linker will bind all
undefined references when the file is loaded or launched.
-bundle Produce a Mach-o bundle format file. See man ld(1) for more information.
-bundle_loader executable
This specifies the executable that will be loading the build output file being
linked. See man ld(1) for more information.
122 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-allowable_client client_name
-arch_only
-client_name
-compatibility_version
-current_version
-dependency-file
-dylib_file
-dylinker_install_name
-dynamic
-dynamiclib
-exported_symbols_list
-filelist
-flat_namespace
-force_cpusubtype_ALL
-force_flat_namespace
-headerpad_max_install_names
-image_base
-init
-install_name
-keep_private_externs
-multi_module
-multiply_defined
-multiply_defined_unused
-noall_load
-nofixprebinding
-nomultidefs
-noprebind
-noseglinkedit
-pagezero_size
-prebind
-prebind_all_twolevel_modules
-private_bundle
-read_only_relocs
-sectalign
-sectobjectsymbols
-whyload
-seg1addr
-sectcreate
-sectobjectsymbols
-sectorder
-seg_addr_table
-seg_addr_table_filename
-seglinkedit
-segprot
-segs_read_only_addr
-segs_read_write_addr
-single_module
-static
-sub_library
-sub_umbrella
-twolevel_namespace
-umbrella
-undefined
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 123
-mhard-float
Use floating-point coprocessor instructions.
-msoft-float
Do not use floating-point coprocessor instructions. Implement floating-point
calculations using library calls instead.
-msingle-float
Assume that the floating-point coprocessor only supports single-precision oper-
ations.
-mdouble-float
Assume that the floating-point coprocessor supports double-precision opera-
tions. This is the default.
-mint64 Force int and long types to be 64 bits wide. See ‘-mlong32’ for an explanation
of the default and the way that the pointer size is determined.
-mlong64 Force long types to be 64 bits wide. See ‘-mlong32’ for an explanation of the
default and the way that the pointer size is determined.
-G num Put global and static items less than or equal to num bytes into the small data
or bss section instead of the normal data or bss section. This allows the data
to be accessed using a single instruction.
All modules should be compiled with the same ‘-G num ’ value.
-membedded-data
-mno-embedded-data
Allocate variables to the read-only data section first if possible, then next in the
small data section if possible, otherwise in data. This gives slightly slower code
than the default, but reduces the amount of RAM required when executing,
and thus may be preferred for some embedded systems.
-muninit-const-in-rodata
-mno-uninit-const-in-rodata
Put uninitialized const variables in the read-only data section. This option is
only meaningful in conjunction with ‘-membedded-data’.
-msplit-addresses
-mno-split-addresses
Enable (disable) use of the %hi() and %lo() assembler relocation operators.
This option has been superceded by ‘-mexplicit-relocs’ but is retained for
backwards compatibility.
126 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mexplicit-relocs
-mno-explicit-relocs
Use (do not use) assembler relocation operators when dealing with symbolic
addresses. The alternative, selected by ‘-mno-explicit-relocs’, is to use as-
sembler macros instead.
‘-mexplicit-relocs’ is usually the default if GCC was configured to use an
assembler that supports relocation operators. However, there are two excep-
tions:
• GCC is not yet able to generate explicit relocations for the combination
of ‘-mabi=64’ and ‘-mno-abicalls’. This will be addressed in a future
release.
• The combination of ‘-mabicalls’ and ‘-fno-unit-at-a-time’ implies
‘-mno-explicit-relocs’ unless explicitly overridden. This is because,
when generating abicalls, the choice of relocation depends on whether a
symbol is local or global. In some rare cases, GCC will not be able to
decide this until the whole compilation unit has been read.
-mrnames
-mno-rnames
Generate (do not generate) code that refers to registers using their software
names. The default is ‘-mno-rnames’, which tells GCC to use hardware names
like ‘$4’ instead of software names like ‘a0’. The only assembler known to
support ‘-rnames’ is the Algorithmics assembler.
-mcheck-zero-division
-mno-check-zero-division
Trap (do not trap) on integer division by zero. The default is
‘-mcheck-zero-division’.
-mmemcpy
-mno-memcpy
Force (do not force) the use of memcpy() for non-trivial block moves. The de-
fault is ‘-mno-memcpy’, which allows GCC to inline most constant-sized copies.
-mlong-calls
-mno-long-calls
Disable (do not disable) use of the jal instruction. Calling functions using
jal is more efficient but requires the caller and callee to be in the same 256
megabyte segment.
This option has no effect on abicalls code. The default is ‘-mno-long-calls’.
-mmad
-mno-mad Enable (disable) use of the mad, madu and mul instructions, as provided by the
R4650 ISA.
-mfused-madd
-mno-fused-madd
Enable (disable) use of the floating point multiply-accumulate instructions,
when they are available. The default is ‘-mfused-madd’.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 127
pentium3, pentium3m
Intel Pentium3 CPU based on PentiumPro core with MMX and
SSE instruction set support.
pentium-m
Low power version of Intel Pentium3 CPU with MMX, SSE and
SSE2 instruction set support. Used by Centrino notebooks.
pentium4, pentium4m
Intel Pentium4 CPU with MMX, SSE and SSE2 instruction set
support.
prescott Improved version of Intel Pentium4 CPU with MMX, SSE, SSE2
and SSE3 instruction set support.
nocona Improved version of Intel Pentium4 CPU with 64-bit extensions,
MMX, SSE, SSE2 and SSE3 instruction set support.
k6 AMD K6 CPU with MMX instruction set support.
k6-2, k6-3 Improved versions of AMD K6 CPU with MMX and 3dNOW! in-
struction set support.
athlon, athlon-tbird
AMD Athlon CPU with MMX, 3dNOW!, enhanced 3dNOW! and
SSE prefetch instructions support.
athlon-4, athlon-xp, athlon-mp
Improved AMD Athlon CPU with MMX, 3dNOW!, enhanced
3dNOW! and full SSE instruction set support.
k8, opteron, athlon64, athlon-fx
AMD K8 core based CPUs with x86-64 instruction set support.
(This supersets MMX, SSE, SSE2, 3dNOW!, enhanced 3dNOW!
and 64-bit instruction set extensions.)
winchip-c6
IDT Winchip C6 CPU, dealt in same way as i486 with additional
MMX instruction set support.
winchip2 IDT Winchip2 CPU, dealt in same way as i486 with additional
MMX and 3dNOW! instruction set support.
c3 Via C3 CPU with MMX and 3dNOW! instruction set support. (No
scheduling is implemented for this chip.)
c3-2 Via C3-2 CPU with MMX and SSE instruction set support. (No
scheduling is implemented for this chip.)
While picking a specific cpu-type will schedule things appropriately for that
particular chip, the compiler will not generate any code that does not run on
the i386 without the ‘-march=cpu-type ’ option being used.
-march=cpu-type
Generate instructions for the machine type cpu-type. The choices for cpu-type
are the same as for ‘-mtune’. Moreover, specifying ‘-march=cpu-type ’ implies
‘-mtune=cpu-type ’.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 129
-mcpu=cpu-type
A deprecated synonym for ‘-mtune’.
-m386
-m486
-mpentium
-mpentiumpro
These options are synonyms for ‘-mtune=i386’, ‘-mtune=i486’,
‘-mtune=pentium’, and ‘-mtune=pentiumpro’ respectively. These synonyms
are deprecated.
-mfpmath=unit
Generate floating point arithmetics for selected unit unit. The choices for unit
are:
‘387’ Use the standard 387 floating point coprocessor present majority of
chips and emulated otherwise. Code compiled with this option will
run almost everywhere. The temporary results are computed in
80bit precision instead of precision specified by the type resulting
in slightly different results compared to most of other chips. See
‘-ffloat-store’ for more detailed description.
This is the default choice for i386 compiler.
‘sse’ Use scalar floating point instructions present in the SSE instruction
set. This instruction set is supported by Pentium3 and newer chips,
in the AMD line by Athlon-4, Athlon-xp and Athlon-mp chips. The
earlier version of SSE instruction set supports only single precision
arithmetics, thus the double and extended precision arithmetics is
still done using 387. Later version, present only in Pentium4 and
the future AMD x86-64 chips supports double precision arithmetics
too.
For i387 you need to use ‘-march=cpu-type ’, ‘-msse’ or ‘-msse2’
switches to enable SSE extensions and make this option effective.
For x86-64 compiler, these extensions are enabled by default.
The resulting code should be considerably faster in the majority
of cases and avoid the numerical instability problems of 387 code,
but may break some existing code that expects temporaries to be
80bit.
This is the default choice for the x86-64 compiler.
‘sse,387’ Attempt to utilize both instruction sets at once. This effectively
double the amount of available registers and on chips with sepa-
rate execution units for 387 and SSE the execution resources too.
Use this option with care, as it is still experimental, because the
GCC register allocator does not model separate functional units
well resulting in instable performance.
-masm=dialect
Output asm instructions using selected dialect. Supported choices are ‘intel’
or ‘att’ (the default one).
130 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mieee-fp
-mno-ieee-fp
Control whether or not the compiler uses IEEE floating point comparisons.
These handle correctly the case where the result of a comparison is unordered.
-msoft-float
Generate output containing library calls for floating point. Warning: the req-
uisite libraries are not part of GCC. Normally the facilities of the machine’s
usual C compiler are used, but this can’t be done directly in cross-compilation.
You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions
for cross-compilation.
On machines where a function returns floating point results in the 80387 register
stack, some floating point opcodes may be emitted even if ‘-msoft-float’ is
used.
-mno-fp-ret-in-387
Do not use the FPU registers for return values of functions.
The usual calling convention has functions return values of types float and
double in an FPU register, even if there is no FPU. The idea is that the
operating system should emulate an FPU.
The option ‘-mno-fp-ret-in-387’ causes such values to be returned in ordinary
CPU registers instead.
-mno-fancy-math-387
Some 387 emulators do not support the sin, cos and sqrt instructions for the
387. Specify this option to avoid generating those instructions. This option
is the default on FreeBSD, OpenBSD and NetBSD. This option is overridden
when ‘-march’ indicates that the target cpu will always have an FPU and so the
instruction will not need emulation. As of revision 2.6.1, these instructions are
not generated unless you also use the ‘-funsafe-math-optimizations’ switch.
-malign-double
-mno-align-double
Control whether GCC aligns double, long double, and long long variables on
a two word boundary or a one word boundary. Aligning double variables on a
two word boundary will produce code that runs somewhat faster on a ‘Pentium’
at the expense of more memory.
Warning: if you use the ‘-malign-double’ switch, structures containing the
above types will be aligned differently than the published application binary
interface specifications for the 386 and will not be binary compatible with struc-
tures in code compiled without that switch.
-m96bit-long-double
-m128bit-long-double
These switches control the size of long double type. The i386 application
binary interface specifies the size to be 96 bits, so ‘-m96bit-long-double’ is
the default in 32 bit mode.
Modern architectures (Pentium and newer) would prefer long double to be
aligned to an 8 or 16 byte boundary. In arrays or structures conforming to the
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 131
128 bits), except when optimizing for code size (‘-Os’), in which case the default
is the minimum correct alignment (4 bytes for x86, and 8 bytes for x86-64).
On Pentium and PentiumPro, double and long double values should be
aligned to an 8 byte boundary (see ‘-malign-double’) or suffer significant run
time performance penalties. On Pentium III, the Streaming SIMD Extension
(SSE) data type __m128 suffers similar penalties if it is not 16 byte aligned.
To ensure proper alignment of this values on the stack, the stack boundary must
be as aligned as that required by any value stored on the stack. Further, every
function must be generated such that it keeps the stack aligned. Thus calling
a function compiled with a higher preferred stack boundary from a function
compiled with a lower preferred stack boundary will most likely misalign the
stack. It is recommended that libraries that use callbacks always use the default
setting.
This extra alignment does consume extra stack space, and generally increases
code size. Code that is sensitive to stack space usage, such as embedded systems
and operating system kernels, may want to reduce the preferred alignment to
‘-mpreferred-stack-boundary=2’.
-mmmx
-mno-mmx
-msse
-mno-sse
-msse2
-mno-sse2
-msse3
-mno-sse3
-m3dnow
-mno-3dnow
These switches enable or disable the use of built-in functions that allow direct
access to the MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3 and 3Dnow extensions of the instruction
set.
See Section 5.45.3 [X86 Built-in Functions], page 258, for details of the functions
enabled and disabled by these switches.
To have SSE/SSE2 instructions generated automatically from floating-point
code, see ‘-mfpmath=sse’.
-mpush-args
-mno-push-args
Use PUSH operations to store outgoing parameters. This method is shorter
and usually equally fast as method using SUB/MOV operations and is enabled
by default. In some cases disabling it may improve performance because of
improved scheduling and reduced dependencies.
-maccumulate-outgoing-args
If enabled, the maximum amount of space required for outgoing arguments will
be computed in the function prologue. This is faster on most modern CPUs
because of reduced dependencies, improved scheduling and reduced stack usage
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 133
-mcmodel=small
Generate code for the small code model: the program and its symbols must be
linked in the lower 2 GB of the address space. Pointers are 64 bits. Programs
can be statically or dynamically linked. This is the default code model.
-mcmodel=kernel
Generate code for the kernel code model. The kernel runs in the negative 2 GB
of the address space. This model has to be used for Linux kernel code.
-mcmodel=medium
Generate code for the medium model: The program is linked in the lower 2
GB of the address space but symbols can be located anywhere in the address
space. Programs can be statically or dynamically linked, but building of shared
libraries are not supported with the medium model.
-mcmodel=large
Generate code for the large model: This model makes no assumptions about
addresses and sizes of sections. Currently GCC does not implement this model.
-mdisable-indexing
Prevent the compiler from using indexing address modes. This avoids some
rather obscure problems when compiling MIG generated code under MACH.
-mno-space-regs
Generate code that assumes the target has no space registers. This allows GCC
to generate faster indirect calls and use unscaled index address modes.
Such code is suitable for level 0 PA systems and kernels.
-mfast-indirect-calls
Generate code that assumes calls never cross space boundaries. This allows
GCC to emit code which performs faster indirect calls.
This option will not work in the presence of shared libraries or nested functions.
-mlong-load-store
Generate 3-instruction load and store sequences as sometimes required by the
HP-UX 10 linker. This is equivalent to the ‘+k’ option to the HP compilers.
-mportable-runtime
Use the portable calling conventions proposed by HP for ELF systems.
-mgas Enable the use of assembler directives only GAS understands.
-mschedule=cpu-type
Schedule code according to the constraints for the machine type cpu-type. The
choices for cpu-type are ‘700’ ‘7100’, ‘7100LC’, ‘7200’, ‘7300’ and ‘8000’. Refer
to ‘/usr/lib/sched.models’ on an HP-UX system to determine the proper
scheduling option for your machine. The default scheduling is ‘8000’.
-mlinker-opt
Enable the optimization pass in the HP-UX linker. Note this makes symbolic
debugging impossible. It also triggers a bug in the HP-UX 8 and HP-UX 9
linkers in which they give bogus error messages when linking some programs.
-msoft-float
Generate output containing library calls for floating point. Warning: the req-
uisite libraries are not available for all HPPA targets. Normally the facilities of
the machine’s usual C compiler are used, but this cannot be done directly in
cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable
library functions for cross-compilation. The embedded target ‘hppa1.1-*-pro’
does provide software floating point support.
‘-msoft-float’ changes the calling convention in the output file; therefore, it
is only useful if you compile all of a program with this option. In particu-
lar, you need to compile ‘libgcc.a’, the library that comes with GCC, with
‘-msoft-float’ in order for this to work.
-msio Generate the predefine, _SIO, for server IO. The default is ‘-mwsio’. This gen-
erates the predefines, __hp9000s700, __hp9000s700__ and _WSIO, for worksta-
tion IO. These options are available under HP-UX and HI-UX.
-mgnu-ld Use GNU ld specific options. This passes ‘-shared’ to ld when building a shared
library. It is the default when GCC is configured, explicitly or implicitly, with
136 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
the GNU linker. This option does not have any affect on which ld is called, it
only changes what parameters are passed to that ld. The ld that is called is
determined by the ‘--with-ld’ configure option, GCC’s program search path,
and finally by the user’s PATH. The linker used by GCC can be printed using
‘which ‘gcc -print-prog-name=ld‘’. This option is only available on the 64
bit HP-UX GCC, i.e. configured with ‘hppa*64*-*-hpux*’.
-mhp-ld Use HP ld specific options. This passes ‘-b’ to ld when building a shared library
and passes ‘+Accept TypeMismatch’ to ld on all links. It is the default when
GCC is configured, explicitly or implicitly, with the HP linker. This option does
not have any affect on which ld is called, it only changes what parameters are
passed to that ld. The ld that is called is determined by the ‘--with-ld’ con-
figure option, GCC’s program search path, and finally by the user’s PATH. The
linker used by GCC can be printed using ‘which ‘gcc -print-prog-name=ld‘’.
This option is only available on the 64 bit HP-UX GCC, i.e. configured with
‘hppa*64*-*-hpux*’.
-mlong-calls
Generate code that uses long call sequences. This ensures that a call is always
able to reach linker generated stubs. The default is to generate long calls
only when the distance from the call site to the beginning of the function or
translation unit, as the case may be, exceeds a predefined limit set by the
branch type being used. The limits for normal calls are 7,600,000 and 240,000
bytes, respectively for the PA 2.0 and PA 1.X architectures. Sibcalls are always
limited at 240,000 bytes.
Distances are measured from the beginning of functions when using
the ‘-ffunction-sections’ option, or when using the ‘-mgas’ and
‘-mno-portable-runtime’ options together under HP-UX with the SOM
linker.
It is normally not desirable to use this option as it will degrade performance.
However, it may be useful in large applications, particularly when partial linking
is used to build the application.
The types of long calls used depends on the capabilities of the assembler and
linker, and the type of code being generated. The impact on systems that
support long absolute calls, and long pic symbol-difference or pc-relative calls
should be relatively small. However, an indirect call is used on 32-bit ELF
systems in pic code and it is quite long.
-nolibdld
Suppress the generation of link options to search libdld.sl when the ‘-static’
option is specified on HP-UX 10 and later.
-static The HP-UX implementation of setlocale in libc has a dependency on libdld.sl.
There isn’t an archive version of libdld.sl. Thus, when the ‘-static’ option is
specified, special link options are needed to resolve this dependency.
On HP-UX 10 and later, the GCC driver adds the necessary options to link
with libdld.sl when the ‘-static’ option is specified. This causes the resulting
binary to be dynamic. On the 64-bit port, the linkers generate dynamic binaries
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 137
by default in any case. The ‘-nolibdld’ option can be used to prevent the GCC
driver from adding these link options.
-threads Add support for multithreading with the dce thread library under HP-UX. This
option sets flags for both the preprocessor and linker.
-masm-compat
-mintel-asm
Enable compatibility with the iC960 assembler.
-mstrict-align
-mno-strict-align
Do not permit (do permit) unaligned accesses.
-mold-align
Enable structure-alignment compatibility with Intel’s gcc release version 1.3
(based on gcc 1.37). This option implies ‘-mstrict-align’.
-mlong-double-64
Implement type ‘long double’ as 64-bit floating point numbers. Without the
option ‘long double’ is implemented by 80-bit floating point numbers. The
only reason we have it because there is no 128-bit ‘long double’ support in
‘fp-bit.c’ yet. So it is only useful for people using soft-float targets. Otherwise,
we should recommend against use of it.
maintained (see below). If this option is turned on, the preprocessor macro
_IEEE_FP is defined during compilation. The resulting code is less efficient but
is able to correctly support denormalized numbers and exceptional IEEE values
such as not-a-number and plus/minus infinity. Other Alpha compilers call this
option ‘-ieee_with_no_inexact’.
-mieee-with-inexact
This is like ‘-mieee’ except the generated code also maintains the IEEE inexact-
flag. Turning on this option causes the generated code to implement fully-
compliant IEEE math. In addition to _IEEE_FP, _IEEE_FP_EXACT is defined as
a preprocessor macro. On some Alpha implementations the resulting code may
execute significantly slower than the code generated by default. Since there is
very little code that depends on the inexact-flag, you should normally not spec-
ify this option. Other Alpha compilers call this option ‘-ieee_with_inexact’.
-mfp-trap-mode=trap-mode
This option controls what floating-point related traps are enabled. Other Alpha
compilers call this option ‘-fptm trap-mode ’. The trap mode can be set to one
of four values:
‘n’ This is the default (normal) setting. The only traps that are en-
abled are the ones that cannot be disabled in software (e.g., division
by zero trap).
‘u’ In addition to the traps enabled by ‘n’, underflow traps are enabled
as well.
‘su’ Like ‘su’, but the instructions are marked to be safe for software
completion (see Alpha architecture manual for details).
‘sui’ Like ‘su’, but inexact traps are enabled as well.
-mfp-rounding-mode=rounding-mode
Selects the IEEE rounding mode. Other Alpha compilers call this option ‘-fprm
rounding-mode ’. The rounding-mode can be one of:
‘n’ Normal IEEE rounding mode. Floating point numbers are rounded
towards the nearest machine number or towards the even machine
number in case of a tie.
‘m’ Round towards minus infinity.
‘c’ Chopped rounding mode. Floating point numbers are rounded to-
wards zero.
‘d’ Dynamic rounding mode. A field in the floating point control reg-
ister (fpcr, see Alpha architecture reference manual) controls the
rounding mode in effect. The C library initializes this register for
rounding towards plus infinity. Thus, unless your program modifies
the fpcr, ‘d’ corresponds to round towards plus infinity.
-mtrap-precision=trap-precision
In the Alpha architecture, floating point traps are imprecise. This means with-
out software assistance it is impossible to recover from a floating trap and
140 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mfloat-vax
-mfloat-ieee
Generate code that uses (does not use) VAX F and G floating point arithmetic
instead of IEEE single and double precision.
-mexplicit-relocs
-mno-explicit-relocs
Older Alpha assemblers provided no way to generate symbol relocations except
via assembler macros. Use of these macros does not allow optimal instruction
scheduling. GNU binutils as of version 2.12 supports a new syntax that al-
lows the compiler to explicitly mark which relocations should apply to which
instructions. This option is mostly useful for debugging, as GCC detects the
capabilities of the assembler when it is built and sets the default accordingly.
-msmall-data
-mlarge-data
When ‘-mexplicit-relocs’ is in effect, static data is accessed via gp-relative
relocations. When ‘-msmall-data’ is used, objects 8 bytes long or smaller are
placed in a small data area (the .sdata and .sbss sections) and are accessed
via 16-bit relocations off of the $gp register. This limits the size of the small
data area to 64KB, but allows the variables to be directly accessed via a single
instruction.
The default is ‘-mlarge-data’. With this option the data area is limited to just
below 2GB. Programs that require more than 2GB of data must use malloc or
mmap to allocate the data in the heap instead of in the program’s data segment.
When generating code for shared libraries, ‘-fpic’ implies ‘-msmall-data’ and
‘-fPIC’ implies ‘-mlarge-data’.
-msmall-text
-mlarge-text
When ‘-msmall-text’ is used, the compiler assumes that the code of the entire
program (or shared library) fits in 4MB, and is thus reachable with a branch in-
struction. When ‘-msmall-data’ is used, the compiler can assume that all local
symbols share the same $gp value, and thus reduce the number of instructions
required for a function call from 4 to 1.
The default is ‘-mlarge-text’.
-mcpu=cpu_type
Set the instruction set and instruction scheduling parameters for machine type
cpu type. You can specify either the ‘EV’ style name or the corresponding chip
number. GCC supports scheduling parameters for the EV4, EV5 and EV6
family of processors and will choose the default values for the instruction set
from the processor you specify. If you do not specify a processor type, GCC
will default to the processor on which the compiler was built.
Supported values for cpu type are
‘ev4’
‘ev45’
‘21064’ Schedules as an EV4 and has no instruction set extensions.
142 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
‘ev5’
‘21164’ Schedules as an EV5 and has no instruction set extensions.
‘ev56’
‘21164a’ Schedules as an EV5 and supports the BWX extension.
‘pca56’
‘21164pc’
‘21164PC’ Schedules as an EV5 and supports the BWX and MAX extensions.
‘ev6’
‘21264’ Schedules as an EV6 and supports the BWX, FIX, and MAX ex-
tensions.
‘ev67’
‘21264a’ Schedules as an EV6 and supports the BWX, CIX, FIX, and MAX
extensions.
-mtune=cpu_type
Set only the instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. The
instruction set is not changed.
-mmemory-latency=time
Sets the latency the scheduler should assume for typical memory references
as seen by the application. This number is highly dependent on the memory
access patterns used by the application and the size of the external cache on
the machine.
Valid options for time are
‘number ’ A decimal number representing clock cycles.
‘L1’
‘L2’
‘L3’
‘main’ The compiler contains estimates of the number of clock cycles for
“typical” EV4 & EV5 hardware for the Level 1, 2 & 3 caches (also
called Dcache, Scache, and Bcache), as well as to main memory.
Note that L3 is only valid for EV5.
3.17.17 SH Options
These ‘-m’ options are defined for the SH implementations:
-m1 Generate code for the SH1.
-m2 Generate code for the SH2.
-m2e Generate code for the SH2e.
-m3 Generate code for the SH3.
-m3e Generate code for the SH3e.
-m4-nofpu
Generate code for the SH4 without a floating-point unit.
-m4-single-only
Generate code for the SH4 with a floating-point unit that only supports single-
precision arithmetic.
-m4-single
Generate code for the SH4 assuming the floating-point unit is in single-precision
mode by default.
-m4 Generate code for the SH4.
-mb Compile code for the processor in big endian mode.
-ml Compile code for the processor in little endian mode.
-mdalign Align doubles at 64-bit boundaries. Note that this changes the calling conven-
tions, and thus some functions from the standard C library will not work unless
you recompile it first with ‘-mdalign’.
-mrelax Shorten some address references at link time, when possible; uses the linker
option ‘-relax’.
-mbigtable
Use 32-bit offsets in switch tables. The default is to use 16-bit offsets.
-mfmovd Enable the use of the instruction fmovd.
144 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mhitachi
Comply with the calling conventions defined by Renesas.
-mnomacsave
Mark the MAC register as call-clobbered, even if ‘-mhitachi’ is given.
-mieee Increase IEEE-compliance of floating-point code.
-misize Dump instruction size and location in the assembly code.
-mpadstruct
This option is deprecated. It pads structures to multiple of 4 bytes, which is
incompatible with the SH ABI.
-mspace Optimize for space instead of speed. Implied by ‘-Os’.
-mprefergot
When generating position-independent code, emit function calls using the
Global Offset Table instead of the Procedure Linkage Table.
-musermode
Generate a library function call to invalidate instruction cache entries, after
fixing up a trampoline. This library function call doesn’t assume it can write
to the whole memory address space. This is the default when the target is
sh-*-linux*.
(DP) register must be set to point to the 64K page containing the .bss and .data
program sections. The big memory model is the default and requires reloading
of the DP register for every direct memory access.
-mbk
-mno-bk Allow (disallow) allocation of general integer operands into the block count
register BK.
-mdb
-mno-db Enable (disable) generation of code using decrement and branch, DBcond(D),
instructions. This is enabled by default for the C4x. To be on the safe side,
this is disabled for the C3x, since the maximum iteration count on the C3x is
223 + 1 (but who iterates loops more than 223 times on the C3x?). Note that
GCC will try to reverse a loop so that it can utilize the decrement and branch
instruction, but will give up if there is more than one memory reference in the
loop. Thus a loop where the loop counter is decremented can generate slightly
more efficient code, in cases where the RPTB instruction cannot be utilized.
-mdp-isr-reload
-mparanoid
Force the DP register to be saved on entry to an interrupt service routine (ISR),
reloaded to point to the data section, and restored on exit from the ISR. This
should not be required unless someone has violated the small memory model
by modifying the DP register, say within an object library.
-mmpyi
-mno-mpyi
For the C3x use the 24-bit MPYI instruction for integer multiplies instead of
a library call to guarantee 32-bit results. Note that if one of the operands is
a constant, then the multiplication will be performed using shifts and adds. If
the ‘-mmpyi’ option is not specified for the C3x, then squaring operations are
performed inline instead of a library call.
-mfast-fix
-mno-fast-fix
The C3x/C4x FIX instruction to convert a floating point value to an integer
value chooses the nearest integer less than or equal to the floating point value
rather than to the nearest integer. Thus if the floating point number is negative,
the result will be incorrectly truncated an additional code is necessary to detect
and correct this case. This option can be used to disable generation of the
additional code required to correct the result.
-mrptb
-mno-rptb
Enable (disable) generation of repeat block sequences using the RPTB instruc-
tion for zero overhead looping. The RPTB construct is only used for innermost
loops that do not call functions or jump across the loop boundaries. There is no
advantage having nested RPTB loops due to the overhead required to save and
restore the RC, RS, and RE registers. This is enabled by default with ‘-O2’.
146 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mrpts=count
-mno-rpts
Enable (disable) the use of the single instruction repeat instruction RPTS. If a
repeat block contains a single instruction, and the loop count can be guaranteed
to be less than the value count, GCC will emit a RPTS instruction instead of
a RPTB. If no value is specified, then a RPTS will be emitted even if the loop
count cannot be determined at compile time. Note that the repeated instruction
following RPTS does not have to be reloaded from memory each iteration, thus
freeing up the CPU buses for operands. However, since interrupts are blocked
by this instruction, it is disabled by default.
-mloop-unsigned
-mno-loop-unsigned
The maximum iteration count when using RPTS and RPTB (and DB on the
C40) is 231 + 1 since these instructions test if the iteration count is negative to
terminate the loop. If the iteration count is unsigned there is a possibility than
the 231 + 1 maximum iteration count may be exceeded. This switch allows an
unsigned iteration count.
-mti Try to emit an assembler syntax that the TI assembler (asm30) is happy with.
This also enforces compatibility with the API employed by the TI C3x C com-
piler. For example, long doubles are passed as structures rather than in floating
point registers.
-mregparm
-mmemparm
Generate code that uses registers (stack) for passing arguments to functions.
By default, arguments are passed in registers where possible rather than by
pushing arguments on to the stack.
-mparallel-insns
-mno-parallel-insns
Allow the generation of parallel instructions. This is enabled by default with
‘-O2’.
-mparallel-mpy
-mno-parallel-mpy
Allow the generation of MPY||ADD and MPY||SUB parallel instructions,
provided ‘-mparallel-insns’ is also specified. These instructions have tight
register constraints which can pessimize the code generation of large functions.
-mlong-calls
-mno-long-calls
Treat all calls as being far away (near). If calls are assumed to be far away,
the compiler will always load the functions address up into a register, and call
indirect through the pointer.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 147
-mno-ep
-mep Do not optimize (do optimize) basic blocks that use the same index pointer 4
or more times to copy pointer into the ep register, and use the shorter sld and
sst instructions. The ‘-mep’ option is on by default if you optimize.
-mno-prolog-function
-mprolog-function
Do not use (do use) external functions to save and restore registers at the
prologue and epilogue of a function. The external functions are slower, but use
less code space if more than one function saves the same number of registers.
The ‘-mprolog-function’ option is on by default if you optimize.
-mspace Try to make the code as small as possible. At present, this just turns on the
‘-mep’ and ‘-mprolog-function’ options.
-mtda=n Put static or global variables whose size is n bytes or less into the tiny data
area that register ep points to. The tiny data area can hold up to 256 bytes in
total (128 bytes for byte references).
-msda=n Put static or global variables whose size is n bytes or less into the small data
area that register gp points to. The small data area can hold up to 64 kilobytes.
-mzda=n Put static or global variables whose size is n bytes or less into the first 32
kilobytes of memory.
-mv850 Specify that the target processor is the V850.
-mbig-switch
Generate code suitable for big switch tables. Use this option only if the assem-
bler/linker complain about out of range branches within a switch table.
-mapp-regs
This option will cause r2 and r5 to be used in the code generated by the compiler.
This setting is the default.
-mno-app-regs
This option will cause r2 and r5 to be treated as fixed registers.
-mv850e1 Specify that the target processor is the V850E1. The preprocessor constants
‘__v850e1__’ and ‘__v850e__’ will be defined if this option is used.
-mv850e Specify that the target processor is the V850E. The preprocessor constant
‘__v850e__’ will be defined if this option is used.
If neither ‘-mv850’ nor ‘-mv850e’ nor ‘-mv850e1’ are defined then a default tar-
get processor will be chosen and the relevant ‘__v850*__’ preprocessor constant
will be defined.
The preprocessor constants ‘__v850’ and ‘__v851__’ are always defined, regard-
less of which processor variant is the target.
-mdisable-callt
This option will suppress generation of the CALLT instruction for the v850e and
v850e1 flavors of the v850 architecture. The default is ‘-mno-disable-callt’
which allows the CALLT instruction to be used.
148 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
pact on performance. This option should only be enabled when compiling code
particularly likely to make heavy use of multiply-add instructions.
-mnomulti-add
Do not try and generate multiply-add floating point instructions polyF and
dotF. This is the default on all platforms.
-msoft-float
Generate output containing library calls for floating point. Warning: the req-
uisite libraries may not be available.
-mieee-compare
-mno-ieee-compare
Control whether or not the compiler uses IEEE floating point comparisons.
These handle correctly the case where the result of a comparison is unordered.
Warning: the requisite kernel support may not be available.
-mnobitfield
Do not use the bit-field instructions. On some machines it is faster to use
shifting and masking operations. This is the default for the pc532.
-mbitfield
Do use the bit-field instructions. This is the default for all platforms except the
pc532.
-mrtd Use a different function-calling convention, in which functions that take a fixed
number of arguments return pop their arguments on return with the ret in-
struction.
This calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so
you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler.
Also, you must provide function prototypes for all functions that take variable
numbers of arguments (including printf); otherwise incorrect code will be
generated for calls to those functions.
In addition, seriously incorrect code will result if you call a function with too
many arguments. (Normally, extra arguments are harmlessly ignored.)
This option takes its name from the 680x0 rtd instruction.
-mregparam
Use a different function-calling convention where the first two arguments are
passed in registers.
This calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so
you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler.
-mnoregparam
Do not pass any arguments in registers. This is the default for all targets.
-msb It is OK to use the sb as an index register which is always loaded with zero.
This is the default for the pc532-netbsd target.
-mnosb The sb register is not available for use or has not been initialized to zero by the
run time system. This is the default for all targets except the pc532-netbsd. It
is also implied whenever ‘-mhimem’ or ‘-fpic’ is set.
150 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mnohimem
Assume code will be loaded in the first 512MB of virtual address space. This
is the default for all platforms.
-mmcu=mcu
Specify ATMEL AVR instruction set or MCU type.
Instruction set avr1 is for the minimal AVR core, not supported by the C com-
piler, only for assembler programs (MCU types: at90s1200, attiny10, attiny11,
attiny12, attiny15, attiny28).
Instruction set avr2 (default) is for the classic AVR core with up to 8K pro-
gram memory space (MCU types: at90s2313, at90s2323, attiny22, at90s2333,
at90s2343, at90s4414, at90s4433, at90s4434, at90s8515, at90c8534, at90s8535).
Instruction set avr3 is for the classic AVR core with up to 128K program mem-
ory space (MCU types: atmega103, atmega603, at43usb320, at76c711).
Instruction set avr4 is for the enhanced AVR core with up to 8K program
memory space (MCU types: atmega8, atmega83, atmega85).
Instruction set avr5 is for the enhanced AVR core with up to 128K program
memory space (MCU types: atmega16, atmega161, atmega163, atmega32, at-
mega323, atmega64, atmega128, at43usb355, at94k).
-minit-stack=N
Specify the initial stack address, which may be a symbol or numeric value,
‘__stack’ is the default.
-mno-interrupts
Generated code is not compatible with hardware interrupts. Code size will be
smaller.
-mcall-prologues
Functions prologues/epilogues expanded as call to appropriate subroutines.
Code size will be smaller.
-mno-tablejump
Do not generate tablejump insns which sometimes increase code size.
-mtiny-stack
Change only the low 8 bits of the stack pointer.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 151
-mno-pic Generate code that does not use a global pointer register. The result is not
position independent code, and violates the IA-64 ABI.
-mvolatile-asm-stop
-mno-volatile-asm-stop
Generate (or don’t) a stop bit immediately before and after volatile asm state-
ments.
-mb-step Generate code that works around Itanium B step errata.
-mregister-names
-mno-register-names
Generate (or don’t) ‘in’, ‘loc’, and ‘out’ register names for the stacked registers.
This may make assembler output more readable.
-mno-sdata
-msdata Disable (or enable) optimizations that use the small data section. This may be
useful for working around optimizer bugs.
-mconstant-gp
Generate code that uses a single constant global pointer value. This is useful
when compiling kernel code.
-mauto-pic
Generate code that is self-relocatable. This implies ‘-mconstant-gp’. This is
useful when compiling firmware code.
-minline-float-divide-min-latency
Generate code for inline divides of floating point values using the minimum
latency algorithm.
-minline-float-divide-max-throughput
Generate code for inline divides of floating point values using the maximum
throughput algorithm.
-minline-int-divide-min-latency
Generate code for inline divides of integer values using the minimum latency
algorithm.
-minline-int-divide-max-throughput
Generate code for inline divides of integer values using the maximum through-
put algorithm.
-minline-sqrt-min-latency
Generate code for inline square roots using the minimum latency algorithm.
-minline-sqrt-max-throughput
Generate code for inline square roots using the maximum throughput algorithm.
-mno-dwarf2-asm
-mdwarf2-asm
Don’t (or do) generate assembler code for the DWARF2 line number debugging
info. This may be useful when not using the GNU assembler.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 153
-mearly-stop-bits
-mno-early-stop-bits
Allow stop bits to be placed earlier than immediately preceding the instruction
that triggered the stop bit. This can improve instruction scheduling, but does
not always do so.
-mfixed-range=register-range
Generate code treating the given register range as fixed registers. A fixed
register is one that the register allocator can not use. This is useful when
compiling kernel code. A register range is specified as two registers separated
by a dash. Multiple register ranges can be specified separated by a comma.
-mtls-size=tls-size
Specify bit size of immediate TLS offsets. Valid values are 14, 22, and 64.
-mtune=cpu-type
Tune the instruction scheduling for a particular CPU, Valid values are itanium,
itanium1, merced, itanium2, and mckinley.
-mt
-pthread Add support for multithreading using the POSIX threads library. This option
sets flags for both the preprocessor and linker. It does not affect the thread
safety of object code produced by the compiler or that of libraries supplied with
it. These are HP-UX specific flags.
-milp32
-mlp64 Generate code for a 32-bit or 64-bit environment. The 32-bit environment sets
int, long and pointer to 32 bits. The 64-bit environment sets int to 32 bits and
long and pointer to 64 bits. These are HP-UX specific flags.
-mcond-exec=n
Specify the maximum number of conditionally executed instructions that re-
place a branch. The default is 4.
-mhard-float
-msoft-float
Use (do not use) the hardware floating-point instructions and registers
for floating-point operations. When ‘-msoft-float’ is specified, functions
in ‘libgcc.a’ will be used to perform floating-point operations. When
‘-mhard-float’ is specified, the compiler generates IEEE floating-point
instructions. This is the default.
-mbackchain
-mno-backchain
Generate (or do not generate) code which maintains an explicit backchain within
the stack frame that points to the caller’s frame. This may be needed to allow
debugging using tools that do not understand DWARF-2 call frame information.
The default is not to generate the backchain.
-msmall-exec
-mno-small-exec
Generate (or do not generate) code using the bras instruction to do subroutine
calls. This only works reliably if the total executable size does not exceed 64k.
The default is to use the basr instruction instead, which does not have this
limitation.
-m64
-m31 When ‘-m31’ is specified, generate code compliant to the GNU/Linux for S/390
ABI. When ‘-m64’ is specified, generate code compliant to the GNU/Linux for
zSeries ABI. This allows GCC in particular to generate 64-bit instructions. For
the ‘s390’ targets, the default is ‘-m31’, while the ‘s390x’ targets default to
‘-m64’.
-mzarch
-mesa When ‘-mzarch’ is specified, generate code using the instructions available on
z/Architecture. When ‘-mesa’ is specified, generate code using the instructions
available on ESA/390. Note that ‘-mesa’ is not possible with ‘-m64’. When
generating code compliant to the GNU/Linux for S/390 ABI, the default is
‘-mesa’. When generating code compliant to the GNU/Linux for zSeries ABI,
the default is ‘-mzarch’.
-mmvcle
-mno-mvcle
Generate (or do not generate) code using the mvcle instruction to perform
block moves. When ‘-mno-mvcle’ is specified, use a mvc loop instead. This is
the default.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 155
-mdebug
-mno-debug
Print (or do not print) additional debug information when compiling. The
default is to not print debug information.
-march=cpu-type
Generate code that will run on cpu-type, which is the name of a system repre-
senting a certain processor type. Possible values for cpu-type are ‘g5’, ‘g6’,
‘z900’, and ‘z990’. When generating code using the instructions available
on z/Architecture, the default is ‘-march=z900’. Otherwise, the default is
‘-march=g5’.
-mtune=cpu-type
Tune to cpu-type everything applicable about the generated code, except for
the ABI and the set of available instructions. The list of cpu-type values is the
same as for ‘-march’. The default is the value used for ‘-march’.
-mfused-madd
-mno-fused-madd
Generate code that uses (does not use) the floating point multiply and accu-
mulate instructions. These instructions are generated by default if hardware
floating point is used.
-mmul-bug-workaround
-mno-mul-bug-workaround
Work around a bug in the muls and mulu instructions for CPU models where
it applies. This option is active by default.
-mpdebug Enable CRIS-specific verbose debug-related information in the assembly code.
This option also has the effect to turn off the ‘#NO_APP’ formatted-code indicator
to the assembler at the beginning of the assembly file.
-mcc-init
Do not use condition-code results from previous instruction; always emit com-
pare and test instructions before use of condition codes.
-mno-side-effects
Do not emit instructions with side-effects in addressing modes other than post-
increment.
-mstack-align
-mno-stack-align
-mdata-align
-mno-data-align
-mconst-align
-mno-const-align
These options (no-options) arranges (eliminate arrangements) for the stack-
frame, individual data and constants to be aligned for the maximum single
data access size for the chosen CPU model. The default is to arrange for 32-
bit alignment. ABI details such as structure layout are not affected by these
options.
-m32-bit
-m16-bit
-m8-bit Similar to the stack- data- and const-align options above, these options arrange
for stack-frame, writable data and constants to all be 32-bit, 16-bit or 8-bit
aligned. The default is 32-bit alignment.
-mno-prologue-epilogue
-mprologue-epilogue
With ‘-mno-prologue-epilogue’, the normal function prologue and epilogue
that sets up the stack-frame are omitted and no return instructions or return
sequences are generated in the code. Use this option only together with visual
inspection of the compiled code: no warnings or errors are generated when
call-saved registers must be saved, or storage for local variable needs to be
allocated.
-mno-gotplt
-mgotplt With ‘-fpic’ and ‘-fPIC’, don’t generate (do generate) instruction sequences
that load addresses for functions from the PLT part of the GOT rather than
(traditional on other architectures) calls to the PLT. The default is ‘-mgotplt’.
-maout Legacy no-op option only recognized with the cris-axis-aout target.
-melf Legacy no-op option only recognized with the cris-axis-elf and cris-axis-linux-
gnu targets.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 157
-melinux Only recognized with the cris-axis-aout target, where it selects a GNU/linux-
like multilib, include files and instruction set for ‘-march=v8’.
-mlinux Legacy no-op option only recognized with the cris-axis-linux-gnu target.
-sim This option, recognized for the cris-axis-aout and cris-axis-elf arranges to link
with input-output functions from a simulator library. Code, initialized data
and zero-initialized data are allocated consecutively.
-sim2 Like ‘-sim’, but pass linker options to locate initialized data at 0x40000000 and
zero-initialized data at 0x80000000.
-mlibfuncs
-mno-libfuncs
Specify that intrinsic library functions are being compiled, passing all values in
registers, no matter the size.
-mepsilon
-mno-epsilon
Generate floating-point comparison instructions that compare with respect to
the rE epsilon register.
-mabi=mmixware
-mabi=gnu
Generate code that passes function parameters and return values that (in the
called function) are seen as registers $0 and up, as opposed to the GNU ABI
which uses global registers $231 and up.
-mzero-extend
-mno-zero-extend
When reading data from memory in sizes shorter than 64 bits, use (do not use)
zero-extending load instructions by default, rather than sign-extending ones.
-mknuthdiv
-mno-knuthdiv
Make the result of a division yielding a remainder have the same sign as the
divisor. With the default, ‘-mno-knuthdiv’, the sign of the remainder follows
the sign of the dividend. Both methods are arithmetically valid, the latter being
almost exclusively used.
-mtoplevel-symbols
-mno-toplevel-symbols
Prepend (do not prepend) a ‘:’ to all global symbols, so the assembly code can
be used with the PREFIX assembly directive.
-melf Generate an executable in the ELF format, rather than the default ‘mmo’ format
used by the mmix simulator.
158 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mbranch-predict
-mno-branch-predict
Use (do not use) the probable-branch instructions, when static branch predic-
tion indicates a probable branch.
-mbase-addresses
-mno-base-addresses
Generate (do not generate) code that uses base addresses. Using a base address
automatically generates a request (handled by the assembler and the linker)
for a constant to be set up in a global register. The register is used for one or
more base address requests within the range 0 to 255 from the value held in the
register. The generally leads to short and fast code, but the number of different
data items that can be addressed is limited. This means that a program that
uses lots of static data may require ‘-mno-base-addresses’.
-msingle-exit
-mno-single-exit
Force (do not force) generated code to have a single exit point in each function.
-mfloat32
-mno-float64
Use 32-bit float.
-mabshi Use abshi2 pattern. This is the default.
-mno-abshi
Do not use abshi2 pattern.
-mbranch-expensive
Pretend that branches are expensive. This is for experimenting with code gen-
eration only.
-mbranch-cheap
Do not pretend that branches are expensive. This is the default.
-msplit Generate code for a system with split I&D.
-mno-split
Generate code for a system without split I&D. This is the default.
-munix-asm
Use Unix assembler syntax. This is the default when configured for
‘pdp11-*-bsd’.
-mdec-asm
Use DEC assembler syntax. This is the default when configured for any PDP-11
target other than ‘pdp11-*-bsd’.
-mfixed-cc
Do not try to dynamically allocate condition code registers, only use icc0 and
fcc0.
-mdword
Change ABI to use double word insns.
-mno-dword
Do not use double word instructions.
-mdouble
Use floating point double instructions.
-mno-double
Do not use floating point double instructions.
-mmedia
Use media instructions.
-mno-media
Do not use media instructions.
-mmuladd
Use multiply and add/subtract instructions.
-mno-muladd
Do not use multiply and add/subtract instructions.
-mlibrary-pic
Enable PIC support for building libraries
-macc-4
Use only the first four media accumulator registers.
-macc-8
Use all eight media accumulator registers.
-mpack
Pack VLIW instructions.
-mno-pack
Do not pack VLIW instructions.
-mno-eflags
Do not mark ABI switches in e flags.
-mcond-move
Enable the use of conditional-move instructions (default).
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mno-cond-move
Disable the use of conditional-move instructions.
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 161
-mscc
Enable the use of conditional set instructions (default).
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mno-scc
Disable the use of conditional set instructions.
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mcond-exec
Enable the use of conditional execution (default).
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mno-cond-exec
Disable the use of conditional execution.
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mvliw-branch
Run a pass to pack branches into VLIW instructions (default).
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mno-vliw-branch
Do not run a pass to pack branches into VLIW instructions.
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mmulti-cond-exec
Enable optimization of && and || in conditional execution (default).
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mno-multi-cond-exec
Disable optimization of && and || in conditional execution.
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mnested-cond-exec
Enable nested conditional execution optimizations (default).
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
-mno-nested-cond-exec
Disable nested conditional execution optimizations.
This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in
a future version.
162 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-mtomcat-stats
Cause gas to print out tomcat statistics.
-mcpu=cpu
Select the processor type for which to generate code. Possible values are
‘simple’, ‘tomcat’, ‘fr500’, ‘fr400’, ‘fr300’, ‘frv’.
to disable this option if you are compiling older C++ programs that don’t use
exception handling.
-fnon-call-exceptions
Generate code that allows trapping instructions to throw exceptions. Note that
this requires platform-specific runtime support that does not exist everywhere.
Moreover, it only allows trapping instructions to throw exceptions, i.e. memory
references or floating point instructions. It does not allow exceptions to be
thrown from arbitrary signal handlers such as SIGALRM.
-funwind-tables
Similar to ‘-fexceptions’, except that it will just generate any needed static
data, but will not affect the generated code in any other way. You will normally
not enable this option; instead, a language processor that needs this handling
would enable it on your behalf.
-fasynchronous-unwind-tables
Generate unwind table in dwarf2 format, if supported by target machine. The
table is exact at each instruction boundary, so it can be used for stack unwinding
from asynchronous events (such as debugger or garbage collector).
-fpcc-struct-return
Return “short” struct and union values in memory like longer ones, rather
than in registers. This convention is less efficient, but it has the advantage
of allowing intercallability between GCC-compiled files and files compiled with
other compilers, particularly the Portable C Compiler (pcc).
The precise convention for returning structures in memory depends on the tar-
get configuration macros.
Short structures and unions are those whose size and alignment match that of
some integer type.
Warning: code compiled with the ‘-fpcc-struct-return’ switch is not binary
compatible with code compiled with the ‘-freg-struct-return’ switch. Use
it to conform to a non-default application binary interface.
-freg-struct-return
Return struct and union values in registers when possible. This is more effi-
cient for small structures than ‘-fpcc-struct-return’.
If you specify neither ‘-fpcc-struct-return’ nor ‘-freg-struct-return’,
GCC defaults to whichever convention is standard for the target. If there is
no standard convention, GCC defaults to ‘-fpcc-struct-return’, except on
targets where GCC is the principal compiler. In those cases, we can choose
the standard, and we chose the more efficient register return alternative.
Warning: code compiled with the ‘-freg-struct-return’ switch is not binary
compatible with code compiled with the ‘-fpcc-struct-return’ switch. Use
it to conform to a non-default application binary interface.
-fshort-enums
Allocate to an enum type only as many bytes as it needs for the declared range
of possible values. Specifically, the enum type will be equivalent to the smallest
integer type which has enough room.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 165
Warning: the ‘-fshort-enums’ switch causes GCC to generate code that is not
binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform
to a non-default application binary interface.
-fshort-double
Use the same size for double as for float.
Warning: the ‘-fshort-double’ switch causes GCC to generate code that is not
binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform
to a non-default application binary interface.
-fshort-wchar
Override the underlying type for ‘wchar_t’ to be ‘short unsigned int’ instead
of the default for the target. This option is useful for building programs to run
under WINE.
Warning: the ‘-fshort-wchar’ switch causes GCC to generate code that is not
binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform
to a non-default application binary interface.
-fshared-data
Requests that the data and non-const variables of this compilation be shared
data rather than private data. The distinction makes sense only on certain
operating systems, where shared data is shared between processes running the
same program, while private data exists in one copy per process.
-fno-common
In C, allocate even uninitialized global variables in the data section of the object
file, rather than generating them as common blocks. This has the effect that
if the same variable is declared (without extern) in two different compilations,
you will get an error when you link them. The only reason this might be useful
is if you wish to verify that the program will work on other systems which
always work this way.
-fno-ident
Ignore the ‘#ident’ directive.
-finhibit-size-directive
Don’t output a .size assembler directive, or anything else that would cause
trouble if the function is split in the middle, and the two halves are placed at lo-
cations far apart in memory. This option is used when compiling ‘crtstuff.c’;
you should not need to use it for anything else.
-fverbose-asm
Put extra commentary information in the generated assembly code to make it
more readable. This option is generally only of use to those who actually need
to read the generated assembly code (perhaps while debugging the compiler
itself).
‘-fno-verbose-asm’, the default, causes the extra information to be omitted
and is useful when comparing two assembler files.
-fpic Generate position-independent code (PIC) suitable for use in a shared library,
if supported for the target machine. Such code accesses all constant addresses
166 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
through a global offset table (GOT). The dynamic loader resolves the GOT
entries when the program starts (the dynamic loader is not part of GCC; it
is part of the operating system). If the GOT size for the linked executable
exceeds a machine-specific maximum size, you get an error message from the
linker indicating that ‘-fpic’ does not work; in that case, recompile with ‘-fPIC’
instead. (These maximums are 8k on the SPARC and 32k on the m68k and
RS/6000. The 386 has no such limit.)
Position-independent code requires special support, and therefore works only on
certain machines. For the 386, GCC supports PIC for System V but not for the
Sun 386i. Code generated for the IBM RS/6000 is always position-independent.
-fPIC If supported for the target machine, emit position-independent code, suitable
for dynamic linking and avoiding any limit on the size of the global offset table.
This option makes a difference on the m68k and the SPARC.
Position-independent code requires special support, and therefore works only
on certain machines.
-fpie
-fPIE These options are similar to ‘-fpic’ and ‘-fPIC’, but generated position inde-
pendent code can be only linked into executables. Usually these options are
used when ‘-pie’ GCC option will be used during linking.
-ffixed-reg
Treat the register named reg as a fixed register; generated code should never
refer to it (except perhaps as a stack pointer, frame pointer or in some other
fixed role).
reg must be the name of a register. The register names accepted are machine-
specific and are defined in the REGISTER_NAMES macro in the machine descrip-
tion macro file.
This flag does not have a negative form, because it specifies a three-way choice.
-fcall-used-reg
Treat the register named reg as an allocable register that is clobbered by func-
tion calls. It may be allocated for temporaries or variables that do not live
across a call. Functions compiled this way will not save and restore the register
reg.
It is an error to used this flag with the frame pointer or stack pointer. Use
of this flag for other registers that have fixed pervasive roles in the machine’s
execution model will produce disastrous results.
This flag does not have a negative form, because it specifies a three-way choice.
-fcall-saved-reg
Treat the register named reg as an allocable register saved by functions. It may
be allocated even for temporaries or variables that live across a call. Functions
compiled this way will save and restore the register reg if they use it.
It is an error to used this flag with the frame pointer or stack pointer. Use
of this flag for other registers that have fixed pervasive roles in the machine’s
execution model will produce disastrous results.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 167
A different sort of disaster will result from the use of this flag for a register in
which function values may be returned.
This flag does not have a negative form, because it specifies a three-way choice.
-fpack-struct
Pack all structure members together without holes.
Warning: the ‘-fpack-struct’ switch causes GCC to generate code that is
not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Additionally,
it makes the code suboptimal. Use it to conform to a non-default application
binary interface.
-finstrument-functions
Generate instrumentation calls for entry and exit to functions. Just after func-
tion entry and just before function exit, the following profiling functions will
be called with the address of the current function and its call site. (On some
platforms, __builtin_return_address does not work beyond the current func-
tion, so the call site information may not be available to the profiling functions
otherwise.)
void __cyg_profile_func_enter (void *this_fn,
void *call_site);
void __cyg_profile_func_exit (void *this_fn,
void *call_site);
The first argument is the address of the start of the current function, which
may be looked up exactly in the symbol table.
This currently disables function inlining. This restriction is expected to be
removed in future releases.
A function may be given the attribute no_instrument_function, in which
case this instrumentation will not be done. This can be used, for example, for
the profiling functions listed above, high-priority interrupt routines, and any
functions from which the profiling functions cannot safely be called (perhaps
signal handlers, if the profiling routines generate output or allocate memory).
-fstack-check
Generate code to verify that you do not go beyond the boundary of the stack.
You should specify this flag if you are running in an environment with multiple
threads, but only rarely need to specify it in a single-threaded environment
since stack overflow is automatically detected on nearly all systems if there is
only one stack.
Note that this switch does not actually cause checking to be done; the operating
system must do that. The switch causes generation of code to ensure that the
operating system sees the stack being extended.
-fstack-limit-register=reg
-fstack-limit-symbol=sym
-fno-stack-limit
Generate code to ensure that the stack does not grow beyond a certain value,
either the value of a register or the address of a symbol. If the stack would grow
beyond the value, a signal is raised. For most targets, the signal is raised before
168 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
the stack overruns the boundary, so it is possible to catch the signal without
taking special precautions.
For instance, if the stack starts at absolute address ‘0x80000000’ and grows
downwards, you can use the flags ‘-fstack-limit-symbol=__stack_limit’
and ‘-Wl,--defsym,__stack_limit=0x7ffe0000’ to enforce a stack limit of
128KB. Note that this may only work with the GNU linker.
-fargument-alias
-fargument-noalias
-fargument-noalias-global
Specify the possible relationships among parameters and between parameters
and global data.
‘-fargument-alias’ specifies that arguments (parameters) may alias each other
and may alias global storage.
‘-fargument-noalias’ specifies that arguments do not alias each other, but
may alias global storage.
‘-fargument-noalias-global’ specifies that arguments do not alias each other
and do not alias global storage.
Each language will automatically use whatever option is required by the lan-
guage standard. You should not need to use these options yourself.
-fleading-underscore
This option and its counterpart, ‘-fno-leading-underscore’, forcibly change
the way C symbols are represented in the object file. One use is to help link
with legacy assembly code.
Warning: the ‘-fleading-underscore’ switch causes GCC to generate code
that is not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it
to conform to a non-default application binary interface. Not all targets provide
complete support for this switch.
-ftls-model=model
Alter the thread-local storage model to be used (see Section 5.48 [Thread-
Local], page 296). The model argument should be one of global-dynamic,
local-dynamic, initial-exec or local-exec.
The default without ‘-fpic’ is initial-exec; with ‘-fpic’ the default is
global-dynamic.
LANG
LC_CTYPE
LC_MESSAGES
LC_ALL These environment variables control the way that GCC uses localization in-
formation that allow GCC to work with different national conventions. GCC
inspects the locale categories LC_CTYPE and LC_MESSAGES if it has been config-
ured to do so. These locale categories can be set to any value supported by
your installation. A typical value is ‘en_GB.UTF-8’ for English in the United
Kingdom encoded in UTF-8.
The LC_CTYPE environment variable specifies character classification. GCC uses
it to determine the character boundaries in a string; this is needed for some
multibyte encodings that contain quote and escape characters that would oth-
erwise be interpreted as a string end or escape.
The LC_MESSAGES environment variable specifies the language to use in diag-
nostic messages.
If the LC_ALL environment variable is set, it overrides the value of LC_CTYPE and
LC_MESSAGES; otherwise, LC_CTYPE and LC_MESSAGES default to the value of the
LANG environment variable. If none of these variables are set, GCC defaults to
traditional C English behavior.
TMPDIR If TMPDIR is set, it specifies the directory to use for temporary files. GCC uses
temporary files to hold the output of one stage of compilation which is to be
used as input to the next stage: for example, the output of the preprocessor,
which is the input to the compiler proper.
GCC_EXEC_PREFIX
If GCC_EXEC_PREFIX is set, it specifies a prefix to use in the names of the
subprograms executed by the compiler. No slash is added when this prefix is
combined with the name of a subprogram, but you can specify a prefix that
ends with a slash if you wish.
If GCC_EXEC_PREFIX is not set, GCC will attempt to figure out an appropriate
prefix to use based on the pathname it was invoked with.
If GCC cannot find the subprogram using the specified prefix, it tries looking
in the usual places for the subprogram.
The default value of GCC_EXEC_PREFIX is ‘prefix /lib/gcc/’ where prefix is
the value of prefix when you ran the ‘configure’ script.
Other prefixes specified with ‘-B’ take precedence over this prefix.
This prefix is also used for finding files such as ‘crt0.o’ that are used for linking.
In addition, the prefix is used in an unusual way in finding the directories
to search for header files. For each of the standard directories whose name
normally begins with ‘/usr/local/lib/gcc’ (more precisely, with the value
of GCC_INCLUDE_DIR), GCC tries replacing that beginning with the specified
prefix to produce an alternate directory name. Thus, with ‘-Bfoo/’, GCC will
search ‘foo/bar’ where it would normally search ‘/usr/local/lib/bar’. These
alternate directories are searched first; the standard directories come next.
170 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
COMPILER_PATH
The value of COMPILER_PATH is a colon-separated list of directories, much like
PATH. GCC tries the directories thus specified when searching for subprograms,
if it can’t find the subprograms using GCC_EXEC_PREFIX.
LIBRARY_PATH
The value of LIBRARY_PATH is a colon-separated list of directories, much like
PATH. When configured as a native compiler, GCC tries the directories thus
specified when searching for special linker files, if it can’t find them using GCC_
EXEC_PREFIX. Linking using GCC also uses these directories when searching for
ordinary libraries for the ‘-l’ option (but directories specified with ‘-L’ come
first).
LANG This variable is used to pass locale information to the compiler. One way in
which this information is used is to determine the character set to be used when
character literals, string literals and comments are parsed in C and C++. When
the compiler is configured to allow multibyte characters, the following values
for LANG are recognized:
‘C-JIS’ Recognize JIS characters.
‘C-SJIS’ Recognize SJIS characters.
‘C-EUCJP’ Recognize EUCJP characters.
If LANG is not defined, or if it has some other value, then the compiler will use
mblen and mbtowc as defined by the default locale to recognize and translate
multibyte characters.
Some additional environments variables affect the behavior of the preprocessor.
CPATH
C_INCLUDE_PATH
CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH
OBJC_INCLUDE_PATH
Each variable’s value is a list of directories separated by a special character,
much like PATH, in which to look for header files. The special character, PATH_
SEPARATOR, is target-dependent and determined at GCC build time. For Mi-
crosoft Windows-based targets it is a semicolon, and for almost all other targets
it is a colon.
CPATH specifies a list of directories to be searched as if specified with ‘-I’, but
after any paths given with ‘-I’ options on the command line. This environment
variable is used regardless of which language is being preprocessed.
The remaining environment variables apply only when preprocessing the par-
ticular language indicated. Each specifies a list of directories to be searched as
if specified with ‘-isystem’, but after any paths given with ‘-isystem’ options
on the command line.
In all these variables, an empty element instructs the compiler to search its
current working directory. Empty elements can appear at the beginning or end
of a path. For instance, if the value of CPATH is :/special/include, that has
the same effect as ‘-I. -I/special/include’.
Chapter 3: GCC Command Options 171
DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT
If this variable is set, its value specifies how to output dependencies for Make
based on the non-system header files processed by the compiler. System header
files are ignored in the dependency output.
The value of DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT can be just a file name, in which case the
Make rules are written to that file, guessing the target name from the source
file name. Or the value can have the form ‘file target ’, in which case the
rules are written to file file using target as the target name.
In other words, this environment variable is equivalent to combining the options
‘-MM’ and ‘-MF’ (see Section 3.11 [Preprocessor Options], page 77), with an
optional ‘-MT’ switch too.
SUNPRO_DEPENDENCIES
This variable is the same as DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT (see above), except that
system header files are not ignored, so it implies ‘-M’ rather than ‘-MM’. However,
the dependence on the main input file is omitted. See Section 3.11 [Preprocessor
Options], page 77.
This also works with ‘-include’. So yet another way to use precompiled headers, good
for projects not designed with precompiled header files in mind, is to simply take most
of the header files used by a project, include them from another header file, precompile
that header file, and ‘-include’ the precompiled header. If the header files have guards
against multiple inclusion, they will be skipped because they’ve already been included (in
the precompiled header).
If you need to precompile the same header file for different languages, targets, or compiler
options, you can instead make a directory named like ‘all.h.gch’, and put each precompiled
header in the directory. (It doesn’t matter what you call the files in the directory, every
precompiled header in the directory will be considered.) The first precompiled header
encountered in the directory that is valid for this compilation will be used; they’re searched
in no particular order.
There are many other possibilities, limited only by your imagination, good sense, and the
constraints of your build system.
A precompiled header file can be used only when these conditions apply:
• Only one precompiled header can be used in a particular compilation.
• A precompiled header can’t be used once the first C token is seen. You can have
preprocessor directives before a precompiled header; you can even include a precompiled
header from inside another header, so long as there are no C tokens before the #include.
• The precompiled header file must be produced for the same language as the current
compilation. You can’t use a C precompiled header for a C++ compilation.
• The precompiled header file must be produced by the same compiler version and con-
figuration as the current compilation is using. The easiest way to guarantee this is to
use the same compiler binary for creating and using precompiled headers.
• Any macros defined before the precompiled header (including with ‘-D’) must either be
defined in the same way as when the precompiled header was generated, or must not
affect the precompiled header, which usually means that the they don’t appear in the
precompiled header at all.
• Certain command-line options must be defined in the same way as when the precom-
piled header was generated. At present, it’s not clear which options are safe to change
and which are not; the safest choice is to use exactly the same options when generating
and using the precompiled header.
For all of these but the last, the compiler will automatically ignore the precompiled
header if the conditions aren’t met. For the last item, some option changes will cause the
precompiled header to be rejected, but not all incompatible option combinations have yet
been found. If you find a new incompatible combination, please consider filing a bug report,
see Chapter 11 [Bugs], page 351.
When you run these programs, you must specify a set of source files as command line
arguments. The conversion programs start out by compiling these files to see what functions
they define. The information gathered about a file foo is saved in a file named ‘foo.X’.
After scanning comes actual conversion. The specified files are all eligible to be converted;
any files they include (whether sources or just headers) are eligible as well.
But not all the eligible files are converted. By default, protoize and unprotoize convert
only source and header files in the current directory. You can specify additional directories
whose files should be converted with the ‘-d directory ’ option. You can also specify
particular files to exclude with the ‘-x file ’ option. A file is converted if it is eligible,
its directory name matches one of the specified directory names, and its name within the
directory has not been excluded.
Basic conversion with protoize consists of rewriting most function definitions and func-
tion declarations to specify the types of the arguments. The only ones not rewritten are
those for varargs functions.
protoize optionally inserts prototype declarations at the beginning of the source file, to
make them available for any calls that precede the function’s definition. Or it can insert
prototype declarations with block scope in the blocks where undeclared functions are called.
Basic conversion with unprotoize consists of rewriting most function declarations to
remove any argument types, and rewriting function definitions to the old-style pre-ISO
form.
Both conversion programs print a warning for any function declaration or definition that
they can’t convert. You can suppress these warnings with ‘-q’.
The output from protoize or unprotoize replaces the original source file. The original
file is renamed to a name ending with ‘.save’ (for DOS, the saved filename ends in ‘.sav’
without the original ‘.c’ suffix). If the ‘.save’ (‘.sav’ for DOS) file already exists, then the
source file is simply discarded.
protoize and unprotoize both depend on GCC itself to scan the program and collect
information about the functions it uses. So neither of these programs will work until GCC
is installed.
Here is a table of the options you can use with protoize and unprotoize. Each option
works with both programs unless otherwise stated.
-B directory
Look for the file ‘SYSCALLS.c.X’ in directory, instead of the usual directory
(normally ‘/usr/local/lib’). This file contains prototype information about
standard system functions. This option applies only to protoize.
-c compilation-options
Use compilation-options as the options when running gcc to produce the ‘.X’
files. The special option ‘-aux-info’ is always passed in addition, to tell gcc
to write a ‘.X’ file.
Note that the compilation options must be given as a single argument to
protoize or unprotoize. If you want to specify several gcc options, you must
quote the entire set of compilation options to make them a single word in the
shell.
174 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
There are certain gcc arguments that you cannot use, because they would
produce the wrong kind of output. These include ‘-g’, ‘-O’, ‘-c’, ‘-S’, and ‘-o’
If you include these in the compilation-options, they are ignored.
-C Rename files to end in ‘.C’ (‘.cc’ for DOS-based file systems) instead of ‘.c’.
This is convenient if you are converting a C program to C++. This option
applies only to protoize.
-g Add explicit global declarations. This means inserting explicit declarations at
the beginning of each source file for each function that is called in the file and
was not declared. These declarations precede the first function definition that
contains a call to an undeclared function. This option applies only to protoize.
-i string
Indent old-style parameter declarations with the string string. This option
applies only to protoize.
unprotoize converts prototyped function definitions to old-style function def-
initions, where the arguments are declared between the argument list and the
initial ‘{’. By default, unprotoize uses five spaces as the indentation. If you
want to indent with just one space instead, use ‘-i " "’.
-k Keep the ‘.X’ files. Normally, they are deleted after conversion is finished.
-l Add explicit local declarations. protoize with ‘-l’ inserts a prototype dec-
laration for each function in each block which calls the function without any
declaration. This option applies only to protoize.
-n Make no real changes. This mode just prints information about the conversions
that would have been done without ‘-n’.
-N Make no ‘.save’ files. The original files are simply deleted. Use this option
with caution.
-p program
Use the program program as the compiler. Normally, the name ‘gcc’ is used.
-q Work quietly. Most warnings are suppressed.
-v Print the version number, just like ‘-v’ for gcc.
If you need special compiler options to compile one of your program’s source files, then
you should generate that file’s ‘.X’ file specially, by running gcc on that source file with the
appropriate options and the option ‘-aux-info’. Then run protoize on the entire set of
files. protoize will use the existing ‘.X’ file because it is newer than the source file. For
example:
gcc -Dfoo=bar file1.c -aux-info file1.X
protoize *.c
You need to include the special files along with the rest in the protoize command, even
though their ‘.X’ files already exist, because otherwise they won’t get converted.
See Section 10.10 [Protoize Caveats], page 344, for more information on how to use
protoize successfully.
Chapter 4: C Implementation-defined behavior 175
4 C Implementation-defined behavior
A conforming implementation of ISO C is required to document its choice of behavior in
each of the areas that are designated “implementation defined.” The following lists all such
areas, along with the section number from the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard.
4.1 Translation
• How a diagnostic is identified (3.10, 5.1.1.3).
Diagnostics consist of all the output sent to stderr by GCC.
• Whether each nonempty sequence of white-space characters other than new-line is
retained or replaced by one space character in translation phase 3 (5.1.1.2).
4.2 Environment
The behavior of these points are dependent on the implementation of the C library, and are
not defined by GCC itself.
4.3 Identifiers
• Which additional multibyte characters may appear in identifiers and their correspon-
dence to universal character names (6.4.2).
• The number of significant initial characters in an identifier (5.2.4.1, 6.4.2).
For internal names, all characters are significant. For external names, the number of
significant characters are defined by the linker; for almost all targets, all characters are
significant.
4.4 Characters
• The number of bits in a byte (3.6).
• The values of the members of the execution character set (5.2.1).
• The unique value of the member of the execution character set produced for each of
the standard alphabetic escape sequences (5.2.2).
• The value of a char object into which has been stored any character other than a
member of the basic execution character set (6.2.5).
• Which of signed char or unsigned char has the same range, representation, and be-
havior as “plain” char (6.2.5, 6.3.1.1).
• The mapping of members of the source character set (in character constants and string
literals) to members of the execution character set (6.4.4.4, 5.1.1.2).
• The value of an integer character constant containing more than one character or
containing a character or escape sequence that does not map to a single-byte execution
character (6.4.4.4).
• The value of a wide character constant containing more than one multibyte character,
or containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not represented in the extended
execution character set (6.4.4.4).
• The current locale used to convert a wide character constant consisting of a single
multibyte character that maps to a member of the extended execution character set
into a corresponding wide character code (6.4.4.4).
176 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
• The current locale used to convert a wide string literal into corresponding wide char-
acter codes (6.4.5).
• The value of a string literal containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not
represented in the execution character set (6.4.5).
4.5 Integers
• Any extended integer types that exist in the implementation (6.2.5).
• Whether signed integer types are represented using sign and magnitude, two’s comple-
ment, or one’s complement, and whether the extraordinary value is a trap representa-
tion or an ordinary value (6.2.6.2).
GCC supports only two’s complement integer types, and all bit patterns are ordinary
values.
• The rank of any extended integer type relative to another extended integer type with
the same precision (6.3.1.1).
• The result of, or the signal raised by, converting an integer to a signed integer type
when the value cannot be represented in an object of that type (6.3.1.3).
• The results of some bitwise operations on signed integers (6.5).
4.8 Hints
• The extent to which suggestions made by using the register storage-class specifier
are effective (6.7.1).
The register specifier affects code generation only in these ways:
• When used as part of the register variable extension, see Section 5.38 [Explicit Reg
Vars], page 242.
• When ‘-O0’ is in use, the compiler allocates distinct stack memory for all variables
that do not have the register storage-class specifier; if register is specified, the
variable may have a shorter lifespan than the code would indicate and may never
be placed in memory.
• On some rare x86 targets, setjmp doesn’t save the registers in all circumstances.
In those cases, GCC doesn’t allocate any variables in registers unless they are
marked register.
• The extent to which suggestions made by using the inline function specifier are effective
(6.7.4).
GCC will not inline any functions if the ‘-fno-inline’ option is used or if ‘-O0’ is
used. Otherwise, GCC may still be unable to inline a function for many reasons; the
‘-Winline’ option may be used to determine if a function has not been inlined and why
not.
4.10 Qualifiers
• What constitutes an access to an object that has volatile-qualified type (6.7.3).
4.13 Architecture
• The values or expressions assigned to the macros specified in the headers <float.h>,
<limits.h>, and <stdint.h> (5.2.4.2, 7.18.2, 7.18.3).
• The number, order, and encoding of bytes in any object (when not explicitly specified
in this International Standard) (6.2.6.1).
• The value of the result of the sizeof operator (6.5.3.4).
A a;
({a;}).Foo ()
will construct a temporary A object to hold the result of the statement expression, and that
will be used to invoke Foo. Therefore the this pointer observed by Foo will not be the
address of a.
Any temporaries created within a statement within a statement expression will be de-
stroyed at the statement’s end. This makes statement expressions inside macros slightly
different from function calls. In the latter case temporaries introduced during argument
evaluation will be destroyed at the end of the statement that includes the function call. In
the statement expression case they will be destroyed during the statement expression. For
instance,
#define macro(a) ({__typeof__(a) b = (a); b + 3; })
template<typename T> T function(T a) { T b = a; return b + 3; }
void foo ()
{
macro (X ());
function (X ());
}
will have different places where temporaries are destroyed. For the macro case, the tem-
porary X will be destroyed just after the initialization of b. In the function case that
temporary will be destroyed when the function returns.
These considerations mean that it is probably a bad idea to use statement-expressions of
this form in header files that are designed to work with C++. (Note that some versions of
the GNU C Library contained header files using statement-expression that lead to precisely
this bug.)
goto *array[i];
Note that this does not check whether the subscript is in bounds—array indexing in C never
does that.
Such an array of label values serves a purpose much like that of the switch statement.
The switch statement is cleaner, so use that rather than an array unless the problem does
not fit a switch statement very well.
Another use of label values is in an interpreter for threaded code. The labels within the
interpreter function can be stored in the threaded code for super-fast dispatching.
You may not use this mechanism to jump to code in a different function. If you do that,
totally unpredictable things will happen. The best way to avoid this is to store the label
address only in automatic variables and never pass it as an argument.
An alternate way to write the above example is
static const int array[] = { &&foo - &&foo, &&bar - &&foo,
&&hack - &&foo };
goto *(&&foo + array[i]);
This is more friendly to code living in shared libraries, as it reduces the number of dynamic
relocations that are needed, and by consequence, allows the data to be read-only.
goto failure;
return array[index + offset];
}
/* . . . */
}
typeof (x[0](1))
This assumes that x is an array of pointers to functions; the type described is that of the
values of the functions.
Here is an example with a typename as the argument:
typeof (int *)
Here the type described is that of pointers to int.
If you are writing a header file that must work when included in ISO C programs, write
__typeof__ instead of typeof. See Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 244.
A typeof-construct can be used anywhere a typedef name could be used. For example,
you can use it in a declaration, in a cast, or inside of sizeof or typeof.
typeof is often useful in conjunction with the statements-within-expressions feature.
Here is how the two together can be used to define a safe “maximum” macro that operates
on any arithmetic type and evaluates each of its arguments exactly once:
#define max(a,b) \
({ typeof (a) _a = (a); \
typeof (b) _b = (b); \
_a > _b ? _a : _b; })
The reason for using names that start with underscores for the local variables is to avoid
conflicts with variable names that occur within the expressions that are substituted for a
and b. Eventually we hope to design a new form of declaration syntax that allows you to
declare variables whose scopes start only after their initializers; this will be a more reliable
way to prevent such conflicts.
Some more examples of the use of typeof:
• This declares y with the type of what x points to.
typeof (*x) y;
• This declares y as an array of such values.
typeof (*x) y[4];
• This declares y as an array of pointers to characters:
typeof (typeof (char *)[4]) y;
It is equivalent to the following traditional C declaration:
char *y[4];
To see the meaning of the declaration using typeof, and why it might be a useful way
to write, rewrite it with these macros:
#define pointer(T) typeof(T *)
#define array(T, N) typeof(T [N])
Now the declaration can be rewritten this way:
array (pointer (char), 4) y;
Thus, array (pointer (char), 4) is the type of arrays of 4 pointers to char.
Compatibility Note: In addition to typeof, GCC 2 supported a more limited extension
which permitted one to write
typedef T = expr ;
with the effect of declaring T to have the type of the expression expr. This extension does
not work with GCC 3 (versions between 3.0 and 3.2 will crash; 3.2.1 and later give an error).
Code which relies on it should be rewritten to use typeof:
186 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
typedef typeof(expr ) T ;
This will work with all versions of GCC.
Such a constant always has a pure imaginary value, but you can form any complex value
you like by adding one to a real constant. This is a GNU extension; if you have an ISO
C99 conforming C library (such as GNU libc), and want to construct complex constants of
floating type, you should include <complex.h> and use the macros I or _Complex_I instead.
To extract the real part of a complex-valued expression exp, write __real__ exp . Like-
wise, use __imag__ to extract the imaginary part. This is a GNU extension; for values of
floating type, you should use the ISO C99 functions crealf, creal, creall, cimagf, cimag
and cimagl, declared in <complex.h> and also provided as built-in functions by GCC.
The operator ‘~’ performs complex conjugation when used on a value with a complex
type. This is a GNU extension; for values of floating type, you should use the ISO C99
functions conjf, conj and conjl, declared in <complex.h> and also provided as built-in
functions by GCC.
GCC can allocate complex automatic variables in a noncontiguous fashion; it’s even
possible for the real part to be in a register while the imaginary part is on the stack (or
vice-versa). Only the DWARF2 debug info format can represent this, so use of DWARF2 is
recommended. If you are using the stabs debug info format, GCC describes a noncontiguous
complex variable as if it were two separate variables of noncomplex type. If the variable’s
actual name is foo, the two fictitious variables are named foo$real and foo$imag. You
can examine and set these two fictitious variables with your debugger.
In ISO C99, you would use a flexible array member, which is slightly different in syntax
and semantics:
• Flexible array members are written as contents[] without the 0.
• Flexible array members have incomplete type, and so the sizeof operator may not
be applied. As a quirk of the original implementation of zero-length arrays, sizeof
evaluates to zero.
• Flexible array members may only appear as the last member of a struct that is
otherwise non-empty.
• A structure containing a flexible array member, or a union containing such a structure
(possibly recursively), may not be a member of a structure or an element of an array.
(However, these uses are permitted by GCC as extensions.)
GCC versions before 3.0 allowed zero-length arrays to be statically initialized, as if they
were flexible arrays. In addition to those cases that were useful, it also allowed initializations
in situations that would corrupt later data. Non-empty initialization of zero-length arrays is
now treated like any case where there are more initializer elements than the array holds, in
that a suitable warning about "excess elements in array" is given, and the excess elements
(all of them, in this case) are ignored.
Instead GCC allows static initialization of flexible array members. This is equivalent to
defining a new structure containing the original structure followed by an array of sufficient
size to contain the data. I.e. in the following, f1 is constructed as if it were declared like
f2.
struct f1 {
int x; int y[];
} f1 = { 1, { 2, 3, 4 } };
struct f2 {
struct f1 f1; int data[3];
} f2 = { { 1 }, { 2, 3, 4 } };
The convenience of this extension is that f1 has the desired type, eliminating the need to
consistently refer to f2.f1.
This has symmetry with normal static arrays, in that an array of unknown size is also
written with [].
Of course, this extension only makes sense if the extra data comes at the end of a top-level
object, as otherwise we would be overwriting data at subsequent offsets. To avoid undue
complication and confusion with initialization of deeply nested arrays, we simply disallow
any non-empty initialization except when the structure is the top-level object. For example:
struct foo { int x; int y[]; };
struct bar { struct foo z; };
struct empty {
};
The structure will have size zero. In C++, empty structures are part of the language. G++
treats empty structures as if they had a single member of type char.
You can write any number of such parameter forward declarations in the parameter list.
They can be separated by commas or semicolons, but the last one must end with a semicolon,
which is followed by the “real” parameter declarations. Each forward declaration must
match a “real” declaration in parameter name and data type. ISO C99 does not support
parameter forward declarations.
comments and tokens, as well as between tokens. Comments are not treated as whitespace
for the purposes of this relaxation, since they have not yet been replaced with spaces.
{
struct foo temp = {x + y, ’a’, 0};
structure = temp;
}
You can also construct an array. If all the elements of the compound literal are (made
up of) simple constant expressions, suitable for use in initializers of objects of static storage
duration, then the compound literal can be coerced to a pointer to its first element and
used in such an initializer, as shown here:
char **foo = (char *[]) { "x", "y", "z" };
Compound literals for scalar types and union types are is also allowed, but then the
compound literal is equivalent to a cast.
As a GNU extension, GCC allows initialization of objects with static storage duration
by compound literals (which is not possible in ISO C99, because the initializer is not a
constant). It is handled as if the object was initialized only with the bracket enclosed list
if compound literal’s and object types match. The initializer list of the compound literal
must be constant. If the object being initialized has array type of unknown size, the size is
determined by compound literal size.
static struct foo x = (struct foo) {1, ’a’, ’b’};
static int y[] = (int []) {1, 2, 3};
static int z[] = (int [3]) {1};
The above lines are equivalent to the following:
static struct foo x = {1, ’a’, ’b’};
static int y[] = {1, 2, 3};
static int z[] = {1, 0, 0};
union foo f = { .d = 4 };
will convert 4 to a double to store it in the union using the second element. By contrast,
casting 4 to type union foo would store it into the union as the integer i, since it is an
integer. (See Section 5.23 [Cast to Union], page 195.)
You can combine this technique of naming elements with ordinary C initialization of
successive elements. Each initializer element that does not have a designator applies to the
next consecutive element of the array or structure. For example,
int a[6] = { [1] = v1, v2, [4] = v4 };
is equivalent to
int a[6] = { 0, v1, v2, 0, v4, 0 };
Labeling the elements of an array initializer is especially useful when the indices are
characters or belong to an enum type. For example:
int whitespace[256]
= { [’ ’] = 1, [’\t’] = 1, [’\h’] = 1,
[’\f’] = 1, [’\n’] = 1, [’\r’] = 1 };
You can also write a series of ‘.fieldname ’ and ‘[index ]’ designators before an ‘=’ to
specify a nested subobject to initialize; the list is taken relative to the subobject correspond-
ing to the closest surrounding brace pair. For example, with the ‘struct point’ declaration
above:
struct point ptarray[10] = { [2].y = yv2, [2].x = xv2, [0].x = xv0 };
If the same field is initialized multiple times, it will have value from the last initialization.
If any such overridden initialization has side-effect, it is unspecified whether the side-effect
happens or not. Currently, GCC will discard them and issue a warning.
void
fatal (/* . . . */)
{
/* . . . */ /* Print error message. */ /* . . . */
exit (1);
}
The noreturn keyword tells the compiler to assume that fatal cannot return.
It can then optimize without regard to what would happen if fatal ever did
return. This makes slightly better code. More importantly, it helps avoid
spurious warnings of uninitialized variables.
The noreturn keyword does not affect the exceptional path when that applies:
a noreturn-marked function may still return to the caller by throwing an ex-
ception.
Do not assume that registers saved by the calling function are restored before
calling the noreturn function.
It does not make sense for a noreturn function to have a return type other
than void.
The attribute noreturn is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 2.5.
An alternative way to declare that a function does not return, which works in
the current version and in some older versions, is as follows:
typedef void voidfn ();
pure Many functions have no effects except the return value and their return value
depends only on the parameters and/or global variables. Such a function can
be subject to common subexpression elimination and loop optimization just as
an arithmetic operator would be. These functions should be declared with the
attribute pure. For example,
int square (int) __attribute__ ((pure));
says that the hypothetical function square is safe to call fewer times than the
program says.
Some of common examples of pure functions are strlen or memcmp. Inter-
esting non-pure functions are functions with infinite loops or those depending
on volatile memory or other system resource, that may change between two
consecutive calls (such as feof in a multithreading environment).
The attribute pure is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 2.96.
const Many functions do not examine any values except their arguments, and have
no effects except the return value. Basically this is just slightly more strict
class than the pure attribute above, since function is not allowed to read global
memory.
Note that a function that has pointer arguments and examines the data pointed
to must not be declared const. Likewise, a function that calls a non-const
function usually must not be const. It does not make sense for a const function
to return void.
The attribute const is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 2.5. An
alternative way to declare that a function has no side effects, which works in
the current version and in some older versions, is as follows:
typedef int intfn ();
own function. The compiler always treats gettext, dgettext, and dcgettext
in this manner except when strict ISO C support is requested by ‘-ansi’ or
an appropriate ‘-std’ option, or ‘-ffreestanding’ is used. See Section 3.4
[Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21.
nonnull (arg-index, ...)
The nonnull attribute specifies that some function parameters should be non-
null pointers. For instance, the declaration:
extern void *
my_memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t len)
__attribute__((nonnull (1, 2)));
causes the compiler to check that, in calls to my_memcpy, arguments dest and
src are non-null. If the compiler determines that a null pointer is passed in
an argument slot marked as non-null, and the ‘-Wnonnull’ option is enabled, a
warning is issued. The compiler may also choose to make optimizations based
on the knowledge that certain function arguments will not be null.
If no argument index list is given to the nonnull attribute, all pointer arguments
are marked as non-null. To illustrate, the following declaration is equivalent to
the previous example:
extern void *
my_memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t len)
__attribute__((nonnull));
no_instrument_function
If ‘-finstrument-functions’ is given, profiling function calls will be generated
at entry and exit of most user-compiled functions. Functions with this attribute
will not be so instrumented.
section ("section-name ")
Normally, the compiler places the code it generates in the text section. Some-
times, however, you need additional sections, or you need certain particular
functions to appear in special sections. The section attribute specifies that a
function lives in a particular section. For example, the declaration:
extern void foobar (void) __attribute__ ((section ("bar")));
puts the function foobar in the bar section.
Some file formats do not support arbitrary sections so the section attribute
is not available on all platforms. If you need to map the entire contents of a
module to a particular section, consider using the facilities of the linker instead.
constructor
destructor
The constructor attribute causes the function to be called automatically be-
fore execution enters main (). Similarly, the destructor attribute causes the
function to be called automatically after main () has completed or exit () has
been called. Functions with these attributes are useful for initializing data that
will be used implicitly during the execution of the program.
These attributes are not currently implemented for Objective-C.
unused This attribute, attached to a function, means that the function is meant to be
possibly unused. GCC will not produce a warning for this function.
200 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
used This attribute, attached to a function, means that code must be emitted for the
function even if it appears that the function is not referenced. This is useful,
for example, when the function is referenced only in inline assembly.
deprecated
The deprecated attribute results in a warning if the function is used anywhere
in the source file. This is useful when identifying functions that are expected
to be removed in a future version of a program. The warning also includes the
location of the declaration of the deprecated function, to enable users to easily
find further information about why the function is deprecated, or what they
should do instead. Note that the warnings only occurs for uses:
int old_fn () __attribute__ ((deprecated));
int old_fn ();
int (*fn_ptr)() = old_fn;
results in a warning on line 3 but not line 2.
The deprecated attribute can also be used for variables and types (see Sec-
tion 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 210, see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes],
page 215.)
warn_unused_result
The warn_unused_result attribute causes a warning to be emitted if a caller of
the function with this attribute does not use its return value. This is useful for
functions where not checking the result is either a security problem or always
a bug, such as realloc.
int fn () __attribute__ ((warn_unused_result));
int foo ()
{
if (fn () < 0) return -1;
fn ();
return 0;
}
results in warning on line 5.
weak The weak attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as a weak symbol
rather than a global. This is primarily useful in defining library functions which
can be overridden in user code, though it can also be used with non-function
declarations. Weak symbols are supported for ELF targets, and also for a.out
targets when using the GNU assembler and linker.
malloc The malloc attribute is used to tell the compiler that a function may be treated
as if any non-NULL pointer it returns cannot alias any other pointer valid when
the function returns. This will often improve optimization. Standard functions
with this property include malloc and calloc. realloc-like functions have this
property as long as the old pointer is never referred to (including comparing it
to the new pointer) after the function returns a non-NULL value.
alias ("target ")
The alias attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as an alias for another
symbol, which must be specified. For instance,
void __f () { /* Do something. */; }
void f () __attribute__ ((weak, alias ("__f")));
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 201
declares ‘f’ to be a weak alias for ‘__f’. In C++, the mangled name for the
target must be used.
Not all target machines support this attribute.
visibility ("visibility_type ")
The visibility attribute on ELF targets causes the declaration to be emitted
with default, hidden, protected or internal visibility.
void __attribute__ ((visibility ("protected")))
f () { /* Do something. */; }
int i __attribute__ ((visibility ("hidden")));
See the ELF gABI for complete details, but the short story is:
default Default visibility is the normal case for ELF. This value is available
for the visibility attribute to override other options that may change
the assumed visibility of symbols.
hidden Hidden visibility indicates that the symbol will not be placed into
the dynamic symbol table, so no other module (executable or
shared library) can reference it directly.
protected Protected visibility indicates that the symbol will be placed in the
dynamic symbol table, but that references within the defining mod-
ule will bind to the local symbol. That is, the symbol cannot be
overridden by another module.
internal Internal visibility is like hidden visibility, but with additional pro-
cessor specific semantics. Unless otherwise specified by the psABI,
GCC defines internal visibility to mean that the function is never
called from another module. Note that hidden symbols, while they
cannot be referenced directly by other modules, can be referenced
indirectly via function pointers. By indicating that a symbol can-
not be called from outside the module, GCC may for instance omit
the load of a PIC register since it is known that the calling function
loaded the correct value.
Not all ELF targets support this attribute.
regparm (number )
On the Intel 386, the regparm attribute causes the compiler to pass up to
number integer arguments in registers EAX, EDX, and ECX instead of on the
stack. Functions that take a variable number of arguments will continue to be
passed all of their arguments on the stack.
Beware that on some ELF systems this attribute is unsuitable for global func-
tions in shared libraries with lazy binding (which is the default). Lazy binding
will send the first call via resolving code in the loader, which might assume
EAX, EDX and ECX can be clobbered, as per the standard calling conven-
tions. Solaris 8 is affected by this. GNU systems with GLIBC 2.1 or higher,
and FreeBSD, are believed to be safe since the loaders there save all registers.
(Lazy binding can be disabled with the linker or the loader if desired, to avoid
the problem.)
202 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
stdcall On the Intel 386, the stdcall attribute causes the compiler to assume that the
called function will pop off the stack space used to pass arguments, unless it
takes a variable number of arguments.
fastcall On the Intel 386, the fastcall attribute causes the compiler to pass the first
two arguments in the registers ECX and EDX. Subsequent arguments are passed
on the stack. The called function will pop the arguments off the stack. If the
number of arguments is variable all arguments are pushed on the stack.
cdecl On the Intel 386, the cdecl attribute causes the compiler to assume that the
calling function will pop off the stack space used to pass arguments. This is
useful to override the effects of the ‘-mrtd’ switch.
longcall/shortcall
On the RS/6000 and PowerPC, the longcall attribute causes the compiler
to always call this function via a pointer, just as it would if the ‘-mlongcall’
option had been specified. The shortcall attribute causes the compiler not
to do this. These attributes override both the ‘-mlongcall’ switch and the
#pragma longcall setting.
See Section 3.17.8 [RS/6000 and PowerPC Options], page 112, for more infor-
mation on whether long calls are necessary.
long_call/short_call
This attribute specifies how a particular function is called on ARM. Both
attributes override the ‘-mlong-calls’ (see Section 3.17.5 [ARM Options],
page 106) command line switch and #pragma long_calls settings. The long_
call attribute causes the compiler to always call the function by first loading
its address into a register and then using the contents of that register. The
short_call attribute always places the offset to the function from the call site
into the ‘BL’ instruction directly.
function_vector
Use this attribute on the H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S to indicate that the spec-
ified function should be called through the function vector. Calling a function
through the function vector will reduce code size, however; the function vector
has a limited size (maximum 128 entries on the H8/300 and 64 entries on the
H8/300H and H8S) and shares space with the interrupt vector.
You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for this
attribute to work correctly.
interrupt
Use this attribute on the ARM, AVR, C4x, M32R/D and Xstormy16 ports
to indicate that the specified function is an interrupt handler. The compiler
will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt
handler when this attribute is present.
Note, interrupt handlers for the m68k, H8/300, H8/300H, H8S, and SH proces-
sors can be specified via the interrupt_handler attribute.
Note, on the AVR, interrupts will be enabled inside the function.
Note, for the ARM, you can specify the kind of interrupt to be handled by
adding an optional parameter to the interrupt attribute like this:
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 203
interrupt_handler
Use this attribute on the m68k, H8/300, H8/300H, H8S, and SH to indicate
that the specified function is an interrupt handler. The compiler will generate
function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when
this attribute is present.
sp_switch
Use this attribute on the SH to indicate an interrupt_handler function should
switch to an alternate stack. It expects a string argument that names a global
variable holding the address of the alternate stack.
void *alt_stack;
void f () __attribute__ ((interrupt_handler,
sp_switch ("alt_stack")));
trap_exit
Use this attribute on the SH for an interrupt_handler to return using trapa
instead of rte. This attribute expects an integer argument specifying the trap
number to be used.
eightbit_data
Use this attribute on the H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S to indicate that the
specified variable should be placed into the eight bit data section. The compiler
will generate more efficient code for certain operations on data in the eight bit
data area. Note the eight bit data area is limited to 256 bytes of data.
You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for this
attribute to work correctly.
tiny_data
Use this attribute on the H8/300H and H8S to indicate that the specified vari-
able should be placed into the tiny data section. The compiler will generate
more efficient code for loads and stores on data in the tiny data section. Note
the tiny data area is limited to slightly under 32kbytes of data.
saveall Use this attribute on the H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S to indicate that all reg-
isters except the stack pointer should be saved in the prologue regardless of
whether they are used or not.
signal Use this attribute on the AVR to indicate that the specified function is a signal
handler. The compiler will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable
for use in a signal handler when this attribute is present. Interrupts will be
disabled inside the function.
naked Use this attribute on the ARM, AVR, C4x and IP2K ports to indicate that the
specified function does not need prologue/epilogue sequences generated by the
compiler. It is up to the programmer to provide these sequences.
204 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
model (model-name )
On the M32R/D, use this attribute to set the addressability of an object, and of
the code generated for a function. The identifier model-name is one of small,
medium, or large, representing each of the code models.
Small model objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their addresses
can be loaded with the ld24 instruction), and are callable with the bl instruc-
tion.
Medium model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the
compiler will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses), and are
callable with the bl instruction.
Large model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the compiler
will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses), and may not be
reachable with the bl instruction (the compiler will generate the much slower
seth/add3/jl instruction sequence).
On IA-64, use this attribute to set the addressability of an object. At present,
the only supported identifier for model-name is small, indicating addressabil-
ity via “small” (22-bit) addresses (so that their addresses can be loaded with
the addl instruction). Caveat: such addressing is by definition not position
independent and hence this attribute must not be used for objects defined by
shared libraries.
far On 68HC11 and 68HC12 the far attribute causes the compiler to use a call-
ing convention that takes care of switching memory banks when entering and
leaving a function. This calling convention is also the default when using the
‘-mlong-calls’ option.
On 68HC12 the compiler will use the call and rtc instructions to call and
return from a function.
On 68HC11 the compiler will generate a sequence of instructions to invoke a
board-specific routine to switch the memory bank and call the real function.
The board-specific routine simulates a call. At the end of a function, it will
jump to a board-specific routine instead of using rts. The board-specific return
routine simulates the rtc.
near On 68HC11 and 68HC12 the near attribute causes the compiler to use the
normal calling convention based on jsr and rts. This attribute can be used to
cancel the effect of the ‘-mlong-calls’ option.
dllimport
On Microsoft Windows targets, the dllimport attribute causes the compiler
to reference a function or variable via a global pointer to a pointer that is
set up by the Microsoft Windows dll library. The pointer name is formed by
combining _imp__ and the function or variable name. The attribute implies
extern storage.
Currently, the attribute is ignored for inlined functions. If the attribute is ap-
plied to a symbol definition, an error is reported. If a symbol previously declared
dllimport is later defined, the attribute is ignored in subsequent references,
and a warning is emitted. The attribute is also overridden by a subsequent
declaration as dllexport.
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 205
When applied to C++ classes, the attribute marks non-inlined member functions
and static data members as imports. However, the attribute is ignored for
virtual methods to allow creation of vtables using thunks.
On cygwin, mingw and arm-pe targets, __declspec(dllimport) is recognized
as a synonym for __attribute__ ((dllimport)) for compatibility with other
Microsoft Windows compilers.
The use of the dllimport attribute on functions is not necessary, but provides
a small performance benefit by eliminating a thunk in the dll. The use of
the dllimport attribute on imported variables was required on older versions
of GNU ld, but can now be avoided by passing the ‘--enable-auto-import’
switch to ld. As with functions, using the attribute for a variable eliminates a
thunk in the dll.
One drawback to using this attribute is that a pointer to a function or variable
marked as dllimport cannot be used as a constant address. The attribute can
be disabled for functions by setting the ‘-mnop-fun-dllimport’ flag.
dllexport
On Microsoft Windows targets the dllexport attribute causes the compiler to
provide a global pointer to a pointer in a dll, so that it can be referenced with
the dllimport attribute. The pointer name is formed by combining _imp__
and the function or variable name.
Currently, the dllexportattribute is ignored for inlined functions, but export
can be forced by using the ‘-fkeep-inline-functions’ flag. The attribute is
also ignored for undefined symbols.
When applied to C++ classes. the attribute marks defined non-inlined member
functions and static data members as exports. Static consts initialized in-class
are not marked unless they are also defined out-of-class.
On cygwin, mingw and arm-pe targets, __declspec(dllexport) is recognized
as a synonym for __attribute__ ((dllexport)) for compatibility with other
Microsoft Windows compilers.
Alternative methods for including the symbol in the dll’s export table are to use
a .def file with an EXPORTS section or, with GNU ld, using the ‘--export-all’
linker flag.
You can specify multiple attributes in a declaration by separating them by commas within
the double parentheses or by immediately following an attribute declaration with another
attribute declaration.
Some people object to the __attribute__ feature, suggesting that ISO C’s #pragma
should be used instead. At the time __attribute__ was designed, there were two reasons
for not doing this.
1. It is impossible to generate #pragma commands from a macro.
2. There is no telling what the same #pragma might mean in another compiler.
These two reasons applied to almost any application that might have been proposed for
#pragma. It was basically a mistake to use #pragma for anything.
206 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
The ISO C99 standard includes _Pragma, which now allows pragmas to be generated
from macros. In addition, a #pragma GCC namespace is now in use for GCC-specific prag-
mas. However, it has been found convenient to use __attribute__ to achieve a natural
attachment of attributes to their corresponding declarations, whereas #pragma GCC is of use
for constructs that do not naturally form part of the grammar. See section “Miscellaneous
Preprocessing Directives” in The GNU C Preprocessor.
with an attribute list, to be labelled in C++. Declarations cannot be labelled in C90 or C99,
so the ambiguity does not arise there.
An attribute specifier list may appear as part of a struct, union or enum specifier. It
may go either immediately after the struct, union or enum keyword, or after the closing
brace. It is ignored if the content of the structure, union or enumerated type is not defined
in the specifier in which the attribute specifier list is used—that is, in usages such as struct
__attribute__((foo)) bar with no following opening brace. Where attribute specifiers
follow the closing brace, they are considered to relate to the structure, union or enumerated
type defined, not to any enclosing declaration the type specifier appears in, and the type
defined is not complete until after the attribute specifiers.
Otherwise, an attribute specifier appears as part of a declaration, counting declarations
of unnamed parameters and type names, and relates to that declaration (which may be
nested in another declaration, for example in the case of a parameter declaration), or to
a particular declarator within a declaration. Where an attribute specifier is applied to a
parameter declared as a function or an array, it should apply to the function or array rather
than the pointer to which the parameter is implicitly converted, but this is not yet correctly
implemented.
Any list of specifiers and qualifiers at the start of a declaration may contain attribute
specifiers, whether or not such a list may in that context contain storage class specifiers.
(Some attributes, however, are essentially in the nature of storage class specifiers, and only
make sense where storage class specifiers may be used; for example, section.) There is one
necessary limitation to this syntax: the first old-style parameter declaration in a function
definition cannot begin with an attribute specifier, because such an attribute applies to the
function instead by syntax described below (which, however, is not yet implemented in this
case). In some other cases, attribute specifiers are permitted by this grammar but not yet
supported by the compiler. All attribute specifiers in this place relate to the declaration as
a whole. In the obsolescent usage where a type of int is implied by the absence of type
specifiers, such a list of specifiers and qualifiers may be an attribute specifier list with no
other specifiers or qualifiers.
An attribute specifier list may appear immediately before a declarator (other than the
first) in a comma-separated list of declarators in a declaration of more than one identifier
using a single list of specifiers and qualifiers. Such attribute specifiers apply only to the
identifier before whose declarator they appear. For example, in
__attribute__((noreturn)) void d0 (void),
__attribute__((format(printf, 1, 2))) d1 (const char *, ...),
d2 (void)
the noreturn attribute applies to all the functions declared; the format attribute only
applies to d1.
An attribute specifier list may appear immediately before the comma, = or semicolon
terminating the declaration of an identifier other than a function definition. At present,
such attribute specifiers apply to the declared object or function, but in future they may
attach to the outermost adjacent declarator. In simple cases there is no difference, but, for
example, in
void (****f)(void) __attribute__((noreturn));
at present the noreturn attribute applies to f, which causes a warning since f is not a
function, but in future it may apply to the function ****f. The precise semantics of what
208 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
attributes in such cases will apply to are not yet specified. Where an assembler name for
an object or function is specified (see Section 5.37 [Asm Labels], page 242), at present the
attribute must follow the asm specification; in future, attributes before the asm specification
may apply to the adjacent declarator, and those after it to the declared object or function.
An attribute specifier list may, in future, be permitted to appear after the declarator in
a function definition (before any old-style parameter declarations or the function body).
Attribute specifiers may be mixed with type qualifiers appearing inside the [] of a pa-
rameter array declarator, in the C99 construct by which such qualifiers are applied to the
pointer to which the array is implicitly converted. Such attribute specifiers apply to the
pointer, not to the array, but at present this is not implemented and they are ignored.
An attribute specifier list may appear at the start of a nested declarator. At present,
there are some limitations in this usage: the attributes correctly apply to the declarator,
but for most individual attributes the semantics this implies are not implemented. When
attribute specifiers follow the * of a pointer declarator, they may be mixed with any type
qualifiers present. The following describes the formal semantics of this syntax. It will make
the most sense if you are familiar with the formal specification of declarators in the ISO C
standard.
Consider (as in C99 subclause 6.7.5 paragraph 4) a declaration T D1, where T contains
declaration specifiers that specify a type Type (such as int) and D1 is a declarator that
contains an identifier ident. The type specified for ident for derived declarators whose type
does not include an attribute specifier is as in the ISO C standard.
If D1 has the form ( attribute-specifier-list D ), and the declaration T D specifies
the type “derived-declarator-type-list Type” for ident, then T D1 specifies the type “derived-
declarator-type-list attribute-specifier-list Type” for ident.
If D1 has the form * type-qualifier-and-attribute-specifier-list D, and the dec-
laration T D specifies the type “derived-declarator-type-list Type” for ident, then T D1 spec-
ifies the type “derived-declarator-type-list type-qualifier-and-attribute-specifier-list Type”
for ident.
For example,
void (__attribute__((noreturn)) ****f) (void);
specifies the type “pointer to pointer to pointer to pointer to non-returning function return-
ing void”. As another example,
char *__attribute__((aligned(8))) *f;
specifies the type “pointer to 8-byte-aligned pointer to char”. Note again that this does not
work with most attributes; for example, the usage of ‘aligned’ and ‘noreturn’ attributes
given above is not yet supported.
For compatibility with existing code written for compiler versions that did not implement
attributes on nested declarators, some laxity is allowed in the placing of attributes. If an
attribute that only applies to types is applied to a declaration, it will be treated as applying
to the type of that declaration. If an attribute that only applies to declarations is applied
to the type of a declaration, it will be treated as applying to that declaration; and, for
compatibility with code placing the attributes immediately before the identifier declared,
such an attribute applied to a function return type will be treated as applying to the
function type, and such an attribute applied to an array element type will be treated as
applying to the array type. If an attribute that only applies to function types is applied to
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 209
a pointer-to-function type, it will be treated as applying to the pointer target type; if such
an attribute is applied to a function return type that is not a pointer-to-function type, it
will be treated as applying to the function type.
int
isroot (uid_t x)
{
return x == 0;
}
GNU C++ does not support old-style function definitions, so this extension is irrelevant.
the value of __alignof__ (foo1.y) is 1, even though its actual alignment is probably 2 or
4, the same as __alignof__ (int).
It is an error to ask for the alignment of an incomplete type.
aligned (alignment )
This attribute specifies a minimum alignment for the variable or structure field,
measured in bytes. For example, the declaration:
int x __attribute__ ((aligned (16))) = 0;
causes the compiler to allocate the global variable x on a 16-byte boundary. On
a 68040, this could be used in conjunction with an asm expression to access the
move16 instruction which requires 16-byte aligned operands.
You can also specify the alignment of structure fields. For example, to create a
double-word aligned int pair, you could write:
struct foo { int x[2] __attribute__ ((aligned (8))); };
This is an alternative to creating a union with a double member that forces
the union to be double-word aligned.
As in the preceding examples, you can explicitly specify the alignment (in bytes)
that you wish the compiler to use for a given variable or structure field. Alter-
natively, you can leave out the alignment factor and just ask the compiler to
align a variable or field to the maximum useful alignment for the target machine
you are compiling for. For example, you could write:
short array[3] __attribute__ ((aligned));
Whenever you leave out the alignment factor in an aligned attribute specifica-
tion, the compiler automatically sets the alignment for the declared variable or
field to the largest alignment which is ever used for any data type on the target
machine you are compiling for. Doing this can often make copy operations more
efficient, because the compiler can use whatever instructions copy the biggest
chunks of memory when performing copies to or from the variables or fields
that you have aligned this way.
The aligned attribute can only increase the alignment; but you can decrease
it by specifying packed as well. See below.
Note that the effectiveness of aligned attributes may be limited by inherent
limitations in your linker. On many systems, the linker is only able to arrange
for variables to be aligned up to a certain maximum alignment. (For some
linkers, the maximum supported alignment may be very very small.) If your
linker is only able to align variables up to a maximum of 8 byte alignment, then
specifying aligned(16) in an __attribute__ will still only provide you with
8 byte alignment. See your linker documentation for further information.
cleanup (cleanup_function )
The cleanup attribute runs a function when the variable goes out of scope.
This attribute can only be applied to auto function scope variables; it may not
be applied to parameters or variables with static storage duration. The function
must take one parameter, a pointer to a type compatible with the variable. The
return value of the function (if any) is ignored.
If ‘-fexceptions’ is enabled, then cleanup function will be run during the stack
unwinding that happens during the processing of the exception. Note that the
cleanup attribute does not allow the exception to be caught, only to perform
an action. It is undefined what happens if cleanup function does not return
normally.
212 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
common
nocommon The common attribute requests GCC to place a variable in “common” storage.
The nocommon attribute requests the opposite – to allocate space for it directly.
These attributes override the default chosen by the ‘-fno-common’ and
‘-fcommon’ flags respectively.
deprecated
The deprecated attribute results in a warning if the variable is used anywhere
in the source file. This is useful when identifying variables that are expected
to be removed in a future version of a program. The warning also includes the
location of the declaration of the deprecated variable, to enable users to easily
find further information about why the variable is deprecated, or what they
should do instead. Note that the warning only occurs for uses:
extern int old_var __attribute__ ((deprecated));
extern int old_var;
int new_fn () { return old_var; }
results in a warning on line 3 but not line 2.
The deprecated attribute can also be used for functions and types (see Sec-
tion 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 195, see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes],
page 215.)
mode (mode )
This attribute specifies the data type for the declaration—whichever type cor-
responds to the mode mode. This in effect lets you request an integer or floating
point type according to its width.
You may also specify a mode of ‘byte’ or ‘__byte__’ to indicate the mode
corresponding to a one-byte integer, ‘word’ or ‘__word__’ for the mode of a one-
word integer, and ‘pointer’ or ‘__pointer__’ for the mode used to represent
pointers.
packed The packed attribute specifies that a variable or structure field should have the
smallest possible alignment—one byte for a variable, and one bit for a field,
unless you specify a larger value with the aligned attribute.
Here is a structure in which the field x is packed, so that it immediately follows
a:
struct foo
{
char a;
int x[2] __attribute__ ((packed));
};
main()
{
/* Initialize stack pointer */
init_sp (stack + sizeof (stack));
int
main()
{
/* Read and write foo. All running
copies see the same value. */
return 0;
}
You may only use the shared attribute along with section attribute with a
fully initialized global definition because of the way linkers work. See section
attribute for more information.
The shared attribute is only available on Microsoft Windows.
tls_model ("tls_model ")
The tls_model attribute sets thread-local storage model (see Section 5.48
[Thread-Local], page 296) of a particular __thread variable, overriding -ftls-
model= command line switch on a per-variable basis. The tls model argument
should be one of global-dynamic, local-dynamic, initial-exec or local-
exec.
214 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
means that you can effectively adjust the alignment of a struct or union type
by attaching an aligned attribute to any one of the members of such a type,
but the notation illustrated in the example above is a more obvious, intuitive,
and readable way to request the compiler to adjust the alignment of an entire
struct or union type.
As in the preceding example, you can explicitly specify the alignment (in bytes)
that you wish the compiler to use for a given struct or union type. Alterna-
tively, you can leave out the alignment factor and just ask the compiler to
align a type to the maximum useful alignment for the target machine you are
compiling for. For example, you could write:
struct S { short f[3]; } __attribute__ ((aligned));
Whenever you leave out the alignment factor in an aligned attribute specifica-
tion, the compiler automatically sets the alignment for the type to the largest
alignment which is ever used for any data type on the target machine you are
compiling for. Doing this can often make copy operations more efficient, be-
cause the compiler can use whatever instructions copy the biggest chunks of
memory when performing copies to or from the variables which have types that
you have aligned this way.
In the example above, if the size of each short is 2 bytes, then the size of the
entire struct S type is 6 bytes. The smallest power of two which is greater
than or equal to that is 8, so the compiler sets the alignment for the entire
struct S type to 8 bytes.
Note that although you can ask the compiler to select a time-efficient alignment
for a given type and then declare only individual stand-alone objects of that
type, the compiler’s ability to select a time-efficient alignment is primarily useful
only when you plan to create arrays of variables having the relevant (efficiently
aligned) type. If you declare or use arrays of variables of an efficiently-aligned
type, then it is likely that your program will also be doing pointer arithmetic (or
subscripting, which amounts to the same thing) on pointers to the relevant type,
and the code that the compiler generates for these pointer arithmetic operations
will often be more efficient for efficiently-aligned types than for other types.
The aligned attribute can only increase the alignment; but you can decrease
it by specifying packed as well. See below.
Note that the effectiveness of aligned attributes may be limited by inherent
limitations in your linker. On many systems, the linker is only able to arrange
for variables to be aligned up to a certain maximum alignment. (For some
linkers, the maximum supported alignment may be very very small.) If your
linker is only able to align variables up to a maximum of 8 byte alignment, then
specifying aligned(16) in an __attribute__ will still only provide you with
8 byte alignment. See your linker documentation for further information.
packed This attribute, attached to struct or union type definition, specifies that each
member of the structure or union is placed to minimize the memory required.
When attached to an enum definition, it indicates that the smallest integral type
should be used.
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 217
Specifying this attribute for struct and union types is equivalent to specifying
the packed attribute on each of the structure or union members. Specifying
the ‘-fshort-enums’ flag on the line is equivalent to specifying the packed
attribute on all enum definitions.
In the following example struct my_packed_struct’s members are packed
closely together, but the internal layout of its s member is not packed – to
do that, struct my_unpacked_struct would need to be packed too.
struct my_unpacked_struct
{
char c;
int i;
};
unused When attached to a type (including a union or a struct), this attribute means
that variables of that type are meant to appear possibly unused. GCC will not
produce a warning for any variables of that type, even if the variable appears to
do nothing. This is often the case with lock or thread classes, which are usually
defined and then not referenced, but contain constructors and destructors that
have nontrivial bookkeeping functions.
deprecated
The deprecated attribute results in a warning if the type is used anywhere in
the source file. This is useful when identifying types that are expected to be
removed in a future version of a program. If possible, the warning also includes
the location of the declaration of the deprecated type, to enable users to easily
find further information about why the type is deprecated, or what they should
do instead. Note that the warnings only occur for uses and then only if the type
is being applied to an identifier that itself is not being declared as deprecated.
typedef int T1 __attribute__ ((deprecated));
T1 x;
typedef T1 T2;
T2 y;
typedef T1 T3 __attribute__ ((deprecated));
T3 z __attribute__ ((deprecated));
results in a warning on line 2 and 3 but not lines 4, 5, or 6. No warning is
issued for line 4 because T2 is not explicitly deprecated. Line 5 has no warning
because T3 is explicitly deprecated. Similarly for line 6.
The deprecated attribute can also be used for functions and variables (see Sec-
tion 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 195, see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes],
page 210.)
may_alias
Accesses to objects with types with this attribute are not subjected to type-
based alias analysis, but are instead assumed to be able to alias any other
type of objects, just like the char type. See ‘-fstrict-aliasing’ for more
information on aliasing issues.
Example of use:
typedef short __attribute__((__may_alias__)) short_a;
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 219
int
main (void)
{
int a = 0x12345678;
short_a *b = (short_a *) &a;
b[1] = 0;
if (a == 0x12345678)
abort();
exit(0);
}
If you replaced short_a with short in the variable declaration, the above pro-
gram would abort when compiled with ‘-fstrict-aliasing’, which is on by
default at ‘-O2’ or above in recent GCC versions.
(*a)++;
}
(If you are writing a header file to be included in ISO C programs, write __inline__
instead of inline. See Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 244.) You can also make
all “simple enough” functions inline with the option ‘-finline-functions’.
Note that certain usages in a function definition can make it unsuitable for inline sub-
stitution. Among these usages are: use of varargs, use of alloca, use of variable sized data
types (see Section 5.14 [Variable Length], page 190), use of computed goto (see Section 5.3
[Labels as Values], page 181), use of nonlocal goto, and nested functions (see Section 5.4
[Nested Functions], page 182). Using ‘-Winline’ will warn when a function marked inline
could not be substituted, and will give the reason for the failure.
Note that in C and Objective-C, unlike C++, the inline keyword does not affect the
linkage of the function.
GCC automatically inlines member functions defined within the class body of C++
programs even if they are not explicitly declared inline. (You can override this with
‘-fno-default-inline’; see Section 3.5 [Options Controlling C++ Dialect], page 25.)
When a function is both inline and static, if all calls to the function are integrated
into the caller, and the function’s address is never used, then the function’s own assembler
code is never referenced. In this case, GCC does not actually output assembler code for
the function, unless you specify the option ‘-fkeep-inline-functions’. Some calls cannot
be integrated for various reasons (in particular, calls that precede the function’s definition
cannot be integrated, and neither can recursive calls within the definition). If there is a
nonintegrated call, then the function is compiled to assembler code as usual. The function
must also be compiled as usual if the program refers to its address, because that can’t be
inlined.
When an inline function is not static, then the compiler must assume that there may be
calls from other source files; since a global symbol can be defined only once in any program,
the function must not be defined in the other source files, so the calls therein cannot be
integrated. Therefore, a non-static inline function is always compiled on its own in the
usual fashion.
If you specify both inline and extern in the function definition, then the definition is
used only for inlining. In no case is the function compiled on its own, not even if you refer
to its address explicitly. Such an address becomes an external reference, as if you had only
declared the function, and had not defined it.
This combination of inline and extern has almost the effect of a macro. The way to
use it is to put a function definition in a header file with these keywords, and put another
copy of the definition (lacking inline and extern) in a library file. The definition in the
header file will cause most calls to the function to be inlined. If any uses of the function
remain, they will refer to the single copy in the library.
Since GCC eventually will implement ISO C99 semantics for inline functions, it is best
to use static inline only to guarantee compatibility. (The existing semantics will remain
available when ‘-std=gnu89’ is specified, but eventually the default will be ‘-std=gnu99’
and that will implement the C99 semantics, though it does not do so yet.)
GCC does not inline any functions when not optimizing unless you specify the
‘always_inline’ attribute for the function, like this:
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 221
/* Prototype. */
inline void foo (const char) __attribute__((always_inline));
such an operand and list it with the output operands. You should only use read-write
operands when the constraints for the operand (or the operand in which only some of the
bits are to be changed) allow a register.
You may, as an alternative, logically split its function into two separate operands, one
input operand and one write-only output operand. The connection between them is ex-
pressed by constraints which say they need to be in the same location when the instruction
executes. You can use the same C expression for both operands, or different expressions.
For example, here we write the (fictitious) ‘combine’ instruction with bar as its read-only
source operand and foo as its read-write destination:
asm ("combine %2,%0" : "=r" (foo) : "0" (foo), "g" (bar));
The constraint ‘"0"’ for operand 1 says that it must occupy the same location as operand 0.
A number in constraint is allowed only in an input operand and it must refer to an output
operand.
Only a number in the constraint can guarantee that one operand will be in the same place
as another. The mere fact that foo is the value of both operands is not enough to guarantee
that they will be in the same place in the generated assembler code. The following would
not work reliably:
asm ("combine %2,%0" : "=r" (foo) : "r" (foo), "g" (bar));
Various optimizations or reloading could cause operands 0 and 1 to be in different regis-
ters; GCC knows no reason not to do so. For example, the compiler might find a copy of
the value of foo in one register and use it for operand 1, but generate the output operand
0 in a different register (copying it afterward to foo’s own address). Of course, since the
register for operand 1 is not even mentioned in the assembler code, the result will not work,
but GCC can’t tell that.
As of GCC version 3.1, one may write [name ] instead of the operand number for a
matching constraint. For example:
asm ("cmoveq %1,%2,%[result]"
: [result] "=r"(result)
: "r" (test), "r"(new), "[result]"(old));
Some instructions clobber specific hard registers. To describe this, write a third colon
after the input operands, followed by the names of the clobbered hard registers (given as
strings). Here is a realistic example for the VAX:
asm volatile ("movc3 %0,%1,%2"
: /* no outputs */
: "g" (from), "g" (to), "g" (count)
: "r0", "r1", "r2", "r3", "r4", "r5");
You may not write a clobber description in a way that overlaps with an input or output
operand. For example, you may not have an operand describing a register class with one
member if you mention that register in the clobber list. Variables declared to live in specific
registers (see Section 5.38 [Explicit Reg Vars], page 242), and used as asm input or output
operands must have no part mentioned in the clobber description. There is no way for
you to specify that an input operand is modified without also specifying it as an output
operand. Note that if all the output operands you specify are for this purpose (and hence
unused), you will then also need to specify volatile for the asm construct, as described
below, to prevent GCC from deleting the asm statement as unused.
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 223
If you refer to a particular hardware register from the assembler code, you will probably
have to list the register after the third colon to tell the compiler the register’s value is
modified. In some assemblers, the register names begin with ‘%’; to produce one ‘%’ in the
assembler code, you must write ‘%%’ in the input.
If your assembler instruction can alter the condition code register, add ‘cc’ to the list
of clobbered registers. GCC on some machines represents the condition codes as a specific
hardware register; ‘cc’ serves to name this register. On other machines, the condition code
is handled differently, and specifying ‘cc’ has no effect. But it is valid no matter what the
machine.
If your assembler instructions access memory in an unpredictable fashion, add ‘memory’
to the list of clobbered registers. This will cause GCC to not keep memory values cached in
registers across the assembler instruction and not optimize stores or loads to that memory.
You will also want to add the volatile keyword if the memory affected is not listed in the
inputs or outputs of the asm, as the ‘memory’ clobber does not count as a side-effect of the
asm. If you know how large the accessed memory is, you can add it as input or output but
if this is not known, you should add ‘memory’. As an example, if you access ten bytes of a
string, you can use a memory input like:
{"m"( ({ struct { char x[10]; } *p = (void *)ptr ; *p; }) )}.
Note that in the following example the memory input is necessary, otherwise GCC might
optimize the store to x away:
int foo ()
{
int x = 42;
int *y = &x;
int result;
asm ("magic stuff accessing an ’int’ pointed to by ’%1’"
"=&d" (r) : "a" (y), "m" (*y));
return result;
}
You can put multiple assembler instructions together in a single asm template, separated
by the characters normally used in assembly code for the system. A combination that works
in most places is a newline to break the line, plus a tab character to move to the instruc-
tion field (written as ‘\n\t’). Sometimes semicolons can be used, if the assembler allows
semicolons as a line-breaking character. Note that some assembler dialects use semicolons
to start a comment. The input operands are guaranteed not to use any of the clobbered
registers, and neither will the output operands’ addresses, so you can read and write the
clobbered registers as many times as you like. Here is an example of multiple instructions
in a template; it assumes the subroutine _foo accepts arguments in registers 9 and 10:
asm ("movl %0,r9\n\tmovl %1,r10\n\tcall _foo"
: /* no outputs */
: "g" (from), "g" (to)
: "r9", "r10");
Unless an output operand has the ‘&’ constraint modifier, GCC may allocate it in the same
register as an unrelated input operand, on the assumption the inputs are consumed before
the outputs are produced. This assumption may be false if the assembler code actually
224 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
consists of more than one instruction. In such a case, use ‘&’ for each output operand that
may not overlap an input. See Section 5.36.3 [Modifiers], page 229.
If you want to test the condition code produced by an assembler instruction, you must
include a branch and a label in the asm construct, as follows:
asm ("clr %0\n\tfrob %1\n\tbeq 0f\n\tmov #1,%0\n0:"
: "g" (result)
: "g" (input));
This assumes your assembler supports local labels, as the GNU assembler and most Unix
assemblers do.
Speaking of labels, jumps from one asm to another are not supported. The compiler’s
optimizers do not know about these jumps, and therefore they cannot take account of them
when deciding how to optimize.
Usually the most convenient way to use these asm instructions is to encapsulate them in
macros that look like functions. For example,
#define sin(x) \
({ double __value, __arg = (x); \
asm ("fsinx %1,%0": "=f" (__value): "f" (__arg)); \
__value; })
Here the variable __arg is used to make sure that the instruction operates on a proper
double value, and to accept only those arguments x which can convert automatically to a
double.
Another way to make sure the instruction operates on the correct data type is to use
a cast in the asm. This is different from using a variable __arg in that it converts more
different types. For example, if the desired type were int, casting the argument to int
would accept a pointer with no complaint, while assigning the argument to an int variable
named __arg would warn about using a pointer unless the caller explicitly casts it.
If an asm has output operands, GCC assumes for optimization purposes the instruction
has no side effects except to change the output operands. This does not mean instructions
with a side effect cannot be used, but you must be careful, because the compiler may
eliminate them if the output operands aren’t used, or move them out of loops, or replace
two with one if they constitute a common subexpression. Also, if your instruction does
have a side effect on a variable that otherwise appears not to change, the old value of the
variable may be reused later if it happens to be found in a register.
You can prevent an asm instruction from being deleted, moved significantly, or combined,
by writing the keyword volatile after the asm. For example:
#define get_and_set_priority(new) \
({ int __old; \
asm volatile ("get_and_set_priority %0, %1" \
: "=g" (__old) : "g" (new)); \
__old; })
If you write an asm instruction with no outputs, GCC will know the instruction has side-
effects and will not delete the instruction or move it outside of loops.
The volatile keyword indicates that the instruction has important side-effects. GCC
will not delete a volatile asm if it is reachable. (The instruction can still be deleted if GCC
can prove that control-flow will never reach the location of the instruction.) In addition,
GCC will not reschedule instructions across a volatile asm instruction. For example:
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 225
An input reg that is implicitly popped by the asm must be explicitly clobbered, unless
it is constrained to match an output operand.
2. For any input reg that is implicitly popped by an asm, it is necessary to know how to
adjust the stack to compensate for the pop. If any non-popped input is closer to the
top of the reg-stack than the implicitly popped reg, it would not be possible to know
what the stack looked like—it’s not clear how the rest of the stack “slides up”.
All implicitly popped input regs must be closer to the top of the reg-stack than any
input that is not implicitly popped.
It is possible that if an input dies in an insn, reload might use the input reg for an
output reload. Consider this example:
asm ("foo" : "=t" (a) : "f" (b));
This asm says that input B is not popped by the asm, and that the asm pushes a result
onto the reg-stack, i.e., the stack is one deeper after the asm than it was before. But,
it is possible that reload will think that it can use the same reg for both the input and
the output, if input B dies in this insn.
If any input operand uses the f constraint, all output reg constraints must use the &
earlyclobber.
The asm above would be written as
asm ("foo" : "=&t" (a) : "f" (b));
3. Some operands need to be in particular places on the stack. All output operands fall in
this category—there is no other way to know which regs the outputs appear in unless
the user indicates this in the constraints.
Output operands must specifically indicate which reg an output appears in after an
asm. =f is not allowed: the operand constraints must select a class with a single reg.
4. Output operands may not be “inserted” between existing stack regs. Since no 387 op-
code uses a read/write operand, all output operands are dead before the asm operands,
and are pushed by the asm operands. It makes no sense to push anywhere but the top
of the reg-stack.
Output operands must start at the top of the reg-stack: output operands may not
“skip” a reg.
5. Some asm statements may need extra stack space for internal calculations. This can
be guaranteed by clobbering stack registers unrelated to the inputs and outputs.
Here are a couple of reasonable asms to want to write. This asm takes one input, which
is internally popped, and produces two outputs.
asm ("fsincos" : "=t" (cos), "=u" (sin) : "0" (inp));
This asm takes two inputs, which are popped by the fyl2xp1 opcode, and replaces them
with one output. The user must code the st(1) clobber for reg-stack.c to know that
fyl2xp1 pops both inputs.
asm ("fyl2xp1" : "=t" (result) : "0" (x), "u" (y) : "st(1)");
whether the operand can be a memory reference, and which kinds of address; whether the
operand may be an immediate constant, and which possible values it may have. Constraints
can also require two operands to match.
specified ranges. For example, on the 68000, ‘I’ is defined to stand for the
range of values 1 to 8. This is the range permitted as a shift count in the shift
instructions.
‘E’ An immediate floating operand (expression code const_double) is allowed, but
only if the target floating point format is the same as that of the host machine
(on which the compiler is running).
‘F’ An immediate floating operand (expression code const_double or
const_vector) is allowed.
‘G’, ‘H’ ‘G’ and ‘H’ may be defined in a machine-dependent fashion to permit immediate
floating operands in particular ranges of values.
‘s’ An immediate integer operand whose value is not an explicit integer is allowed.
This might appear strange; if an insn allows a constant operand with a value
not known at compile time, it certainly must allow any known value. So why
use ‘s’ instead of ‘i’? Sometimes it allows better code to be generated.
For example, on the 68000 in a fullword instruction it is possible to use an
immediate operand; but if the immediate value is between −128 and 127, better
code results from loading the value into a register and using the register. This
is because the load into the register can be done with a ‘moveq’ instruction. We
arrange for this to happen by defining the letter ‘K’ to mean “any integer outside
the range −128 to 127”, and then specifying ‘Ks’ in the operand constraints.
‘g’ Any register, memory or immediate integer operand is allowed, except for reg-
isters that are not general registers.
‘X’ Any operand whatsoever is allowed.
‘0’, ‘1’, ‘2’, . . . ‘9’
An operand that matches the specified operand number is allowed. If a digit
is used together with letters within the same alternative, the digit should come
last.
This number is allowed to be more than a single digit. If multiple digits are en-
countered consecutively, they are interpreted as a single decimal integer. There
is scant chance for ambiguity, since to-date it has never been desirable that
‘10’ be interpreted as matching either operand 1 or operand 0. Should this be
desired, one can use multiple alternatives instead.
This is called a matching constraint and what it really means is that the assem-
bler has only a single operand that fills two roles which asm distinguishes. For
example, an add instruction uses two input operands and an output operand,
but on most CISC machines an add instruction really has only two operands,
one of them an input-output operand:
addl #35,r12
Matching constraints are used in these circumstances. More precisely, the two
operands that match must include one input-only operand and one output-only
operand. Moreover, the digit must be a smaller number than the number of
the operand that uses it in the constraint.
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 229
‘p’ An operand that is a valid memory address is allowed. This is for “load address”
and “push address” instructions.
‘p’ in the constraint must be accompanied by address_operand as the predicate
in the match_operand. This predicate interprets the mode specified in the
match_operand as the mode of the memory reference for which the address
would be valid.
other-letters
Other letters can be defined in machine-dependent fashion to stand for par-
ticular classes of registers or other arbitrary operand types. ‘d’, ‘a’ and ‘f’
are defined on the 68000/68020 to stand for data, address and floating point
registers.
‘&’ Means (in a particular alternative) that this operand is an earlyclobber operand,
which is modified before the instruction is finished using the input operands.
Therefore, this operand may not lie in a register that is used as an input operand
or as part of any memory address.
‘&’ applies only to the alternative in which it is written. In constraints with
multiple alternatives, sometimes one alternative requires ‘&’ while others do
not. See, for example, the ‘movdf’ insn of the 68000.
An input operand can be tied to an earlyclobber operand if its only use as an
input occurs before the early result is written. Adding alternatives of this form
often allows GCC to produce better code when only some of the inputs can be
affected by the earlyclobber. See, for example, the ‘mulsi3’ insn of the ARM.
‘&’ does not obviate the need to write ‘=’.
‘%’ Declares the instruction to be commutative for this operand and the following
operand. This means that the compiler may interchange the two operands if
that is the cheapest way to make all operands fit the constraints. GCC can
only handle one commutative pair in an asm; if you use more, the compiler
may fail. Note that you need not use the modifier if the two alternatives are
strictly identical; this would only waste time in the reload pass.
‘#’ Says that all following characters, up to the next comma, are to be ignored as
a constraint. They are significant only for choosing register preferences.
‘*’ Says that the following character should be ignored when choosing register
preferences. ‘*’ has no effect on the meaning of the constraint as a constraint,
and no effect on reloading.
EXTRA_CONSTRAINT
Special cases of registers or memory. This macro is not required, and is only
defined for some machines.
Inspecting these macro definitions in the compiler source for your machine is the best
way to be certain you have the right constraints. However, here is a summary of the
machine-dependent constraints available on some particular machines.
ARM family—‘arm.h’
f Floating-point register
F One of the floating-point constants 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 or
10.0
G Floating-point constant that would satisfy the constraint ‘F’ if it
were negated
I Integer that is valid as an immediate operand in a data processing
instruction. That is, an integer in the range 0 to 255 rotated by a
multiple of 2
J Integer in the range −4095 to 4095
K Integer that satisfies constraint ‘I’ when inverted (ones comple-
ment)
L Integer that satisfies constraint ‘I’ when negated (twos comple-
ment)
M Integer in the range 0 to 32
Q A memory reference where the exact address is in a single register
(“m’’ is preferable for asm statements)
R An item in the constant pool
S A symbol in the text segment of the current file
AVR family—‘avr.h’
l Registers from r0 to r15
a Registers from r16 to r23
d Registers from r16 to r31
w Registers from r24 to r31. These registers can be used in ‘adiw’
command
e Pointer register (r26–r31)
b Base pointer register (r28–r31)
q Stack pointer register (SPH:SPL)
t Temporary register r0
x Register pair X (r27:r26)
y Register pair Y (r29:r28)
232 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
l ‘Lo’ register
x ‘Hi’ or ‘Lo’ register
y General-purpose integer register
z Floating-point status register
I Signed 16-bit constant (for arithmetic instructions)
J Zero
K Zero-extended 16-bit constant (for logic instructions)
L Constant with low 16 bits zero (can be loaded with lui)
M 32-bit constant which requires two instructions to load (a constant
which is not ‘I’, ‘K’, or ‘L’)
N Negative 16-bit constant
O Exact power of two
P Positive 16-bit constant
G Floating point zero
Q Memory reference that can be loaded with more than one instruc-
tion (‘m’ is preferable for asm statements)
R Memory reference that can be loaded with one instruction (‘m’ is
preferable for asm statements)
S Memory reference in external OSF/rose PIC format (‘m’ is prefer-
able for asm statements)
Motorola 680x0—‘m68k.h’
a Address register
d Data register
f 68881 floating-point register, if available
I Integer in the range 1 to 8
J 16-bit signed number
K Signed number whose magnitude is greater than 0x80
L Integer in the range −8 to −1
M Signed number whose magnitude is greater than 0x100
G Floating point constant that is not a 68881 constant
Motorola 68HC11 & 68HC12 families—‘m68hc11.h’
a Register ’a’
b Register ’b’
d Register ’d’
238 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
q An 8-bit register
t Temporary soft register .tmp
u A soft register .d1 to .d31
w Stack pointer register
x Register ’x’
y Register ’y’
z Pseudo register ’z’ (replaced by ’x’ or ’y’ at the end)
A An address register: x, y or z
B An address register: x or y
D Register pair (x:d) to form a 32-bit value
L Constants in the range −65536 to 65535
M Constants whose 16-bit low part is zero
N Constant integer 1 or −1
O Constant integer 16
P Constants in the range −8 to 2
SPARC—‘sparc.h’
f Floating-point register on the SPARC-V8 architecture and lower
floating-point register on the SPARC-V9 architecture.
e Floating-point register. It is equivalent to ‘f’ on the SPARC-V8
architecture and contains both lower and upper floating-point reg-
isters on the SPARC-V9 architecture.
c Floating-point condition code register.
d Lower floating-point register. It is only valid on the SPARC-V9
architecture when the Visual Instruction Set is available.
b Floating-point register. It is only valid on the SPARC-V9 architec-
ture when the Visual Instruction Set is available.
h 64-bit global or out register for the SPARC-V8+ architecture.
I Signed 13-bit constant
J Zero
K 32-bit constant with the low 12 bits clear (a constant that can be
loaded with the sethi instruction)
L A constant in the range supported by movcc instructions
M A constant in the range supported by movrcc instructions
N Same as ‘K’, except that it verifies that bits that are not in the
lower 32-bit range are all zero. Must be used instead of ‘K’ for
modes wider than SImode
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 239
func (x, y)
int x, y;
/* . . . */
It is up to you to make sure that the assembler names you choose do not conflict with
any other assembler symbols. Also, you must not use a register name; that would produce
completely invalid assembler code. GCC does not as yet have the ability to store static
variables in registers. Perhaps that will be added.
Here a5 is the name of the register which should be used. Choose a register which is
normally saved and restored by function calls on your machine, so that library routines will
not clobber it.
Naturally the register name is cpu-dependent, so you would need to conditionalize your
program according to cpu type. The register a5 would be a good choice on a 68000 for a
variable of pointer type. On machines with register windows, be sure to choose a “global”
register that is not affected magically by the function call mechanism.
In addition, operating systems on one type of cpu may differ in how they name the
registers; then you would need additional conditionals. For example, some 68000 operating
systems call this register %a5.
Eventually there may be a way of asking the compiler to choose a register automatically,
but first we need to figure out how it should choose and how to enable you to guide the
choice. No solution is evident.
Defining a global register variable in a certain register reserves that register entirely for
this use, at least within the current compilation. The register will not be allocated for any
other purpose in the functions in the current compilation. The register will not be saved
and restored by these functions. Stores into this register are never deleted even if they
would appear to be dead, but references may be deleted or moved or simplified.
It is not safe to access the global register variables from signal handlers, or from more
than one thread of control, because the system library routines may temporarily use the
register for other things (unless you recompile them specially for the task at hand).
It is not safe for one function that uses a global register variable to call another such
function foo by way of a third function lose that was compiled without knowledge of this
variable (i.e. in a different source file in which the variable wasn’t declared). This is because
lose might save the register and put some other value there. For example, you can’t expect
a global register variable to be available in the comparison-function that you pass to qsort,
since qsort might have put something else in that register. (If you are prepared to recompile
qsort with the same global register variable, you can solve this problem.)
If you want to recompile qsort or other source files which do not actually use your global
register variable, so that they will not use that register for any other purpose, then it suffices
to specify the compiler option ‘-ffixed-reg ’. You need not actually add a global register
declaration to their source code.
A function which can alter the value of a global register variable cannot safely be called
from a function compiled without this variable, because it could clobber the value the caller
expects to find there on return. Therefore, the function which is the entry point into the
part of the program that uses the global register variable must explicitly save and restore
the value which belongs to its caller.
On most machines, longjmp will restore to each global register variable the value it had
at the time of the setjmp. On some machines, however, longjmp will not change the value
of global register variables. To be portable, the function that called setjmp should make
other arrangements to save the values of the global register variables, and to restore them
in a longjmp. This way, the same thing will happen regardless of what longjmp does.
244 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
All global register variable declarations must precede all function definitions. If such a
declaration could appear after function definitions, the declaration would be too late to
prevent the register from being used for other purposes in the preceding functions.
Global register variables may not have initial values, because an executable file has no
means to supply initial contents for a register.
On the SPARC, there are reports that g3 . . . g7 are suitable registers, but certain library
functions, such as getwd, as well as the subroutines for division and remainder, modify g3
and g4. g1 and g2 are local temporaries.
On the 68000, a2 . . . a5 should be suitable, as should d2 . . . d7. Of course, it will not
do to use more than a few of those.
The way to solve these problems is to put ‘__’ at the beginning and end of each prob-
lematical keyword. For example, use __asm__ instead of asm, and __inline__ instead of
inline.
Other C compilers won’t accept these alternative keywords; if you want to compile with
another compiler, you can define the alternate keywords as macros to replace them with
the customary keywords. It looks like this:
#ifndef __GNUC__
#define __asm__ asm
#endif
‘-pedantic’ and other options cause warnings for many GNU C extensions. You can pre-
vent such warnings within one expression by writing __extension__ before the expression.
__extension__ has no effect aside from this.
class a {
public:
void sub (int i)
{
printf ("__FUNCTION__ = %s\n", __FUNCTION__);
printf ("__PRETTY_FUNCTION__ = %s\n", __PRETTY_FUNCTION__);
}
};
int
main (void)
{
a ax;
ax.sub (0);
return 0;
}
These identifiers are not preprocessor macros. In GCC 3.3 and earlier, in C only, __
FUNCTION__ and __PRETTY_FUNCTION__ were treated as string literals; they could be used
to initialize char arrays, and they could be concatenated with other string literals. GCC
3.4 and later treat them as variables, like __func__. In C++, __FUNCTION__ and __PRETTY_
FUNCTION__ have always been variables.
The operations behave like C++ valarrays. Addition is defined as the addition of the
corresponding elements of the operands. For example, in the code below, each of the 4
elements in a will be added to the corresponding 4 elements in b and the resulting vector
will be stored in c.
typedef int v4si __attribute__ ((mode(V4SI)));
v4si a, b, c;
c = a + b;
Subtraction, multiplication, division, and the logical operations operate in a similar man-
ner. Likewise, the result of using the unary minus or complement operators on a vector type
is a vector whose elements are the negative or complemented values of the corresponding
elements in the operand.
You can declare variables and use them in function calls and returns, as well as in as-
signments and some casts. You can specify a vector type as a return type for a function.
Vector types can also be used as function arguments. It is possible to cast from one vector
type to another, provided they are of the same size (in fact, you can also cast vectors to
and from other datatypes of the same size).
You cannot operate between vectors of different lengths or different signedness without a
cast.
A port that supports hardware vector operations, usually provides a set of built-in func-
tions that can be used to operate on vectors. For example, a function to add two vectors
and multiply the result by a third could look like this:
v4si f (v4si a, v4si b, v4si c)
{
v4si tmp = __builtin_addv4si (a, b);
return __builtin_mulv4si (tmp, c);
}
sincosf, sincosl, sincos, stpcpy, strdup, strfmon, y0f, y0l, y0, y1f, y1l, y1, ynf,
ynl and yn may be handled as built-in functions. All these functions have corresponding
versions prefixed with __builtin_, which may be used even in strict C89 mode.
The ISO C99 functions _Exit, acoshf, acoshl, acosh, asinhf, asinhl, asinh, atanhf,
atanhl, atanh, cabsf, cabsl, cabs, cacosf, cacoshf, cacoshl, cacosh, cacosl, cacos,
cargf, cargl, carg, casinf, casinhf, casinhl, casinh, casinl, casin, catanf, catanhf,
catanhl, catanh, catanl, catan, cbrtf, cbrtl, cbrt, ccosf, ccoshf, ccoshl, ccosh,
ccosl, ccos, cexpf, cexpl, cexp, cimagf, cimagl, cimag, conjf, conjl, conj, copysignf,
copysignl, copysign, cpowf, cpowl, cpow, cprojf, cprojl, cproj, crealf, creall,
creal, csinf, csinhf, csinhl, csinh, csinl, csin, csqrtf, csqrtl, csqrt, ctanf,
ctanhf, ctanhl, ctanh, ctanl, ctan, erfcf, erfcl, erfc, erff, erfl, erf, exp2f, exp2l,
exp2, expm1f, expm1l, expm1, fdimf, fdiml, fdim, fmaf, fmal, fmaxf, fmaxl, fmax, fma,
fminf, fminl, fmin, hypotf, hypotl, hypot, ilogbf, ilogbl, ilogb, imaxabs, lgammaf,
lgammal, lgamma, llabs, llrintf, llrintl, llrint, llroundf, llroundl, llround,
log1pf, log1pl, log1p, log2f, log2l, log2, logbf, logbl, logb, lrintf, lrintl,
lrint, lroundf, lroundl, lround, nearbyintf, nearbyintl, nearbyint, nextafterf,
nextafterl, nextafter, nexttowardf, nexttowardl, nexttoward, remainderf,
remainderl, remainder, remquof, remquol, remquo, rintf, rintl, rint, roundf, roundl,
round, scalblnf, scalblnl, scalbln, scalbnf, scalbnl, scalbn, snprintf, tgammaf,
tgammal, tgamma, truncf, truncl, trunc, vfscanf, vscanf, vsnprintf and vsscanf are
handled as built-in functions except in strict ISO C90 mode (‘-ansi’ or ‘-std=c89’).
There are also built-in versions of the ISO C99 functions acosf, acosl, asinf, asinl,
atan2f, atan2l, atanf, atanl, ceilf, ceill, cosf, coshf, coshl, cosl, expf, expl,
fabsf, fabsl, floorf, floorl, fmodf, fmodl, frexpf, frexpl, ldexpf, ldexpl, log10f,
log10l, logf, logl, modfl, modf, powf, powl, sinf, sinhf, sinhl, sinl, sqrtf, sqrtl,
tanf, tanhf, tanhl and tanl that are recognized in any mode since ISO C90 reserves these
names for the purpose to which ISO C99 puts them. All these functions have corresponding
versions prefixed with __builtin_.
The ISO C90 functions abort, abs, acos, asin, atan2, atan, calloc, ceil, cosh, cos,
exit, exp, fabs, floor, fmod, fprintf, fputs, frexp, fscanf, labs, ldexp, log10, log,
malloc, memcmp, memcpy, memset, modf, pow, printf, putchar, puts, scanf, sinh, sin,
snprintf, sprintf, sqrt, sscanf, strcat, strchr, strcmp, strcpy, strcspn, strlen,
strncat, strncmp, strncpy, strpbrk, strrchr, strspn, strstr, tanh, tan, vfprintf,
vprintf and vsprintf are all recognized as built-in functions unless ‘-fno-builtin’ is
specified (or ‘-fno-builtin-function ’ is specified for an individual function). All of these
functions have corresponding versions prefixed with __builtin_.
GCC provides built-in versions of the ISO C99 floating point comparison macros that
avoid raising exceptions for unordered operands. They have the same names as the stan-
dard macros ( isgreater, isgreaterequal, isless, islessequal, islessgreater, and
isunordered) , with __builtin_ prefixed. We intend for a library implementor to be able
to simply #define each standard macro to its built-in equivalent.
This built-in function returns 1 if the unqualified versions of the types type1 and
type2 (which are types, not expressions) are compatible, 0 otherwise. The result of
this built-in function can be used in integer constant expressions.
This built-in function ignores top level qualifiers (e.g., const, volatile). For exam-
ple, int is equivalent to const int.
The type int[] and int[5] are compatible. On the other hand, int and char * are
not compatible, even if the size of their types, on the particular architecture are the
same. Also, the amount of pointer indirection is taken into account when determining
similarity. Consequently, short * is not similar to short **. Furthermore, two types
that are typedefed are considered compatible if their underlying types are compatible.
An enum type is not considered to be compatible with another enum type even if both
are compatible with the same integer type; this is what the C standard specifies. For
example, enum {foo, bar} is not similar to enum {hot, dog}.
You would typically use this function in code whose execution varies depending on
the arguments’ types. For example:
#define foo(x) \
({ \
typeof (x) tmp; \
if (__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), long double)) \
tmp = foo_long_double (tmp); \
else if (__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), double)) \
tmp = foo_double (tmp); \
else if (__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), float)) \
tmp = foo_float (tmp); \
else \
abort (); \
tmp; \
})
Note: This construct is only available for C.
type __builtin_choose_expr (const_exp, exp1, exp2 ) [Built-in Function]
You can use the built-in function __builtin_choose_expr to evaluate code depend-
ing on the value of a constant expression. This built-in function returns exp1 if
const exp, which is a constant expression that must be able to be determined at
compile time, is nonzero. Otherwise it returns 0.
This built-in function is analogous to the ‘? :’ operator in C, except that the expres-
sion returned has its type unaltered by promotion rules. Also, the built-in function
does not evaluate the expression that was not chosen. For example, if const exp
evaluates to true, exp2 is not evaluated even if it has side-effects.
This built-in function can return an lvalue if the chosen argument is an lvalue.
If exp1 is returned, the return type is the same as exp1’s type. Similarly, if exp2 is
returned, its return type is the same as exp2.
Example:
#define foo(x) \
__builtin_choose_expr ( \
__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), double), \
foo_double (x), \
__builtin_choose_expr ( \
__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), float), \
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 251
foo_float (x), \
/* The void expression results in a compile-time error \
when assigning the result to something. */ \
(void)0))
Note: This construct is only available for C. Furthermore, the unused expression
(exp1 or exp2 depending on the value of const exp) may still generate syntax errors.
This may change in future revisions.
You may use this built-in function in either a macro or an inline function. However, if
you use it in an inlined function and pass an argument of the function as the argument
to the built-in, GCC will never return 1 when you call the inline function with a string
constant or compound literal (see Section 5.20 [Compound Literals], page 192) and
will not return 1 when you pass a constant numeric value to the inline function unless
you specify the ‘-O’ option.
You may also use __builtin_constant_p in initializers for static data. For instance,
you can write
static const int table[] = {
__builtin_constant_p (EXPRESSION) ? (EXPRESSION) : -1,
/* . . . */
};
The return value is the value of exp, which should be an integral expression. The
value of c must be a compile-time constant. The semantics of the built-in are that it
is expected that exp == c. For example:
if (__builtin_expect (x, 0))
foo ();
would indicate that we do not expect to call foo, since we expect x to be zero. Since
you are limited to integral expressions for exp, you should use constructions such as
if (__builtin_expect (ptr != NULL, 1))
error ();
when testing pointer or floating-point values.
void __builtin_prefetch (const void *addr, ...) [Built-in Function]
This function is used to minimize cache-miss latency by moving data into a cache
before it is accessed. You can insert calls to __builtin_prefetch into code for
which you know addresses of data in memory that is likely to be accessed soon. If the
target supports them, data prefetch instructions will be generated. If the prefetch is
done early enough before the access then the data will be in the cache by the time it
is accessed.
The value of addr is the address of the memory to prefetch. There are two optional
arguments, rw and locality. The value of rw is a compile-time constant one or zero;
one means that the prefetch is preparing for a write to the memory address and zero,
the default, means that the prefetch is preparing for a read. The value locality must
be a compile-time constant integer between zero and three. A value of zero means
that the data has no temporal locality, so it need not be left in the cache after the
access. A value of three means that the data has a high degree of temporal locality and
should be left in all levels of cache possible. Values of one and two mean, respectively,
a low or moderate degree of temporal locality. The default is three.
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
a[i] = a[i] + b[i];
__builtin_prefetch (&a[i+j], 1, 1);
__builtin_prefetch (&b[i+j], 0, 1);
/* . . . */
}
Data prefetch does not generate faults if addr is invalid, but the address expression
itself must be valid. For example, a prefetch of p->next will not fault if p->next is
not a valid address, but evaluation will fault if p is not a valid address.
If the target does not support data prefetch, the address expression is evaluated if it
includes side effects but no other code is generated and GCC does not issue a warning.
double __builtin_huge_val (void) [Built-in Function]
Returns a positive infinity, if supported by the floating-point format, else DBL_MAX.
This function is suitable for implementing the ISO C macro HUGE_VAL.
float __builtin_huge_valf (void) [Built-in Function]
Similar to __builtin_huge_val, except the return type is float.
long double __builtin_huge_vall (void) [Built-in Function]
Similar to __builtin_huge_val, except the return type is long double.
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 253
The following built-in functions are always with ‘-mmax’ or ‘-mcpu=cpu ’ where cpu is
pca56 or later. They all generate the machine instruction that is part of the name.
long __builtin_alpha_pklb (long)
long __builtin_alpha_pkwb (long)
long __builtin_alpha_unpkbl (long)
long __builtin_alpha_unpkbw (long)
long __builtin_alpha_minub8 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_minsb8 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_minuw4 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_minsw4 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_maxub8 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_maxsb8 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_maxuw4 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_maxsw4 (long, long)
long __builtin_alpha_perr (long, long)
The following built-in functions are always with ‘-mcix’ or ‘-mcpu=cpu ’ where cpu is
ev67 or later. They all generate the machine instruction that is part of the name.
long __builtin_alpha_cttz (long)
long __builtin_alpha_ctlz (long)
long __builtin_alpha_ctpop (long)
The following builtins are available on systems that use the OSF/1 PALcode. Normally
they invoke the rduniq and wruniq PAL calls, but when invoked with ‘-mtls-kernel’,
they invoke rdval and wrval.
void *__builtin_thread_pointer (void)
void __builtin_set_thread_pointer (void *)
256 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
• For C, overloaded functions are implemented with macros so the following does not
work:
vec_add ((vector signed int){1, 2, 3, 4}, foo);
Since vec_add is a macro, the vector constant in the example is treated as four separate
arguments. Wrap the entire argument in parentheses for this to work.
Note: Only the <altivec.h> interface is supported. Internally, GCC uses built-in func-
tions to achieve the functionality in the aforementioned header file, but they are not sup-
ported and are subject to change without notice.
The following interfaces are supported for the generic and specific AltiVec operations
and the AltiVec predicates. In cases where there is a direct mapping between generic and
specific operations, only the generic names are shown here, although the specific operations
can also be used.
Arguments that are documented as const int require literal integral values within the
range required for that operation.
vector signed char vec_abs (vector signed char);
vector signed short vec_abs (vector signed short);
vector signed int vec_abs (vector signed int);
vector float vec_abs (vector float);
vector signed char vec_add (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_add (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_add (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_add (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_add (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_add (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed short vec_add (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_add (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_add (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_add (vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_add (vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_add (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed int vec_add (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_add (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_add (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_add (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_add (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_add (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector float vec_add (vector float, vector float);
vector signed int vec_vadduwm (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vadduwm (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_vadduwm (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_vadduwm (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vadduwm (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
264 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
vector signed char vec_vaddubm (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_vaddubm (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vaddubm (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_vaddubm (vector bool char,
vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_vaddubm (vector unsigned char,
vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_vaddubm (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned int vec_addc (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned char vec_adds (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_adds (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_adds (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_adds (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_adds (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_adds (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned short vec_adds (vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_adds (vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_adds (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed short vec_adds (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_adds (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_adds (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned int vec_adds (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_adds (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_adds (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_adds (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_adds (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_adds (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vaddsws (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vaddsws (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_vaddsws (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_vadduws (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vadduws (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_vadduws (vector unsigned int,
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 265
vector signed char vec_vaddsbs (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_vaddsbs (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vaddsbs (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector signed int vec_vavgsw (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector signed char vec_vavgsb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool char vec_cmpeq (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool char vec_cmpeq (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char);
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 267
vector bool short vec_cmpeq (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector bool short vec_cmpeq (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector bool int vec_cmpeq (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector bool int vec_cmpeq (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector bool int vec_cmpeq (vector float, vector float);
vector bool int vec_vcmpequw (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector bool int vec_vcmpequw (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector bool char vec_vcmpequb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool char vec_vcmpequb (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector bool char vec_cmpgt (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char);
vector bool char vec_cmpgt (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool short vec_cmpgt (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector bool short vec_cmpgt (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector bool int vec_cmpgt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector bool int vec_cmpgt (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector bool int vec_cmpgt (vector float, vector float);
vector bool int vec_vcmpgtsw (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector bool int vec_vcmpgtuw (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector bool char vec_vcmpgtsb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool char vec_cmplt (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char);
vector bool char vec_cmplt (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool short vec_cmplt (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector bool short vec_cmplt (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector bool int vec_cmplt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector bool int vec_cmplt (vector signed int, vector signed int);
268 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
vector signed short vec_ld (int, const vector signed short *);
vector signed short vec_ld (int, const short *);
vector unsigned short vec_ld (int, const vector unsigned short *);
vector unsigned short vec_ld (int, const unsigned short *);
vector bool char vec_ld (int, const vector bool char *);
vector signed char vec_ld (int, const vector signed char *);
vector signed char vec_ld (int, const signed char *);
vector unsigned char vec_ld (int, const vector unsigned char *);
vector unsigned char vec_ld (int, const unsigned char *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsl (int, const volatile unsigned char *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsl (int, const volatile signed char *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsl (int, const volatile unsigned short *);
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 271
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile unsigned char *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile signed char *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile unsigned short *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile short *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile unsigned int *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile int *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile unsigned long *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile long *);
vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, const volatile float *);
vector unsigned char vec_max (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_max (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_max (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_max (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_max (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_max (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned short vec_max (vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_max (vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_max (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed short vec_max (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_max (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_max (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned int vec_max (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_max (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_max (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_max (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_max (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_max (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector float vec_max (vector float, vector float);
vector signed int vec_vmaxsw (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vmaxsw (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_vmaxsw (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_vmaxuw (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vmaxuw (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_vmaxuw (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
272 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
vector signed short vec_vmaxsh (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_vmaxsh (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_vmaxsh (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector signed char vec_vmaxsb (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_vmaxsb (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vmaxsb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector bool char vec_mergeh (vector bool char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_mergeh (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_mergeh (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector bool short vec_mergeh (vector bool short, vector bool short);
vector pixel vec_mergeh (vector pixel, vector pixel);
vector signed short vec_mergeh (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_mergeh (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector float vec_mergeh (vector float, vector float);
vector bool int vec_mergeh (vector bool int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_mergeh (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_mergeh (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector bool short vec_vmrghh (vector bool short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_vmrghh (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_vmrghh (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector pixel vec_vmrghh (vector pixel, vector pixel);
vector bool char vec_vmrghb (vector bool char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vmrghb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_vmrghb (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector bool char vec_mergel (vector bool char, vector bool char);
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 273
vector signed char vec_mergel (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_mergel (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector bool short vec_mergel (vector bool short, vector bool short);
vector pixel vec_mergel (vector pixel, vector pixel);
vector signed short vec_mergel (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_mergel (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector float vec_mergel (vector float, vector float);
vector bool int vec_mergel (vector bool int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_mergel (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_mergel (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector bool short vec_vmrglh (vector bool short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_vmrglh (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_vmrglh (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector pixel vec_vmrglh (vector pixel, vector pixel);
vector bool char vec_vmrglb (vector bool char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vmrglb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_vmrglb (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_min (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_min (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_min (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_min (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_min (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_min (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned short vec_min (vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_min (vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_min (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed short vec_min (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_min (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_min (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned int vec_min (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_min (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_min (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_min (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_min (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_min (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector float vec_min (vector float, vector float);
274 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
vector signed int vec_vminsw (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vminsw (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_vminsw (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_vminuw (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vminuw (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_vminuw (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector signed short vec_vminsh (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_vminsh (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_vminsh (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector signed char vec_vminsb (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_vminsb (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vminsb (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector signed short vec_or (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_or (vector bool short, vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_or (vector unsigned short, vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_or (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed char vec_or (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector bool char vec_or (vector bool char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_or (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_or (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_or (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_or (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_or (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_pack (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned char vec_pack (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector bool char vec_pack (vector bool short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_pack (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned short vec_pack (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector bool short vec_pack (vector bool int, vector bool int);
vector bool short vec_vpkuwum (vector bool int, vector bool int);
vector signed short vec_vpkuwum (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned short vec_vpkuwum (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector bool char vec_vpkuhum (vector bool short, vector bool short);
vector signed char vec_vpkuhum (vector signed short,
vector signed short);
vector unsigned char vec_vpkuhum (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed short vec_vpkswss (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vrlw (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vrlw (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 279
vector signed char vec_vrlb (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_vrlb (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector float vec_sel (vector float, vector float, vector bool int);
vector float vec_sel (vector float, vector float, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_sel (vector signed int,
vector signed int,
vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_sel (vector signed int,
vector signed int,
vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_sel (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int,
vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_sel (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector bool int vec_sel (vector bool int,
vector bool int,
vector bool int);
vector bool int vec_sel (vector bool int,
vector bool int,
vector unsigned int);
vector signed short vec_sel (vector signed short,
vector signed short,
vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_sel (vector signed short,
vector signed short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_sel (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_sel (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector bool short vec_sel (vector bool short,
vector bool short,
vector bool short);
vector bool short vec_sel (vector bool short,
vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed char vec_sel (vector signed char,
vector signed char,
vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_sel (vector signed char,
vector signed char,
vector unsigned char);
280 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
vector signed int vec_vslw (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vslw (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed char vec_vslb (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_vslb (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_sr (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_sr (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed short vec_sr (vector signed short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_sr (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed int vec_sr (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_sr (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_vsrw (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsrw (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed char vec_vsrb (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_vsrb (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_sra (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_sra (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed short vec_sra (vector signed short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_sra (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed int vec_sra (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_sra (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_vsraw (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsraw (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector signed char vec_vsrab (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_vsrab (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed int vec_srl (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_srl (vector signed int, vector unsigned short);
vector signed int vec_srl (vector signed int, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned int vec_srl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_srl (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned int vec_srl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned char);
vector bool int vec_srl (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector bool int vec_srl (vector bool int, vector unsigned short);
vector bool int vec_srl (vector bool int, vector unsigned char);
vector signed short vec_srl (vector signed short, vector unsigned int);
vector signed short vec_srl (vector signed short,
vector unsigned short);
284 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
vector signed short vec_srl (vector signed short, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned short vec_srl (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned short vec_srl (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_srl (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned char);
vector bool short vec_srl (vector bool short, vector unsigned int);
vector bool short vec_srl (vector bool short, vector unsigned short);
vector bool short vec_srl (vector bool short, vector unsigned char);
vector pixel vec_srl (vector pixel, vector unsigned int);
vector pixel vec_srl (vector pixel, vector unsigned short);
vector pixel vec_srl (vector pixel, vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_srl (vector signed char, vector unsigned int);
vector signed char vec_srl (vector signed char, vector unsigned short);
vector signed char vec_srl (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_srl (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned char vec_srl (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned char vec_srl (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector bool char vec_srl (vector bool char, vector unsigned int);
vector bool char vec_srl (vector bool char, vector unsigned short);
vector bool char vec_srl (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
void vec_stl (vector signed short, int, vector signed short *);
void vec_stl (vector signed short, int, short *);
void vec_stl (vector unsigned short, int, vector unsigned short *);
void vec_stl (vector unsigned short, int, unsigned short *);
void vec_stl (vector bool short, int, vector bool short *);
void vec_stl (vector bool short, int, unsigned short *);
void vec_stl (vector bool short, int, short *);
void vec_stl (vector pixel, int, vector pixel *);
void vec_stl (vector pixel, int, unsigned short *);
void vec_stl (vector pixel, int, short *);
void vec_stl (vector signed char, int, vector signed char *);
void vec_stl (vector signed char, int, signed char *);
void vec_stl (vector unsigned char, int, vector unsigned char *);
void vec_stl (vector unsigned char, int, unsigned char *);
void vec_stl (vector bool char, int, vector bool char *);
void vec_stl (vector bool char, int, unsigned char *);
void vec_stl (vector bool char, int, signed char *);
vector signed char vec_sub (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_sub (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_sub (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_sub (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_sub (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_sub (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed short vec_sub (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_sub (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_sub (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned short vec_sub (vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_sub (vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_sub (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed int vec_sub (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_sub (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_sub (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_sub (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_sub (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_sub (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector float vec_sub (vector float, vector float);
vector signed int vec_vsubuwm (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vsubuwm (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_vsubuwm (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsubuwm (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsubuwm (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsubuwm (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector signed char vec_vsububm (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_vsububm (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vsububm (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned char vec_vsububm (vector bool char,
vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_vsububm (vector unsigned char,
vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_vsububm (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned int vec_subc (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned char vec_subs (vector bool char, vector unsigned char);
vector unsigned char vec_subs (vector unsigned char, vector bool char);
vector unsigned char vec_subs (vector unsigned char,
vector unsigned char);
vector signed char vec_subs (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_subs (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_subs (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector unsigned short vec_subs (vector bool short,
vector unsigned short);
vector unsigned short vec_subs (vector unsigned short,
vector bool short);
vector unsigned short vec_subs (vector unsigned short,
vector unsigned short);
vector signed short vec_subs (vector bool short, vector signed short);
vector signed short vec_subs (vector signed short, vector bool short);
vector signed short vec_subs (vector signed short, vector signed short);
vector unsigned int vec_subs (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_subs (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_subs (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);
vector signed int vec_subs (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_subs (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_subs (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vsubsws (vector bool int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vsubsws (vector signed int, vector bool int);
vector signed int vec_vsubsws (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsubuws (vector bool int, vector unsigned int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsubuws (vector unsigned int, vector bool int);
vector unsigned int vec_vsubuws (vector unsigned int,
vector unsigned int);
vector signed char vec_vsubsbs (vector bool char, vector signed char);
vector signed char vec_vsubsbs (vector signed char, vector bool char);
vector signed char vec_vsubsbs (vector signed char, vector signed char);
vector signed int vec_vsum4shs (vector signed short, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_vsum4sbs (vector signed char, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_sum2s (vector signed int, vector signed int);
vector signed int vec_sums (vector signed int, vector signed int);
longcall (1)
Apply the longcall attribute to all subsequent function declarations.
longcall (0)
Do not apply the longcall attribute to subsequent function declarations.
extern_prefix string
This pragma renames all subsequent function and variable declarations such
that string is prepended to the name. This effect may be terminated by using
another extern_prefix pragma with the empty string.
This pragma is similar in intent to to the asm labels extension (see Section 5.37
[Asm Labels], page 242) in that the system programmer wants to change the
assembly-level ABI without changing the source-level API. The preprocessor
defines __PRAGMA_EXTERN_PREFIX if the pragma is available.
296 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
address so obtained may be used by any thread. When a thread terminates, any pointers
to thread-local variables in that thread become invalid.
No static initialization may refer to the address of a thread-local variable.
In C++, if an initializer is present for a thread-local variable, it must be a constant-
expression, as defined in 5.19.2 of the ANSI/ISO C++ standard.
See ELF Handling For Thread-Local Storage for a detailed explanation of the four thread-
local storage addressing models, and how the run-time is expected to function.
• [intro.execution]
New text after paragraph 4
A thread is a flow of control within the abstract machine. It is implemen-
tation defined whether or not there may be more than one thread.
New text after paragraph 7
It is unspecified whether additional action must be taken to ensure when
and whether side effects are visible to other threads.
• [lex.key]
Add __thread.
• [basic.start.main]
Add after paragraph 5
The thread that begins execution at the main function is called the main
thread. It is implementation defined how functions beginning threads other
than the main thread are designated or typed. A function so designated,
as well as the main function, is called a thread startup function. It is im-
plementation defined what happens if a thread startup function returns. It
is implementation defined what happens to other threads when any thread
calls exit.
• [basic.start.init]
Add after paragraph 4
The storage for an object of thread storage duration shall be statically
initialized before the first statement of the thread startup function. An
object of thread storage duration shall not require dynamic initialization.
• [basic.start.term]
Add after paragraph 3
The type of an object with thread storage duration shall not have a non-
trivial destructor, nor shall it be an array type whose elements (directly or
indirectly) have non-trivial destructors.
• [basic.stc]
Add “thread storage duration” to the list in paragraph 1.
Change paragraph 2
Thread, static, and automatic storage durations are associated with objects
introduced by declarations [. . . ].
Add __thread to the list of specifiers in paragraph 3.
• [basic.stc.thread]
New section before [basic.stc.static]
The keyword __thread applied to a non-local object gives the object thread
storage duration.
A local variable or class data member declared both static and __thread
gives the variable or member thread storage duration.
• [basic.stc.static]
Change paragraph 1
Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family 299
All objects which have neither thread storage duration, dynamic storage
duration nor are local [. . . ].
• [dcl.stc]
Add __thread to the list in paragraph 1.
Change paragraph 1
With the exception of __thread, at most one storage-class-specifier shall
appear in a given decl-specifier-seq. The __thread specifier may be used
alone, or immediately following the extern or static specifiers. [. . . ]
Add after paragraph 5
The __thread specifier can be applied only to the names of objects and to
anonymous unions.
• [class.mem]
Add after paragraph 6
Non-static members shall not be __thread.
300 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language 301
You may also specify whether a member function’s this pointer is unaliased by using
__restrict__ as a member function qualifier.
void T::fn () __restrict__
{
/* . . . */
}
Within the body of T::fn, this will have the effective definition T *__restrict__ const
this. Notice that the interpretation of a __restrict__ member function qualifier is differ-
ent to that of const or volatile qualifier, in that it is applied to the pointer rather than
the object. This is consistent with other compilers which implement restricted pointers.
As with all outermost parameter qualifiers, __restrict__ is ignored in function definition
matching. This means you only need to specify __restrict__ in a function definition,
rather than in a function prototype as well.
When used with GNU ld version 2.8 or later on an ELF system such as GNU/Linux or
Solaris 2, or on Microsoft Windows, duplicate copies of these constructs will be discarded
at link time. This is known as COMDAT support.
On targets that don’t support COMDAT, but do support weak symbols, GCC will use
them. This way one copy will override all the others, but the unused copies will still take
up space in the executable.
For targets which do not support either COMDAT or weak symbols, most entities with
vague linkage will be emitted as local symbols to avoid duplicate definition errors from the
linker. This will not happen for local statics in inlines, however, as having multiple copies
will almost certainly break things.
See Section 6.5 [Declarations and Definitions in One Header], page 304, for another way
to control placement of these constructs.
#pragma interface
#pragma interface "subdir /objects.h"
Use this directive in header files that define object classes, to save space in
most of the object files that use those classes. Normally, local copies of certain
information (backup copies of inline member functions, debugging information,
and the internal tables that implement virtual functions) must be kept in each
object file that includes class definitions. You can use this pragma to avoid such
duplication. When a header file containing ‘#pragma interface’ is included in
a compilation, this auxiliary information will not be generated (unless the main
input source file itself uses ‘#pragma implementation’). Instead, the object
files will contain references to be resolved at link time.
The second form of this directive is useful for the case where you have multiple
headers with the same name in different directories. If you use this form, you
must specify the same string to ‘#pragma implementation’.
Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language 305
#pragma implementation
#pragma implementation "objects.h"
Use this pragma in a main input file, when you want full output from included
header files to be generated (and made globally visible). The included header
file, in turn, should use ‘#pragma interface’. Backup copies of inline member
functions, debugging information, and the internal tables used to implement
virtual functions are all generated in implementation files.
If you use ‘#pragma implementation’ with no argument, it applies to an
include file with the same basename1 as your source file. For example, in
‘allclass.cc’, giving just ‘#pragma implementation’ by itself is equivalent
to ‘#pragma implementation "allclass.h"’.
In versions of GNU C++ prior to 2.6.0 ‘allclass.h’ was treated as an im-
plementation file whenever you would include it from ‘allclass.cc’ even if
you never specified ‘#pragma implementation’. This was deemed to be more
trouble than it was worth, however, and disabled.
Use the string argument if you want a single implementation file to include code
from multiple header files. (You must also use ‘#include’ to include the header
file; ‘#pragma implementation’ only specifies how to use the file—it doesn’t
actually include it.)
There is no way to split up the contents of a single header file into multiple
implementation files.
‘#pragma implementation’ and ‘#pragma interface’ also have an effect on function in-
lining.
If you define a class in a header file marked with ‘#pragma interface’, the effect on
an inline function defined in that class is similar to an explicit extern declaration—the
compiler emits no code at all to define an independent version of the function. Its definition
is used only for inlining with its callers.
Conversely, when you include the same header file in a main source file that declares it
as ‘#pragma implementation’, the compiler emits code for the function itself; this defines
a version of the function that can be found via pointers (or by callers compiled without
inlining). If all calls to the function can be inlined, you can avoid emitting the function
by compiling with ‘-fno-implement-inlines’. If any calls were not inlined, you will get
linker errors.
1
A file’s basename was the name stripped of all leading path information and of trailing suffixes, such as
‘.h’ or ‘.C’ or ‘.cc’.
306 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Borland model
Borland C++ solved the template instantiation problem by adding the code
equivalent of common blocks to their linker; the compiler emits template in-
stances in each translation unit that uses them, and the linker collapses them
together. The advantage of this model is that the linker only has to consider the
object files themselves; there is no external complexity to worry about. This
disadvantage is that compilation time is increased because the template code
is being compiled repeatedly. Code written for this model tends to include
definitions of all templates in the header file, since they must be seen to be
instantiated.
Cfront model
The AT&T C++ translator, Cfront, solved the template instantiation problem
by creating the notion of a template repository, an automatically maintained
place where template instances are stored. A more modern version of the repos-
itory works as follows: As individual object files are built, the compiler places
any template definitions and instantiations encountered in the repository. At
link time, the link wrapper adds in the objects in the repository and compiles
any needed instances that were not previously emitted. The advantages of this
model are more optimal compilation speed and the ability to use the system
linker; to implement the Borland model a compiler vendor also needs to replace
the linker. The disadvantages are vastly increased complexity, and thus poten-
tial for error; for some code this can be just as transparent, but in practice
it can been very difficult to build multiple programs in one directory and one
program in multiple directories. Code written for this model tends to separate
definitions of non-inline member templates into a separate file, which should be
compiled separately.
When used with GNU ld version 2.8 or later on an ELF system such as GNU/Linux or
Solaris 2, or on Microsoft Windows, G++ supports the Borland model. On other systems,
G++ implements neither automatic model.
A future version of G++ will support a hybrid model whereby the compiler will emit
any instantiations for which the template definition is included in the compile, and store
template definitions and instantiation context information into the object file for the rest.
The link wrapper will extract that information as necessary and invoke the compiler to
produce the remaining instantiations. The linker will then combine duplicate instantiations.
In the mean time, you have the following options for dealing with template instantiations:
1. Compile your template-using code with ‘-frepo’. The compiler will generate files with
the extension ‘.rpo’ listing all of the template instantiations used in the corresponding
object files which could be instantiated there; the link wrapper, ‘collect2’, will then
update the ‘.rpo’ files to tell the compiler where to place those instantiations and
rebuild any affected object files. The link-time overhead is negligible after the first
pass, as the compiler will continue to place the instantiations in the same files.
This is your best option for application code written for the Borland model, as it will
just work. Code written for the Cfront model will need to be modified so that the
template definitions are available at one or more points of instantiation; usually this is
as simple as adding #include <tmethods.cc> to the end of each template header.
Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language 307
For library code, if you want the library to provide all of the template instantiations
it needs, just try to link all of its object files together; the link will fail, but cause
the instantiations to be generated as a side effect. Be warned, however, that this may
cause conflicts if multiple libraries try to provide the same instantiations. For greater
control, use explicit instantiation as described in the next option.
2. Compile your code with ‘-fno-implicit-templates’ to disable the implicit generation
of template instances, and explicitly instantiate all the ones you use. This approach
requires more knowledge of exactly which instances you need than do the others, but it’s
less mysterious and allows greater control. You can scatter the explicit instantiations
throughout your program, perhaps putting them in the translation units where the
instances are used or the translation units that define the templates themselves; you
can put all of the explicit instantiations you need into one big file; or you can create
small files like
#include "Foo.h"
#include "Foo.cc"
an inner loop, you should really reconsider that decision. If that is not an option, you can
extract the pointer to the function that would be called for a given object/PMF pair and
call it directly inside the inner loop, to save a bit of time.
Note that you will still be paying the penalty for the call through a function pointer; on
most modern architectures, such a call defeats the branch prediction features of the CPU.
This is also true of normal virtual function calls.
The syntax for this extension is
extern A a;
extern int (A::*fp)();
typedef int (*fptr)(A *);
fptr p = (fptr)(a.*fp);
For PMF constants (i.e. expressions of the form ‘&Klasse::Member’), no object is needed
to obtain the address of the function. They can be converted to function pointers directly:
fptr p1 = (fptr)(&A::foo);
You must specify ‘-Wno-pmf-conversions’ to use this extension.
int main()
{
f (std::A<float>()); // lookup finds std::f
f (std::A<int>());
}
6.10 Offsetof
G++ uses a syntactic extension to implement the offsetof macro.
In particular:
__offsetof__ (expression)
is equivalent to the parenthesized expression, except that the expression is considered
an integral constant expression even if it contains certain operators that are not normally
permitted in an integral constant expression. Users should never use __offsetof__ directly;
the only valid use of __offsetof__ is to implement the offsetof macro in <stddef.h>.
You can inform the compiler that Java exceptions are to be used in a translation unit,
irrespective of what it might think, by writing ‘#pragma GCC java_exceptions’ at the head
of the file. This ‘#pragma’ must appear before any functions that throw or catch exceptions,
or run destructors when exceptions are thrown through them.
You cannot mix Java and C++ exceptions in the same translation unit. It is believed to
be safe to throw a C++ exception from one file through another file compiled for the Java
exception model, or vice versa, but there may be bugs in this area.
accepted. In order to allow compilation of C++ written to such drafts, G++ contains some
backwards compatibilities. All such backwards compatibility features are liable to disap-
pear in future versions of G++. They should be considered deprecated See Section 6.12
[Deprecated Features], page 310.
For scope If a variable is declared at for scope, it used to remain in scope until the end
of the scope which contained the for statement (rather than just within the for
scope). G++ retains this, but issues a warning, if such a variable is accessed
outside the for scope.
Implicit C language
Old C system header files did not contain an extern "C" {...} scope to set
the language. On such systems, all header files are implicitly scoped inside a C
language scope. Also, an empty prototype () will be treated as an unspecified
number of arguments, rather than no arguments, as C++ demands.
312 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 7: GNU Objective-C runtime features 313
@implementation FileStream
+ (void)initialize
{
Stdin = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:0];
Stdout = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:1];
Stderr = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:2];
}
In this example, the initialization of Stdin, Stdout and Stderr in +initialize occurs
too late. The programmer can send a message to one of these objects before the variables
are actually initialized, thus sending messages to the nil object. The +initialize method
which actually initializes the global variables is not invoked until the first message is sent
to the class object. The solution would require these variables to be initialized just before
entering main.
The correct solution of the above problem is to use the +load method instead of
+initialize:
@implementation FileStream
+ (void)load
{
Stdin = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:0];
Stdout = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:1];
314 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
The +load is a method that is not overridden by categories. If a class and a category of
it both implement +load, both methods are invoked. This allows some additional initial-
izations to be performed in a category.
This mechanism is not intended to be a replacement for +initialize. You should be
aware of its limitations when you decide to use it instead of +initialize.
In particular, the following things, even if they can work in a particular case, are not
guaranteed:
• allocation of or sending messages to arbitrary objects;
• allocation of or sending messages to objects whose classes have a category implemented
in the same file;
You should make no assumptions about receiving +load in sibling classes when you write
+load of a class. The order in which sibling classes receive +load is not guaranteed.
The order in which +load and +initialize are called could be problematic if this mat-
ters. If you don’t allocate objects inside +load, it is guaranteed that +load is called before
+initialize. If you create an object inside +load the +initialize method of object’s
class is invoked even if +load was not invoked. Note if you explicitly call +load on a class,
+initialize will be called first. To avoid possible problems try to implement only one of
these methods.
The +load method is also invoked when a bundle is dynamically loaded into your running
program. This happens automatically without any intervening operation from you. When
you write bundles and you need to write +load you can safely create and send messages to
objects whose classes already exist in the running program. The same restrictions as above
apply to classes defined in bundle.
Chapter 7: GNU Objective-C runtime features 315
In addition to the types the compiler also encodes the type specifiers. The table below
describes the encoding of the current Objective-C type specifiers:
Specifier Encoding
const r
in n
inout N
out o
bycopy O
oneway V
The type specifiers are encoded just before the type. Unlike types however, the type
specifiers are only encoded when they appear in method argument types.
- initWithPointer:(const void*)p;
- (const void*)weakPointer;
@end
@implementation WeakPointer
+ (void)initialize
{
class_ivar_set_gcinvisible (self, "weakPointer", YES);
}
- initWithPointer:(const void*)p
{
weakPointer = p;
return self;
}
- (const void*)weakPointer
{
return weakPointer;
}
@end
Weak pointers are supported through a new type character specifier represented by the
‘!’ character. The class_ivar_set_gcinvisible() function adds or removes this specifier
to the string type description of the instance variable named as argument.
@interface MyConstantStringClass
{
Class isa;
char *c_string;
unsigned int len;
318 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
}
@end
NXConstantString inherits from Object; user class libraries may choose to inherit the
customized constant string class from a different class than Object. There is no requirement
in the methods the constant string class has to implement, but the final ivar layout of the
class must be the compatible with the given structure.
When the compiler creates the statically allocated constant string object, the c_string
field will be filled by the compiler with the string; the length field will be filled by the
compiler with the string length; the isa pointer will be filled with NULL by the compiler,
and it will later be fixed up automatically at runtime by the GNU Objective-C runtime
library to point to the class which was set by the ‘-fconstant-string-class’ option when
the object file is loaded (if you wonder how it works behind the scenes, the name of the
class to use, and the list of static objects to fixup, are stored by the compiler in the object
file in a place where the GNU runtime library will find them at runtime).
As a result, when a file is compiled with the ‘-fconstant-string-class’ option, all the
constant string objects will be instances of the class specified as argument to this option. It
is possible to have multiple compilation units referring to different constant string classes,
neither the compiler nor the linker impose any restrictions in doing this.
8 Binary Compatibility
Binary compatibility encompasses several related concepts:
application binary interface (ABI)
The set of runtime conventions followed by all of the tools that deal with bi-
nary representations of a program, including compilers, assemblers, linkers, and
language runtime support. Some ABIs are formal with a written specification,
possibly designed by multiple interested parties. Others are simply the way
things are actually done by a particular set of tools.
ABI conformance
A compiler conforms to an ABI if it generates code that follows all of the
specifications enumerated by that ABI. A library conforms to an ABI if it is
implemented according to that ABI. An application conforms to an ABI if it
is built using tools that conform to that ABI and does not contain source code
that specifically changes behavior specified by the ABI.
calling conventions
Calling conventions are a subset of an ABI that specify of how arguments are
passed and function results are returned.
interoperability
Different sets of tools are interoperable if they generate files that can be used
in the same program. The set of tools includes compilers, assemblers, linkers,
libraries, header files, startup files, and debuggers. Binaries produced by dif-
ferent sets of tools are not interoperable unless they implement the same ABI.
This applies to different versions of the same tools as well as tools from different
vendors.
intercallability
Whether a function in a binary built by one set of tools can call a function in
a binary built by a different set of tools is a subset of interoperability.
implementation-defined features
Language standards include lists of implementation-defined features whose be-
havior can vary from one implementation to another. Some of these features
are normally covered by a platform’s ABI and others are not. The features
that are not covered by an ABI generally affect how a program behaves, but
not intercallability.
compatibility
Conformance to the same ABI and the same behavior of implementation-defined
features are both relevant for compatibility.
The application binary interface implemented by a C or C++ compiler affects code gen-
eration and runtime support for:
• size and alignment of data types
• layout of structured types
• calling conventions
320 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
The most straightforward way to link a program to use a particular C++ library is to
use a C++ driver that specifies that C++ library by default. The g++ driver, for example,
tells the linker where to find GCC’s C++ library (‘libstdc++’) plus the other libraries and
startup files it needs, in the proper order.
If a program must use a different C++ library and it’s not possible to do the final link
using a C++ driver that uses that library by default, it is necessary to tell g++ the location
and name of that library. It might also be necessary to specify different startup files and
other runtime support libraries, and to suppress the use of GCC’s support libraries with
one or more of the options ‘-nostdlib’, ‘-nostartfiles’, and ‘-nodefaultlibs’.
322 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 9: gcov—a Test Coverage Program 323
-h
--help Display help about using gcov (on the standard output), and exit without doing
any further processing.
-v
--version
Display the gcov version number (on the standard output), and exit without
doing any further processing.
-a
--all-blocks
Write individual execution counts for every basic block. Normally gcov outputs
execution counts only for the main blocks of a line. With this option you can
determine if blocks within a single line are not being executed.
-b
--branch-probabilities
Write branch frequencies to the output file, and write branch summary info to
the standard output. This option allows you to see how often each branch in
your program was taken. Unconditional branches will not be shown, unless the
‘-u’ option is given.
-c
--branch-counts
Write branch frequencies as the number of branches taken, rather than the
percentage of branches taken.
-n
--no-output
Do not create the gcov output file.
-l
--long-file-names
Create long file names for included source files. For example, if the header
file ‘x.h’ contains code, and was included in the file ‘a.c’, then running gcov
on the file ‘a.c’ will produce an output file called ‘a.c##x.h.gcov’ instead of
‘x.h.gcov’. This can be useful if ‘x.h’ is included in multiple source files. If
you uses the ‘-p’ option, both the including and included file names will be
complete path names.
-p
--preserve-paths
Preserve complete path information in the names of generated ‘.gcov’ files.
Without this option, just the filename component is used. With this option,
all directories are used, with ’/’ characters translated to ’#’ characters, ’.’
directory components removed and ’..’ components renamed to ’^’. This is
useful if sourcefiles are in several different directories. It also affects the ‘-l’
option.
-f
--function-summaries
Output summaries for each function in addition to the file level summary.
Chapter 9: gcov—a Test Coverage Program 325
-o directory|file
--object-directory directory
--object-file file
Specify either the directory containing the gcov data files, or the object path
name. The ‘.gcno’, and ‘.gcda’ data files are searched for using this option. If
a directory is specified, the data files are in that directory and named after the
source file name, without its extension. If a file is specified here, the data files
are named after that file, without its extension. If this option is not supplied,
it defaults to the current directory.
-u
--unconditional-branches
When branch counts are given, include those of unconditional branches. Un-
conditional branches are normally not interesting.
gcov should be run with the current directory the same as that when you invoked the
compiler. Otherwise it will not be able to locate the source files. gcov produces files called
‘mangledname.gcov’ in the current directory. These contain the coverage information of the
source file they correspond to. One ‘.gcov’ file is produced for each source file containing
code, which was compiled to produce the data files. The mangledname part of the output
file name is usually simply the source file name, but can be something more complicated if
the ‘-l’ or ‘-p’ options are given. Refer to those options for details.
The ‘.gcov’ files contain the ’:’ separated fields along with program source code. The
format is
execution_count :line_number :source line text
Additional block information may succeed each line, when requested by command line
option. The execution count is ‘-’ for lines containing no code and ‘#####’ for lines which
were never executed. Some lines of information at the start have line number of zero.
When printing percentages, 0% and 100% are only printed when the values are exactly
0% and 100% respectively. Other values which would conventionally be rounded to 0% or
100% are instead printed as the nearest non-boundary value.
When using gcov, you must first compile your program with two special GCC options:
‘-fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage’. This tells the compiler to generate additional infor-
mation needed by gcov (basically a flow graph of the program) and also includes additional
code in the object files for generating the extra profiling information needed by gcov. These
additional files are placed in the directory where the object file is located.
Running the program will cause profile output to be generated. For each source file
compiled with ‘-fprofile-arcs’, an accompanying ‘.gcda’ file will be placed in the object
file directory.
Running gcov with your program’s source file names as arguments will now produce a
listing of the code along with frequency of execution for each line. For example, if your
program is called ‘tmp.c’, this is what you see when you use the basic gcov facility:
$ gcc -fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage tmp.c
$ a.out
$ gcov tmp.c
90.00% of 10 source lines executed in file tmp.c
Creating tmp.c.gcov.
The file ‘tmp.c.gcov’ contains output from gcov. Here is a sample:
326 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
-: 0:Source:tmp.c
-: 0:Graph:tmp.gcno
-: 0:Data:tmp.gcda
-: 0:Runs:1
-: 0:Programs:1
-: 1:#include <stdio.h>
-: 2:
-: 3:int main (void)
function main called 1 returned 1 blocks executed 75%
1: 4:{
1: 5: int i, total;
-: 6:
1: 7: total = 0;
-: 8:
11: 9: for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
10: 10: total += i;
-: 11:
1: 12: if (total != 45)
#####: 13: printf ("Failure\n");
-: 14: else
1: 15: printf ("Success\n");
1: 16: return 0;
-: 17:}
When you use the ‘-a’ option, you will get individual block counts, and the output looks
like this:
-: 0:Source:tmp.c
-: 0:Graph:tmp.gcno
-: 0:Data:tmp.gcda
-: 0:Runs:1
-: 0:Programs:1
-: 1:#include <stdio.h>
-: 2:
-: 3:int main (void)
function main called 1 returned 1 blocks executed 75%
1: 4:{
1: 4-block 0
1: 5: int i, total;
-: 6:
1: 7: total = 0;
-: 8:
11: 9: for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
11: 9-block 0
10: 10: total += i;
10: 10-block 0
-: 11:
1: 12: if (total != 45)
1: 12-block 0
#####: 13: printf ("Failure\n");
$$$$$: 13-block 0
-: 14: else
1: 15: printf ("Success\n");
1: 15-block 0
1: 16: return 0;
1: 16-block 0
-: 17:}
In this mode, each basic block is only shown on one line – the last line of the block.
A multi-line block will only contribute to the execution count of that last line, and other
Chapter 9: gcov—a Test Coverage Program 327
lines will not be shown to contain code, unless previous blocks end on those lines. The
total execution count of a line is shown and subsequent lines show the execution counts for
individual blocks that end on that line. After each block, the branch and call counts of the
block will be shown, if the ‘-b’ option is given.
Because of the way GCC instruments calls, a call count can be shown after a line with
no individual blocks. As you can see, line 13 contains a basic block that was not executed.
When you use the ‘-b’ option, your output looks like this:
$ gcov -b tmp.c
90.00% of 10 source lines executed in file tmp.c
80.00% of 5 branches executed in file tmp.c
80.00% of 5 branches taken at least once in file tmp.c
50.00% of 2 calls executed in file tmp.c
Creating tmp.c.gcov.
Here is a sample of a resulting ‘tmp.c.gcov’ file:
-: 0:Source:tmp.c
-: 0:Graph:tmp.gcno
-: 0:Data:tmp.gcda
-: 0:Runs:1
-: 0:Programs:1
-: 1:#include <stdio.h>
-: 2:
-: 3:int main (void)
function main called 1 returned 1 blocks executed 75%
1: 4:{
1: 5: int i, total;
-: 6:
1: 7: total = 0;
-: 8:
11: 9: for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
branch 0 taken 91% (fallthrough)
branch 1 taken 9%
10: 10: total += i;
-: 11:
1: 12: if (total != 45)
branch 0 taken 0% (fallthrough)
branch 1 taken 100%
#####: 13: printf ("Failure\n");
call 0 never executed
-: 14: else
1: 15: printf ("Success\n");
call 0 called 1 returned 100%
1: 16: return 0;
-: 17:}
For each basic block, a line is printed after the last line of the basic block describing the
branch or call that ends the basic block. There can be multiple branches and calls listed for
a single source line if there are multiple basic blocks that end on that line. In this case, the
branches and calls are each given a number. There is no simple way to map these branches
and calls back to source constructs. In general, though, the lowest numbered branch or call
will correspond to the leftmost construct on the source line.
For a branch, if it was executed at least once, then a percentage indicating the number
of times the branch was taken divided by the number of times the branch was executed will
be printed. Otherwise, the message “never executed” is printed.
328 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
For a call, if it was executed at least once, then a percentage indicating the number of
times the call returned divided by the number of times the call was executed will be printed.
This will usually be 100%, but may be less for functions call exit or longjmp, and thus
may not return every time they are called.
The execution counts are cumulative. If the example program were executed again with-
out removing the ‘.gcda’ file, the count for the number of times each line in the source was
executed would be added to the results of the previous run(s). This is potentially useful in
several ways. For example, it could be used to accumulate data over a number of program
runs as part of a test verification suite, or to provide more accurate long-term information
over a large number of program runs.
The data in the ‘.gcda’ files is saved immediately before the program exits. For each
source file compiled with ‘-fprofile-arcs’, the profiling code first attempts to read in an
existing ‘.gcda’ file; if the file doesn’t match the executable (differing number of basic block
counts) it will ignore the contents of the file. It then adds in the new execution counts and
finally writes the data to the file.
one of those out of line bodies for all calls to that function, and remove or ignore the other.
Unfortunately, it will not remove the coverage counters for the unused function body. Hence
when instrumented, all but one use of that function will show zero counts.
If the function is inlined in several places, the block structure in each location might not
be the same. For instance, a condition might now be calculable at compile time in some
instances. Because the coverage of all the uses of the inline function will be shown for the
same source lines, the line counts themselves might seem inconsistent.
10.3 Interoperation
This section lists various difficulties encountered in using GCC together with other compilers
or with the assemblers, linkers, libraries and debuggers on certain systems.
332 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
• On many platforms, GCC supports a different ABI for C++ than do other compilers, so
the object files compiled by GCC cannot be used with object files generated by another
C++ compiler.
An area where the difference is most apparent is name mangling. The use of different
name mangling is intentional, to protect you from more subtle problems. Compilers
differ as to many internal details of C++ implementation, including: how class instances
are laid out, how multiple inheritance is implemented, and how virtual function calls
are handled. If the name encoding were made the same, your programs would link
against libraries provided from other compilers—but the programs would then crash
when run. Incompatible libraries are then detected at link time, rather than at run
time.
• Older GDB versions sometimes fail to read the output of GCC version 2. If you have
trouble, get GDB version 4.4 or later.
• DBX rejects some files produced by GCC, though it accepts similar constructs in output
from PCC. Until someone can supply a coherent description of what is valid DBX input
and what is not, there is nothing that can be done about these problems.
• The GNU assembler (GAS) does not support PIC. To generate PIC code, you must
use some other assembler, such as ‘/bin/as’.
• On some BSD systems, including some versions of Ultrix, use of profiling causes static
variable destructors (currently used only in C++) not to be run.
• On some SGI systems, when you use ‘-lgl_s’ as an option, it gets translated magically
to ‘-lgl_s -lX11_s -lc_s’. Naturally, this does not happen when you use GCC. You
must specify all three options explicitly.
• On a SPARC, GCC aligns all values of type double on an 8-byte boundary, and it
expects every double to be so aligned. The Sun compiler usually gives double values
8-byte alignment, with one exception: function arguments of type double may not be
aligned.
As a result, if a function compiled with Sun CC takes the address of an argument
of type double and passes this pointer of type double * to a function compiled with
GCC, dereferencing the pointer may cause a fatal signal.
One way to solve this problem is to compile your entire program with GCC. Another
solution is to modify the function that is compiled with Sun CC to copy the argument
into a local variable; local variables are always properly aligned. A third solution is to
modify the function that uses the pointer to dereference it via the following function
access_double instead of directly with ‘*’:
inline double
access_double (double *unaligned_ptr)
{
union d2i { double d; int i[2]; };
u.i[0] = p->i[0];
u.i[1] = p->i[1];
return u.d;
Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC 333
}
Storing into the pointer can be done likewise with the same union.
• On Solaris, the malloc function in the ‘libmalloc.a’ library may allocate memory
that is only 4 byte aligned. Since GCC on the SPARC assumes that doubles are 8 byte
aligned, this may result in a fatal signal if doubles are stored in memory allocated by
the ‘libmalloc.a’ library.
The solution is to not use the ‘libmalloc.a’ library. Use instead malloc and related
functions from ‘libc.a’; they do not have this problem.
• Sun forgot to include a static version of ‘libdl.a’ with some versions of SunOS (mainly
4.1). This results in undefined symbols when linking static binaries (that is, if you use
‘-static’). If you see undefined symbols _dlclose, _dlsym or _dlopen when linking,
compile and link against the file ‘mit/util/misc/dlsym.c’ from the MIT version of X
windows.
• The 128-bit long double format that the SPARC port supports currently works by
using the architecturally defined quad-word floating point instructions. Since there is
no hardware that supports these instructions they must be emulated by the operating
system. Long doubles do not work in Sun OS versions 4.0.3 and earlier, because the
kernel emulator uses an obsolete and incompatible format. Long doubles do not work
in Sun OS version 4.1.1 due to a problem in a Sun library. Long doubles do work on
Sun OS versions 4.1.2 and higher, but GCC does not enable them by default. Long
doubles appear to work in Sun OS 5.x (Solaris 2.x).
• On HP-UX version 9.01 on the HP PA, the HP compiler cc does not compile GCC
correctly. We do not yet know why. However, GCC compiled on earlier HP-UX versions
works properly on HP-UX 9.01 and can compile itself properly on 9.01.
• On the HP PA machine, ADB sometimes fails to work on functions compiled with
GCC. Specifically, it fails to work on functions that use alloca or variable-size arrays.
This is because GCC doesn’t generate HP-UX unwind descriptors for such functions.
It may even be impossible to generate them.
• Debugging (‘-g’) is not supported on the HP PA machine, unless you use the prelimi-
nary GNU tools.
• Taking the address of a label may generate errors from the HP-UX PA assembler. GAS
for the PA does not have this problem.
• Using floating point parameters for indirect calls to static functions will not work when
using the HP assembler. There simply is no way for GCC to specify what registers hold
arguments for static functions when using the HP assembler. GAS for the PA does not
have this problem.
• In extremely rare cases involving some very large functions you may receive errors from
the HP linker complaining about an out of bounds unconditional branch offset. This
used to occur more often in previous versions of GCC, but is now exceptionally rare.
If you should run into it, you can work around by making your function smaller.
• GCC compiled code sometimes emits warnings from the HP-UX assembler of the form:
(warning) Use of GR3 when
frame >= 8192 may cause conflict.
These warnings are harmless and can be safely ignored.
334 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
will cause the linker to report an undefined symbol foo. Although this behavior differs
from most other systems, it is not a bug because redefining an extern variable as
static is undefined in ISO C.
• In extremely rare cases involving some very large functions you may receive errors from
the AIX Assembler complaining about a displacement that is too large. If you should
run into it, you can work around by making your function smaller.
• The ‘libstdc++.a’ library in GCC relies on the SVR4 dynamic linker semantics which
merges global symbols between libraries and applications, especially necessary for C++
streams functionality. This is not the default behavior of AIX shared libraries and
dynamic linking. ‘libstdc++.a’ is built on AIX with “runtime-linking” enabled so
that symbol merging can occur. To utilize this feature, the application linked with
‘libstdc++.a’ must include the ‘-Wl,-brtl’ flag on the link line. G++ cannot impose
this because this option may interfere with the semantics of the user program and users
may not always use ‘g++’ to link his or her application. Applications are not required to
use the ‘-Wl,-brtl’ flag on the link line—the rest of the ‘libstdc++.a’ library which
is not dependent on the symbol merging semantics will continue to function correctly.
• An application can interpose its own definition of functions for functions invoked by
‘libstdc++.a’ with “runtime-linking” enabled on AIX. To accomplish this the appli-
cation must be linked with “runtime-linking” option and the functions explicitly must
be exported by the application (‘-Wl,-brtl,-bE:exportfile’).
• AIX on the RS/6000 provides support (NLS) for environments outside of the United
States. Compilers and assemblers use NLS to support locale-specific representations
of various objects including floating-point numbers (‘.’ vs ‘,’ for separating decimal
fractions). There have been problems reported where the library linked with GCC does
not produce the same floating-point formats that the assembler accepts. If you have
this problem, set the LANG environment variable to ‘C’ or ‘En_US’.
• Even if you specify ‘-fdollars-in-identifiers’, you cannot successfully use ‘$’ in
identifiers on the RS/6000 due to a restriction in the IBM assembler. GAS supports
these identifiers.
• On Ultrix, the Fortran compiler expects registers 2 through 5 to be saved by function
calls. However, the C compiler uses conventions compatible with BSD Unix: registers
2 through 5 may be clobbered by function calls.
GCC uses the same convention as the Ultrix C compiler. You can use these options to
produce code compatible with the Fortran compiler:
-fcall-saved-r2 -fcall-saved-r3 -fcall-saved-r4 -fcall-saved-r5
• On the Alpha, you may get assembler errors about invalid syntax as a result of floating
point constants. This is due to a bug in the C library functions ecvt, fcvt and gcvt.
Given valid floating point numbers, they sometimes print ‘NaN’.
Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC 335
• When you use setjmp and longjmp, the only automatic variables guaranteed to re-
main valid are those declared volatile. This is a consequence of automatic register
allocation. Consider this function:
jmp_buf j;
foo ()
{
int a, b;
a = fun1 ();
if (setjmp (j))
return a;
a = fun2 ();
/* longjmp (j) may occur in fun3. */
return a + fun3 ();
}
Here a may or may not be restored to its first value when the longjmp occurs. If a is
allocated in a register, then its first value is restored; otherwise, it keeps the last value
stored in it.
If you use the ‘-W’ option with the ‘-O’ option, you will get a warning when GCC thinks
such a problem might be possible.
• Programs that use preprocessing directives in the middle of macro arguments do not
work with GCC. For example, a program like this will not work:
foobar (
#define luser
hack)
ISO C does not permit such a construct.
• K&R compilers allow comments to cross over an inclusion boundary (i.e. started in an
include file and ended in the including file).
• Declarations of external variables and functions within a block apply only to the block
containing the declaration. In other words, they have the same scope as any other
declaration in the same place.
In some other C compilers, a extern declaration affects all the rest of the file even if
it happens within a block.
• In traditional C, you can combine long, etc., with a typedef name, as shown here:
typedef int foo;
typedef long foo bar;
In ISO C, this is not allowed: long and other type modifiers require an explicit int.
• PCC allows typedef names to be used as function parameters.
• Traditional C allows the following erroneous pair of declarations to appear together in
a given scope:
typedef int foo;
typedef foo foo;
• GCC treats all characters of identifiers as significant. According to K&R-1 (2.2), “No
more than the first eight characters are significant, although more may be used.”. Also
according to K&R-1 (2.2), “An identifier is a sequence of letters and digits; the first
Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC 337
character must be a letter. The underscore counts as a letter.”, but GCC also allows
dollar signs in identifiers.
• PCC allows whitespace in the middle of compound assignment operators such as ‘+=’.
GCC, following the ISO standard, does not allow this.
• GCC complains about unterminated character constants inside of preprocessing con-
ditionals that fail. Some programs have English comments enclosed in conditionals
that are guaranteed to fail; if these comments contain apostrophes, GCC will probably
report an error. For example, this code would produce an error:
#if 0
You can’t expect this to work.
#endif
The best solution to such a problem is to put the text into an actual C comment
delimited by ‘/*...*/’.
• Many user programs contain the declaration ‘long time ();’. In the past, the system
header files on many systems did not actually declare time, so it did not matter what
type your program declared it to return. But in systems with ISO C headers, time is
declared to return time_t, and if that is not the same as long, then ‘long time ();’
is erroneous.
The solution is to change your program to use appropriate system headers (<time.h>
on systems with ISO C headers) and not to declare time if the system header files
declare it, or failing that to use time_t as the return type of time.
• When compiling functions that return float, PCC converts it to a double. GCC
actually returns a float. If you are concerned with PCC compatibility, you should
declare your functions to return double; you might as well say what you mean.
• When compiling functions that return structures or unions, GCC output code normally
uses a method different from that used on most versions of Unix. As a result, code
compiled with GCC cannot call a structure-returning function compiled with PCC,
and vice versa.
The method used by GCC is as follows: a structure or union which is 1, 2, 4 or 8
bytes long is returned like a scalar. A structure or union with any other size is stored
into an address supplied by the caller (usually in a special, fixed register, but on some
machines it is passed on the stack). The target hook TARGET_STRUCT_VALUE_RTX tells
GCC where to pass this address.
By contrast, PCC on most target machines returns structures and unions of any size
by copying the data into an area of static storage, and then returning the address of
that storage as if it were a pointer value. The caller must copy the data from that
memory area to the place where the value is wanted. GCC does not use this method
because it is slower and nonreentrant.
On some newer machines, PCC uses a reentrant convention for all structure and union
returning. GCC on most of these machines uses a compatible convention when return-
ing structures and unions in memory, but still returns small structures and unions in
registers.
You can tell GCC to use a compatible convention for all structure and union returning
with the option ‘-fpcc-struct-return’.
338 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
• Accesses to bit-fields even in volatile objects works by accessing larger objects, such as
a byte or a word. You cannot rely on what size of object is accessed in order to read or
write the bit-field; it may even vary for a given bit-field according to the precise usage.
If you care about controlling the amount of memory that is accessed, use volatile but
do not use bit-fields.
• GCC comes with shell scripts to fix certain known problems in system header files.
They install corrected copies of various header files in a special directory where only
GCC will normally look for them. The scripts adapt to various systems by searching
all the system header files for the problem cases that we know about.
If new system header files are installed, nothing automatically arranges to update the
corrected header files. You will have to reinstall GCC to fix the new header files.
More specifically, go to the build directory and delete the files ‘stmp-fixinc’ and
‘stmp-headers’, and the subdirectory include; then do ‘make install’ again.
• On 68000 and x86 systems, for instance, you can get paradoxical results if you test
the precise values of floating point numbers. For example, you can find that a floating
point value which is not a NaN is not equal to itself. This results from the fact that
the floating point registers hold a few more bits of precision than fit in a double in
memory. Compiled code moves values between memory and floating point registers at
its convenience, and moving them into memory truncates them.
You can partially avoid this problem by using the ‘-ffloat-store’ option (see Sec-
tion 3.10 [Optimize Options], page 56).
• On AIX and other platforms without weak symbol support, templates need to be in-
stantiated explicitly and symbols for static members of templates will not be generated.
• On AIX, GCC scans object files and library archives for static constructors and de-
structors when linking an application before the linker prunes unreferenced symbols.
This is necessary to prevent the AIX linker from mistakenly assuming that static con-
structor or destructor are unused and removing them before the scanning can occur.
All static constructors and destructors found will be referenced even though the mod-
ules in which they occur may not be used by the program. This may lead to both
increased executable size and unexpected symbol references.
This declaration only establishes that the class Foo has an int named Foo::bar, and a
member function named Foo::method. But you still need to define both method and bar
elsewhere. According to the ISO standard, you must supply an initializer in one (and only
one) source file, such as:
int Foo::bar = 0;
Other C++ compilers may not correctly implement the standard behavior. As a result,
when you switch to g++ from one of these compilers, you may discover that a program
that appeared to work correctly in fact does not conform to the standard: g++ reports as
undefined symbols any static data members that lack definitions.
10.9.2 Name lookup, templates, and accessing members of base
classes
The C++ standard prescribes that all names that are not dependent on template parameters
are bound to their present definitions when parsing a template function or class.1 Only
names that are dependent are looked up at the point of instantiation. For example, consider
void foo(double);
struct A {
template <typename T>
void f () {
foo (1); // 1
int i = N; // 2
T t;
t.bar(); // 3
foo (t); // 4
}
1
The C++ standard just uses the term “dependent” for names that depend on the type or value of template
parameters. This shorter term will also be used in the rest of this section.
342 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
any class that returns a pointer to some internal structure is potentially subject to this
problem.
For example, a program may use a function strfunc that returns string objects, and
another function charfunc that operates on pointers to char:
string strfunc ();
void charfunc (const char *);
void
f ()
{
const char *p = strfunc().c_str();
...
charfunc (p);
...
charfunc (p);
}
In this situation, it may seem reasonable to save a pointer to the C string returned by
the c_str member function and use that rather than call c_str repeatedly. However, the
temporary string created by the call to strfunc is destroyed after p is initialized, at which
point p is left pointing to freed memory.
Code like this may run successfully under some other compilers, particularly obsolete
cfront-based compilers that delete temporaries along with normal local variables. How-
ever, the GNU C++ behavior is standard-conforming, so if your program depends on late
destruction of temporaries it is not portable.
The safe way to write such code is to give the temporary a name, which forces it to
remain until the end of the scope of the name. For example:
const string& tmp = strfunc ();
charfunc (tmp.c_str ());
• protoize cannot get the argument types for a function whose definition was not actu-
ally compiled due to preprocessing conditionals. When this happens, protoize changes
nothing in regard to such a function. protoize tries to detect such instances and warn
about them.
You can generally work around this problem by using protoize step by step, each
time specifying a different set of ‘-D’ options for compilation, until all of the functions
have been converted. There is no automatic way to verify that you have got them all,
however.
• Confusion may result if there is an occasion to convert a function declaration or def-
inition in a region of source code where there is more than one formal parameter list
present. Thus, attempts to convert code containing multiple (conditionally compiled)
versions of a single function header (in the same vicinity) may not produce the desired
(or expected) results.
If you plan on converting source files which contain such code, it is recommended
that you first make sure that each conditionally compiled region of source code which
contains an alternative function header also contains at least one additional follower
token (past the final right parenthesis of the function header). This should circumvent
the problem.
• unprotoize can become confused when trying to convert a function definition or dec-
laration which contains a declaration for a pointer-to-function formal argument which
has the same name as the function being defined or declared. We recommend you avoid
such choices of formal parameter names.
• You might also want to correct some of the indentation by hand and break long lines.
(The conversion programs don’t write lines longer than eighty characters in any case.)
defensive programmer to clutter programs with dozens of casts to void. Such casts
are required so frequently that they become visual noise. Writing those casts becomes
so automatic that they no longer convey useful information about the intentions of
the programmer. For functions where the return value should never be ignored, use
the warn_unused_result function attribute (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes],
page 195).
• Making ‘-fshort-enums’ the default.
This would cause storage layout to be incompatible with most other C compilers. And
it doesn’t seem very important, given that you can get the same result in other ways.
The case where it matters most is when the enumeration-valued object is inside a
structure, and in that case you can specify a field width explicitly.
• Making bit-fields unsigned by default on particular machines where “the ABI standard”
says to do so.
The ISO C standard leaves it up to the implementation whether a bit-field declared
plain int is signed or not. This in effect creates two alternative dialects of C.
The GNU C compiler supports both dialects; you can specify the signed dialect with
‘-fsigned-bitfields’ and the unsigned dialect with ‘-funsigned-bitfields’. How-
ever, this leaves open the question of which dialect to use by default.
Currently, the preferred dialect makes plain bit-fields signed, because this is simplest.
Since int is the same as signed int in every other context, it is cleanest for them to
be the same in bit-fields as well.
Some computer manufacturers have published Application Binary Interface standards
which specify that plain bit-fields should be unsigned. It is a mistake, however, to say
anything about this issue in an ABI. This is because the handling of plain bit-fields
distinguishes two dialects of C. Both dialects are meaningful on every type of machine.
Whether a particular object file was compiled using signed bit-fields or unsigned is of
no concern to other object files, even if they access the same bit-fields in the same data
structures.
A given program is written in one or the other of these two dialects. The program
stands a chance to work on most any machine if it is compiled with the proper dialect.
It is unlikely to work at all if compiled with the wrong dialect.
Many users appreciate the GNU C compiler because it provides an environment that is
uniform across machines. These users would be inconvenienced if the compiler treated
plain bit-fields differently on certain machines.
Occasionally users write programs intended only for a particular machine type. On
these occasions, the users would benefit if the GNU C compiler were to support by
default the same dialect as the other compilers on that machine. But such applications
are rare. And users writing a program to run on more than one type of machine cannot
possibly benefit from this kind of compatibility.
This is why GCC does and will treat plain bit-fields in the same fashion on all types
of machines (by default).
There are some arguments for making bit-fields unsigned by default on all machines.
If, for example, this becomes a universal de facto standard, it would make sense for
GCC to go along with it. This is something to be considered in the future.
Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC 347
(Of course, users strongly concerned about portability should indicate explicitly in each
bit-field whether it is signed or not. In this way, they write programs which have the
same meaning in both C dialects.)
• Undefining __STDC__ when ‘-ansi’ is not used.
Currently, GCC defines __STDC__ unconditionally. This provides good results in prac-
tice.
Programmers normally use conditionals on __STDC__ to ask whether it is safe to use
certain features of ISO C, such as function prototypes or ISO token concatenation.
Since plain gcc supports all the features of ISO C, the correct answer to these questions
is “yes”.
Some users try to use __STDC__ to check for the availability of certain library facilities.
This is actually incorrect usage in an ISO C program, because the ISO C standard says
that a conforming freestanding implementation should define __STDC__ even though it
does not have the library facilities. ‘gcc -ansi -pedantic’ is a conforming freestanding
implementation, and it is therefore required to define __STDC__, even though it does
not come with an ISO C library.
Sometimes people say that defining __STDC__ in a compiler that does not completely
conform to the ISO C standard somehow violates the standard. This is illogical. The
standard is a standard for compilers that claim to support ISO C, such as ‘gcc -ansi’—
not for other compilers such as plain gcc. Whatever the ISO C standard says is
relevant to the design of plain gcc without ‘-ansi’ only for pragmatic reasons, not as
a requirement.
GCC normally defines __STDC__ to be 1, and in addition defines __STRICT_ANSI__ if
you specify the ‘-ansi’ option, or a ‘-std’ option for strict conformance to some version
of ISO C. On some hosts, system include files use a different convention, where __STDC_
_ is normally 0, but is 1 if the user specifies strict conformance to the C Standard. GCC
follows the host convention when processing system include files, but when processing
user files it follows the usual GNU C convention.
• Undefining __STDC__ in C++.
Programs written to compile with C++-to-C translators get the value of __STDC__ that
goes with the C compiler that is subsequently used. These programs must test __STDC_
_ to determine what kind of C preprocessor that compiler uses: whether they should
concatenate tokens in the ISO C fashion or in the traditional fashion.
These programs work properly with GNU C++ if __STDC__ is defined. They would not
work otherwise.
In addition, many header files are written to provide prototypes in ISO C but not in
traditional C. Many of these header files can work without change in C++ provided
__STDC__ is defined. If __STDC__ is not defined, they will all fail, and will all need to
be changed to test explicitly for C++ as well.
• Deleting “empty” loops.
Historically, GCC has not deleted “empty” loops under the assumption that the most
likely reason you would put one in a program is to have a delay, so deleting them will
not make real programs run any faster.
However, the rationale here is that optimization of a nonempty loop cannot produce
an empty one, which holds for C but is not always the case for C++.
348 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Moreover, with ‘-funroll-loops’ small “empty” loops are already removed, so the
current behavior is both sub-optimal and inconsistent and will change in the future.
• Making side effects happen in the same order as in some other compiler.
It is never safe to depend on the order of evaluation of side effects. For example, a
function call like this may very well behave differently from one compiler to another:
void func (int, int);
int i = 2;
func (i++, i++);
There is no guarantee (in either the C or the C++ standard language definitions) that the
increments will be evaluated in any particular order. Either increment might happen
first. func might get the arguments ‘2, 3’, or it might get ‘3, 2’, or even ‘2, 2’.
• Not allowing structures with volatile fields in registers.
Strictly speaking, there is no prohibition in the ISO C standard against allowing struc-
tures with volatile fields in registers, but it does not seem to make any sense and is
probably not what you wanted to do. So the compiler will give an error message in
this case.
• Making certain warnings into errors by default.
Some ISO C testsuites report failure when the compiler does not produce an error
message for a certain program.
ISO C requires a “diagnostic” message for certain kinds of invalid programs, but a
warning is defined by GCC to count as a diagnostic. If GCC produces a warning but
not an error, that is correct ISO C support. If testsuites call this “failure”, they should
be run with the GCC option ‘-pedantic-errors’, which will turn these warnings into
errors.
option tells GCC to issue warnings in such cases; ‘-pedantic-errors’ says to make them
errors instead. This does not mean that all non-ISO constructs get warnings or errors.
See Section 3.8 [Options to Request or Suppress Warnings], page 35, for more detail on
these and related command-line options.
350 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 11: Reporting Bugs 351
11 Reporting Bugs
Your bug reports play an essential role in making GCC reliable.
When you encounter a problem, the first thing to do is to see if it is already known. See
Chapter 10 [Trouble], page 331. If it isn’t known, then you should report the problem.
Preamble
The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and change
it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom
to share and change free software—to make sure the software is free for all its users. This
General Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation’s software and to
any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation
software is covered by the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it
to your programs, too.
When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General
Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies
of free software (and charge for this service if you wish), that you receive source code or
can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free
programs; and that you know you can do these things.
To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you
these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to certain
responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.
For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you
must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they, too,
receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know
their rights.
We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer you this
license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the software.
Also, for each author’s protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone
understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modified by
someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not the
original, so that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors’
reputations.
Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish to avoid
the danger that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain patent licenses, in
effect making the program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any
patent must be licensed for everyone’s free use or not licensed at all.
The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow.
362 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your rights to
work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the right to control the
distribution of derivative or collective works based on the Program.
In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program with the
Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a storage or distribution
medium does not bring the other work under the scope of this License.
3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under Section 2)
in object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above provided
that you also do one of the following:
a. Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source code,
which must be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium
customarily used for software interchange; or,
b. Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to give any third
party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically performing source distri-
bution, a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily
used for software interchange; or,
c. Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to distribute cor-
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with such an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)
The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modifi-
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If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access to copy from
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4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or
distribute the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full
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5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However,
nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the Program or its derivative
works. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore,
by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you
indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for
copying, distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it.
364 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the
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or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose
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If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under any particular
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It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents or other
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impose that choice.
This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a consequence
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8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain countries either
by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright holder who places the
Program under this License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation
excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries
not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written
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9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General
Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies a
version number of this License which applies to it and “any later version”, you have
the option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a
version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free
Software Foundation.
10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose distri-
bution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for permission. For software
Chapter 13: GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE 365
which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foun-
dation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two
goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting
the sharing and reuse of software generally.
NO WARRANTY
11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO
WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLI-
CABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPY-
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OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
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WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO
MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED
ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL,
SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF
THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR
LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE
PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH
HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
SUCH DAMAGES.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation,
Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.
Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an
interactive mode:
Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) year name of author
Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details
type ‘show w’.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type ‘show c’ for details.
The hypothetical commands ‘show w’ and ‘show c’ should show the appropriate parts of
the General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something
other than ‘show w’ and ‘show c’; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items—whatever
suits your program.
You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if any,
to sign a “copyright disclaimer” for the program, if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the
names:
Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
‘Gnomovision’ (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.
under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is
not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant
Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under
this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may
be at most 25 words.
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented
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Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to
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not “Transparent” is called “Opaque”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ascii without
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available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed
for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF
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only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML,
PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following
pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the
title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, “Title Page”
means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the
beginning of the body of the text.
A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document whose title either
is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in
another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such
as “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, “Endorsements”, or “History”.) To “Preserve
the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section “Entitled XYZ” according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that
this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to
be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties:
any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no
effect on the meaning of this License.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or
noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license
notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and
Chapter 13: GNU Free Documentation License 369
that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies
you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies.
If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions
in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly
display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of
the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license notice requires
Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all
these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher
of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title
equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the
Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put
the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the
rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque
copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which
the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If
you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin
distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will
remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time
you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well
before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you
with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions
of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing
distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of
it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any,
be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as
a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
370 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for
authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five
of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer
than five), unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other
copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form
shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item
stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version
as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the Docu-
ment, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document
as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as
stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to
a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in
the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the
“History” section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published
at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the
version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve the Title
of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the
contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and
in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the
section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included
in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements” or to conflict in
title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify
as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at
your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their
titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These
titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
Chapter 13: GNU Free Documentation License 371
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains nothing but
endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of
peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative
definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up
to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified
Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be
added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement
made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but
you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that
added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission
to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License,
under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you
include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents,
unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical
Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section
unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or
publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment
to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined
work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the vari-
ous original documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise combine any
sections Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled “Dedications”. You
must delete all sections Entitled “Endorsements.”
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released
under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various
documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you
follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all
other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individu-
ally under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted
document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of
that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent
documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called
372 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
an “aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the
legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When
the Document is included an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works
in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document,
then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover
Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they
must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations
of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with
translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may
include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions
of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the
license notices in the Document, and any Warrany Disclaimers, provided that you
also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of
those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and
the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, or “His-
tory”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require
changing the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly
provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or
distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under
this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full
compliance.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free
Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit
to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document
specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any later version”
applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that
specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by
the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of
this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
Software Foundation.
Chapter 13: GNU Free Documentation License 373
Contributors to GCC
The GCC project would like to thank its many contributors. Without them the project
would not have been nearly as successful as it has been. Any omissions in this list are
accidental. Feel free to contact [email protected] or [email protected] if you have been
left out or some of your contributions are not listed. Please keep this list in alphabetical
order.
• Analog Devices helped implement the support for complex data types and iterators.
• John David Anglin for threading-related fixes and improvements to libstdc++-v3, and
the HP-UX port.
• James van Artsdalen wrote the code that makes efficient use of the Intel 80387 register
stack.
• Abramo and Roberto Bagnara for the SysV68 Motorola 3300 Delta Series port.
• Alasdair Baird for various bug fixes.
• Giovanni Bajo for analyzing lots of complicated C++ problem reports.
• Peter Barada for his work to improve code generation for new ColdFire cores.
• Gerald Baumgartner added the signature extension to the C++ front end.
• Godmar Back for his Java improvements and encouragement.
• Scott Bambrough for help porting the Java compiler.
• Wolfgang Bangerth for processing tons of bug reports.
• Jon Beniston for his Microsoft Windows port of Java.
• Daniel Berlin for better DWARF2 support, faster/better optimizations, improved alias
analysis, plus migrating GCC to Bugzilla.
• Geoff Berry for his Java object serialization work and various patches.
• Eric Blake for helping to make GCJ and libgcj conform to the specifications.
• Segher Boessenkool for various fixes.
• Hans-J. Boehm for his garbage collector, IA-64 libffi port, and other Java work.
• Neil Booth for work on cpplib, lang hooks, debug hooks and other miscellaneous clean-
ups.
• Eric Botcazou for fixing middle- and backend bugs left and right.
• Per Bothner for his direction via the steering committee and various improvements
to the infrastructure for supporting new languages. Chill front end implementation.
Initial implementations of cpplib, fix-header, config.guess, libio, and past C++ library
(libg++) maintainer. Dreaming up, designing and implementing much of GCJ.
• Devon Bowen helped port GCC to the Tahoe.
• Don Bowman for mips-vxworks contributions.
• Dave Brolley for work on cpplib and Chill.
• Robert Brown implemented the support for Encore 32000 systems.
• Christian Bruel for improvements to local store elimination.
• Herman A.J. ten Brugge for various fixes.
• Joerg Brunsmann for Java compiler hacking and help with the GCJ FAQ.
376 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
• Chris Hanson assisted in making GCC work on HP-UX for the 9000 series 300.
• Michael Hayes for various thankless work he’s done trying to get the c30/c40 ports
functional. Lots of loop and unroll improvements and fixes.
• Dara Hazeghi for wading through myriads of target-specific bug reports.
• Kate Hedstrom for staking the G77 folks with an initial testsuite.
• Richard Henderson for his ongoing SPARC, alpha, ia32, and ia64 work, loop opts, and
generally fixing lots of old problems we’ve ignored for years, flow rewrite and lots of
further stuff, including reviewing tons of patches.
• Aldy Hernandez for working on the PowerPC port, SIMD support, and various fixes.
• Nobuyuki Hikichi of Software Research Associates, Tokyo, contributed the support for
the Sony NEWS machine.
• Kazu Hirata for caring and feeding the Renesas H8/300 port and various fixes.
• Manfred Hollstein for his ongoing work to keep the m88k alive, lots of testing and bug
fixing, particularly of GCC configury code.
• Steve Holmgren for MachTen patches.
• Jan Hubicka for his x86 port improvements.
• Falk Hueffner for working on C and optimization bug reports.
• Bernardo Innocenti for his m68k work, including merging of ColdFire improvements
and uClinux support.
• Christian Iseli for various bug fixes.
• Kamil Iskra for general m68k hacking.
• Lee Iverson for random fixes and MIPS testing.
• Andreas Jaeger for testing and benchmarking of GCC and various bug fixes.
• Jakub Jelinek for his SPARC work and sibling call optimizations as well as lots of bug
fixes and test cases, and for improving the Java build system.
• Janis Johnson for ia64 testing and fixes, her quality improvement sidetracks, and web
page maintenance.
• Kean Johnston for SCO OpenServer support and various fixes.
• Tim Josling for the sample language treelang based originally on Richard Kenner’s
"“toy” language".
• Nicolai Josuttis for additional libstdc++ documentation.
• Klaus Kaempf for his ongoing work to make alpha-vms a viable target.
• David Kashtan of SRI adapted GCC to VMS.
• Ryszard Kabatek for many, many libstdc++ bug fixes and optimizations of strings,
especially member functions, and for auto ptr fixes.
• Geoffrey Keating for his ongoing work to make the PPC work for GNU/Linux and his
automatic regression tester.
• Brendan Kehoe for his ongoing work with G++ and for a lot of early work in just about
every part of libstdc++.
• Oliver M. Kellogg of Deutsche Aerospace contributed the port to the MIL-STD-1750A.
Chapter 13: Contributors to GCC 379
• Richard Kenner of the New York University Ultracomputer Research Laboratory wrote
the machine descriptions for the AMD 29000, the DEC Alpha, the IBM RT PC, and
the IBM RS/6000 as well as the support for instruction attributes. He also made
changes to better support RISC processors including changes to common subexpression
elimination, strength reduction, function calling sequence handling, and condition code
support, in addition to generalizing the code for frame pointer elimination and delay
slot scheduling. Richard Kenner was also the head maintainer of GCC for several years.
• Mumit Khan for various contributions to the Cygwin and Mingw32 ports and main-
taining binary releases for Microsoft Windows hosts, and for massive libstdc++ porting
work to Cygwin/Mingw32.
• Robin Kirkham for cpu32 support.
• Mark Klein for PA improvements.
• Thomas Koenig for various bug fixes.
• Bruce Korb for the new and improved fixincludes code.
• Benjamin Kosnik for his G++ work and for leading the libstdc++-v3 effort.
• Charles LaBrec contributed the support for the Integrated Solutions 68020 system.
• Jeff Law for his direction via the steering committee, coordinating the entire egcs
project and GCC 2.95, rolling out snapshots and releases, handling merges from GCC2,
reviewing tons of patches that might have fallen through the cracks else, and random
but extensive hacking.
• Marc Lehmann for his direction via the steering committee and helping with analysis
and improvements of x86 performance.
• Ted Lemon wrote parts of the RTL reader and printer.
• Kriang Lerdsuwanakij for C++ improvements including template as template parameter
support, and many C++ fixes.
• Warren Levy for tremendous work on libgcj (Java Runtime Library) and random work
on the Java front end.
• Alain Lichnewsky ported GCC to the MIPS CPU.
• Oskar Liljeblad for hacking on AWT and his many Java bug reports and patches.
• Robert Lipe for OpenServer support, new testsuites, testing, etc.
• Weiwen Liu for testing and various bug fixes.
• Dave Love for his ongoing work with the Fortran front end and runtime libraries.
• Martin von Löwis for internal consistency checking infrastructure, various C++ improve-
ments including namespace support, and tons of assistance with libstdc++/compiler
merges.
• H.J. Lu for his previous contributions to the steering committee, many x86 bug reports,
prototype patches, and keeping the GNU/Linux ports working.
• Greg McGary for random fixes and (someday) bounded pointers.
• Andrew MacLeod for his ongoing work in building a real EH system, various code
generation improvements, work on the global optimizer, etc.
• Vladimir Makarov for hacking some ugly i960 problems, PowerPC hacking improve-
ments to compile-time performance, overall knowledge and direction in the area of
380 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
instruction scheduling, and design and implementation of the automaton based in-
struction scheduler.
• Bob Manson for his behind the scenes work on dejagnu.
• Philip Martin for lots of libstdc++ string and vector iterator fixes and improvements,
and string clean up and testsuites.
• All of the Mauve project contributors, for Java test code.
• Bryce McKinlay for numerous GCJ and libgcj fixes and improvements.
• Adam Megacz for his work on the Microsoft Windows port of GCJ.
• Michael Meissner for LRS framework, ia32, m32r, v850, m88k, MIPS, powerpc, haifa,
ECOFF debug support, and other assorted hacking.
• Jason Merrill for his direction via the steering committee and leading the G++ effort.
• David Miller for his direction via the steering committee, lots of SPARC work, im-
provements in jump.c and interfacing with the Linux kernel developers.
• Gary Miller ported GCC to Charles River Data Systems machines.
• Alfred Minarik for libstdc++ string and ios bug fixes, and turning the entire libstdc++
testsuite namespace-compatible.
• Mark Mitchell for his direction via the steering committee, mountains of C++ work,
load/store hoisting out of loops, alias analysis improvements, ISO C restrict support,
and serving as release manager for GCC 3.x.
• Alan Modra for various GNU/Linux bits and testing.
• Toon Moene for his direction via the steering committee, Fortran maintenance, and his
ongoing work to make us make Fortran run fast.
• Jason Molenda for major help in the care and feeding of all the services on the
gcc.gnu.org (formerly egcs.cygnus.com) machine—mail, web services, ftp services, etc
etc. Doing all this work on scrap paper and the backs of envelopes would have been...
difficult.
• Catherine Moore for fixing various ugly problems we have sent her way, including the
haifa bug which was killing the Alpha & PowerPC Linux kernels.
• Mike Moreton for his various Java patches.
• David Mosberger-Tang for various Alpha improvements, and for the initial IA-64 port.
• Stephen Moshier contributed the floating point emulator that assists in cross-
compilation and permits support for floating point numbers wider than 64 bits and
for ISO C99 support.
• Bill Moyer for his behind the scenes work on various issues.
• Philippe De Muyter for his work on the m68k port.
• Joseph S. Myers for his work on the PDP-11 port, format checking and ISO C99
support, and continuous emphasis on (and contributions to) documentation.
• Nathan Myers for his work on libstdc++-v3: architecture and authorship through the
first three snapshots, including implementation of locale infrastructure, string, shadow
C headers, and the initial project documentation (DESIGN, CHECKLIST, and so
forth). Later, more work on MT-safe string and shadow headers.
• Felix Natter for documentation on porting libstdc++.
Chapter 13: Contributors to GCC 381
• Pétur Runólfsson for major performance improvements in C++ formatted I/O and large
file support in C++ filebuf.
• Chip Salzenberg for libstdc++ patches and improvements to locales, traits, Makefiles,
libio, libtool hackery, and “long long” support.
• Juha Sarlin for improvements to the H8 code generator.
• Greg Satz assisted in making GCC work on HP-UX for the 9000 series 300.
• Roger Sayle for improvements to constant folding and GCC’s RTL optimizers as well
as for fixing numerous bugs.
• Bradley Schatz for his work on the GCJ FAQ.
• Peter Schauer wrote the code to allow debugging to work on the Alpha.
• William Schelter did most of the work on the Intel 80386 support.
• Bernd Schmidt for various code generation improvements and major work in the reload
pass as well a serving as release manager for GCC 2.95.3.
• Peter Schmid for constant testing of libstdc++ – especially application testing, going
above and beyond what was requested for the release criteria – and libstdc++ header
file tweaks.
• Jason Schroeder for jcf-dump patches.
• Andreas Schwab for his work on the m68k port.
• Joel Sherrill for his direction via the steering committee, RTEMS contributions and
RTEMS testing.
• Nathan Sidwell for many C++ fixes/improvements.
• Jeffrey Siegal for helping RMS with the original design of GCC, some code which
handles the parse tree and RTL data structures, constant folding and help with the
original VAX & m68k ports.
• Kenny Simpson for prompting libstdc++ fixes due to defect reports from the LWG
(thereby keeping GCC in line with updates from the ISO).
• Franz Sirl for his ongoing work with making the PPC port stable for GNU/Linux.
• Andrey Slepuhin for assorted AIX hacking.
• Christopher Smith did the port for Convex machines.
• Danny Smith for his major efforts on the Mingw (and Cygwin) ports.
• Randy Smith finished the Sun FPA support.
• Scott Snyder for queue, iterator, istream, and string fixes and libstdc++ testsuite entries.
• Brad Spencer for contributions to the GLIBCPP FORCE NEW technique.
• Richard Stallman, for writing the original GCC and launching the GNU project.
• Jan Stein of the Chalmers Computer Society provided support for Genix, as well as
part of the 32000 machine description.
• Nigel Stephens for various mips16 related fixes/improvements.
• Jonathan Stone wrote the machine description for the Pyramid computer.
• Graham Stott for various infrastructure improvements.
• John Stracke for his Java HTTP protocol fixes.
Chapter 13: Contributors to GCC 383
• Mike Stump for his Elxsi port, G++ contributions over the years and more recently his
vxworks contributions
• Jeff Sturm for Java porting help, bug fixes, and encouragement.
• Shigeya Suzuki for this fixes for the bsdi platforms.
• Ian Lance Taylor for his mips16 work, general configury hacking, fixincludes, etc.
• Holger Teutsch provided the support for the Clipper CPU.
• Gary Thomas for his ongoing work to make the PPC work for GNU/Linux.
• Philipp Thomas for random bug fixes throughout the compiler
• Jason Thorpe for thread support in libstdc++ on NetBSD.
• Kresten Krab Thorup wrote the run time support for the Objective-C language and
the fantastic Java bytecode interpreter.
• Michael Tiemann for random bug fixes, the first instruction scheduler, initial C++
support, function integration, NS32k, SPARC and M88k machine description work,
delay slot scheduling.
• Andreas Tobler for his work porting libgcj to Darwin.
• Teemu Torma for thread safe exception handling support.
• Leonard Tower wrote parts of the parser, RTL generator, and RTL definitions, and of
the VAX machine description.
• Tom Tromey for internationalization support and for his many Java contributions and
libgcj maintainership.
• Lassi Tuura for improvements to config.guess to determine HP processor types.
• Petter Urkedal for libstdc++ CXXFLAGS, math, and algorithms fixes.
• Brent Verner for work with the libstdc++ cshadow files and their associated configure
steps.
• Todd Vierling for contributions for NetBSD ports.
• Jonathan Wakely for contributing libstdc++ Doxygen notes and XHTML guidance.
• Dean Wakerley for converting the install documentation from HTML to texinfo in time
for GCC 3.0.
• Krister Walfridsson for random bug fixes.
• Stephen M. Webb for time and effort on making libstdc++ shadow files work with the
tricky Solaris 8+ headers, and for pushing the build-time header tree.
• John Wehle for various improvements for the x86 code generator, related infrastructure
improvements to help x86 code generation, value range propagation and other work,
WE32k port.
• Ulrich Weigand for work on the s390 port.
• Zack Weinberg for major work on cpplib and various other bug fixes.
• Matt Welsh for help with Linux Threads support in GCJ.
• Urban Widmark for help fixing java.io.
• Mark Wielaard for new Java library code and his work integrating with Classpath.
• Dale Wiles helped port GCC to the Tahoe.
• Bob Wilson from Tensilica, Inc. for the Xtensa port.
384 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
• Jim Wilson for his direction via the steering committee, tackling hard problems in
various places that nobody else wanted to work on, strength reduction and other loop
optimizations.
• Carlo Wood for various fixes.
• Tom Wood for work on the m88k port.
• Masanobu Yuhara of Fujitsu Laboratories implemented the machine description for the
Tron architecture (specifically, the Gmicro).
• Kevin Zachmann helped ported GCC to the Tahoe.
• Gilles Zunino for help porting Java to Irix.
In addition to the above, all of which also contributed time and energy in testing GCC,
we would like to thank the following for their contributions to testing:
• Michael Abd-El-Malek
• Thomas Arend
• Bonzo Armstrong
• Steven Ashe
• Chris Baldwin
• David Billinghurst
• Jim Blandy
• Stephane Bortzmeyer
• Horst von Brand
• Frank Braun
• Rodney Brown
• Sidney Cadot
• Bradford Castalia
• Ralph Doncaster
• Richard Emberson
• Levente Farkas
• Graham Fawcett
• Robert A. French
• Jörgen Freyh
• Mark K. Gardner
• Charles-Antoine Gauthier
• Yung Shing Gene
• David Gilbert
• Simon Gornall
• Fred Gray
• John Griffin
• Patrik Hagglund
• Phil Hargett
Chapter 13: Contributors to GCC 385
• Amancio Hasty
• Bryan W. Headley
• Kevin B. Hendricks
• Joep Jansen
• Christian Joensson
• David Kidd
• Tobias Kuipers
• Anand Krishnaswamy
• llewelly
• Damon Love
• Brad Lucier
• Matthias Klose
• Martin Knoblauch
• Jesse Macnish
• Stefan Morrell
• Anon A. Mous
• Matthias Mueller
• Pekka Nikander
• Jon Olson
• Magnus Persson
• Chris Pollard
• Richard Polton
• David Rees
• Paul Reilly
• Tom Reilly
• Torsten Rueger
• Danny Sadinoff
• Marc Schifer
• David Schuler
• Vin Shelton
• Tim Souder
• Adam Sulmicki
• George Talbot
• Gregory Warnes
• David E. Young
• And many others
And finally we’d like to thank everyone who uses the compiler, submits bug reports and
generally reminds us why we’re doing this work in the first place.
386 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
Chapter 13: Option Index 387
Option Index
GCC’s command line options are indexed here without any initial ‘-’ or ‘--’. Where an
option has both positive and negative forms (such as ‘-foption ’ and ‘-fno-option ’), rele-
vant entries in the manual are indexed under the most appropriate form; it may sometimes
be useful to look up both forms.
# dependency-file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
### . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 df . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
dF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
dg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
- dG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
-mf930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 dh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
-mf934 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 dH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
di . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
dI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
A dj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 dk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
all_load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
allowable_client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 dL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
ansi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 21, 81, 248, 347 dm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
arch_errors_fatal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 84
arch_only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 dn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
aux-info. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 dN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 85
do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
dp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B dP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 dr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 dR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
bcopy-builtin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
bind_at_load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
bundle_loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
du . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
dU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
C dumpmachine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 86 dumpspecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 dumpversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
client_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 dv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
compatibility_version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 dV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
crossjumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 dw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
current_version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
dylib_file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
D dylinker_install_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
d ........................................... 52 dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
D ........................................... 77 dynamiclib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
dA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 dZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
db . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
dc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 E
dC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 86
dd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 EB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123, 148
dD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 84 EL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123, 148
dE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 exported_symbols_list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
388 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
K m8-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
keep_private_externs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 m96bit-long-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
mabi-mmixware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
mabi=32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
L mabi=64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
mabi=altivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
mabi=eabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
mabi=gnu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
lobjc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
mabi=n32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
mabi=no-altivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
M mabi=no-spe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
mabi=o64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 mabi=spe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
m1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mabicalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
m10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 mabort-on-noreturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
m128bit-long-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
mabshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
m16-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
mac0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
m2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
macc-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
m210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
macc-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
m3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
maccumulate-outgoing-args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
m31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
mads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
m32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 133
maix-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
m32-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
maix32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
m32032 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
maix64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
m32081 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
malign-300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
m32332 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
malign-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
m32381 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
m32532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 malign-int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
m32r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 malign-loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
m32r2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 malign-natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
m32rx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 malign-power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
m340 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 malignment-traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
m386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 malloc-cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
m3dnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 malpha-as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
m3e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 maltivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
m4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mam33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
m4-nofpu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 maout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
m4-single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mapcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
m4-single-only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mapcs-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
m40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 mapcs-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
m45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 mapcs-frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
m486 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 mapp-regs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 147
m4byte-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 123, 128, 129, 134, 155
m5200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 masm-compat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
m64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 133, 154 masm-optimize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
m68000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 masm=dialect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
m68020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mauto-incdec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
m68020-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mauto-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
m68020-60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
m68030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mb-step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
m68040 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mbackchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
m68060 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mbase-addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
m6811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mbcopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
m6812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mbig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118, 144
m68881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mbig-endian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107, 118, 151
m68hc11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mbig-memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
m68hc12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mbig-switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134, 147
m68hcs12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mbigtable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
m68S12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mbit-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Chapter 13: Option Index 391
S W
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 79
S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 86 W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 336
save-temps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Wa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
sectalign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
sectcreate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Waggregate-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 78, 339
sectobjectsymbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Wbad-function-cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
sectorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Wcast-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
seg_addr_table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wcast-qual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
seg_addr_table_filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wchar-subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
seg1addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wcomment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 78
seglinkedit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wcomments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
segprot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wconversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 344
segs_read_only_addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wctor-dtor-privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
segs_read_write_addr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wdeclaration-after-statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
shared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Wdisabled-optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
shared-libgcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Wdiv-by-zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
sim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 weak_reference_mismatches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
sim2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Weffc++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
single_module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wendif-labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 79
Werror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 79
specs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Werror-implicit-function-declaration . . . . . 38
static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 122, 136
Wextra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
static-libgcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Wfloat-equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 22, 248, 347 Wformat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 47, 197
std= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Wformat-nonliteral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37, 198
sub_library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wformat-security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
sub_umbrella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wformat-y2k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
symbolic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Wformat=2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
whatsloaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
whyload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
T Wimplicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Wimplicit-function-declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
target-help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 85 Wimplicit-int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 137 Wimport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Winit-self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
traditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 335 Winline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 220
traditional-cpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 85 Winvalid-pch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
trigraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 85 Wl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
twolevel_namespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wlarger-than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Wlong-long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Wmain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
U Wmissing-braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Wmissing-declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Wmissing-format-attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Wmissing-noreturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
umbrella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wmissing-prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
undef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Wmultichar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
undefined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wnested-externs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
unexported_symbols_list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wno-deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Wno-deprecated-declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Wno-div-by-zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
V Wno-format-extra-args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Wno-format-zero-length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 85 Wno-import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Wno-invalid-offsetof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 86 Wno-long-long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chapter 13: Option Index 397
Keyword Index
! <
‘!’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 ‘<’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
<? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
#
‘#’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 =
#pragma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 ‘=’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
#pragma implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
#pragma implementation, implied . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
#pragma interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 >
#pragma, reason for not using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 ‘>’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
>? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
$
$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
?
‘?’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
?: extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186, 187
% ?: side effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
‘%’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
%include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
%include noerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
%rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 ‘_’ in variables in macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
__builtin_apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
__builtin_apply_args. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
& __builtin_choose_expr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
__builtin_clz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
‘&’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
__builtin_clzl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
__builtin_clzll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
’ __builtin_constant_p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
__builtin_ctz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
__builtin_ctzl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
__builtin_ctzll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
* __builtin_expect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
__builtin_ffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
‘*’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 __builtin_ffsl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
__builtin_ffsll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
+ __builtin_frame_address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
__builtin_huge_val . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
‘+’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 __builtin_huge_valf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
__builtin_huge_vall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
- __builtin_inf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
__builtin_inff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
‘-lgcc’, use with ‘-nodefaultlibs’. . . . . . . . . . . . 87 __builtin_infl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
‘-lgcc’, use with ‘-nostdlib’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 __builtin_isgreater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
‘-nodefaultlibs’ and unresolved references . . . . 87 __builtin_isgreaterequal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
‘-nostdlib’ and unresolved references . . . . . . . . . 87 __builtin_isless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
__builtin_islessequal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
. __builtin_islessgreater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
__builtin_isunordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
.sdata/.sdata2 references (PowerPC) . . . . . . . . . 120 __builtin_nan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
__builtin_nanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
__builtin_nanl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
/ __builtin_nans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
// . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 __builtin_nansf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
400 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
C cbrtf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C compilation options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 cbrtl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C intermediate output, nonexistent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ccos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C language extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 ccosf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C language, traditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 ccosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ccoshf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ccoshl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
c++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ccosl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ceil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 ceilf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ compilation options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ceill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ interface and implementation headers . . . . 304 cexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ language extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 cexpf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ member fns, automatically inline . . . . . . . 220 cexpl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ misunderstandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 cimag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ options, command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 cimagf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ pragmas, effect on inlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 cimagl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C++ source file suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 cleanup attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
C++ static data, declaring and defining . . . . . . . 340 COBOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C_INCLUDE_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 code generation conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
C89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 code, mixed with declarations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
C90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 command options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
C94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 comments, C++ style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
C95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 common attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
C99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 comparison of signed and unsigned values, warning
C9X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
cabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 compiler bugs, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
cabsf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 compiler compared to C++ preprocessor. . . . . . . . . 3
cabsl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 compiler options, C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
cacos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 compiler options, Objective-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
cacosf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 compiler version, specifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
cacosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 COMPILER_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
cacoshf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 complex conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
cacoshl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
cacosl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 compound expressions as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
calling functions through the function vector on compound literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
the H8/300 processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 computed gotos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
calloc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 conditional expressions as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
carg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 conditional expressions, extensions . . . . . . . . . . . 187
cargf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 conflicting types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
cargl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 conj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
case labels in initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 conjf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
case ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 conjl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
casin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 const applied to function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
casinf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 const function attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
casinh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 constants in constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
casinhf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 constraint modifier characters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
casinhl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 constraint, matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
casinl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 constraints, asm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
cast to a union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 constraints, machine specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
casts as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 constructing calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
catan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 constructor expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
catanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 constructor function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
catanh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
catanhf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 copysign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
catanhl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 copysignf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
catanl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 copysignl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
cbrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 core dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
402 Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
I Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
‘i’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 java interface attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
‘I’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 jn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
i386 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 jnf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
IA-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 jnl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
IBM RS/6000 and PowerPC Options . . . . . . . . . 112
identifier names, dollar signs in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
identifiers, names in assembler code . . . . . . . . . . 242 K
ilogb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 keywords, alternate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
ilogbf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 known causes of trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
ilogbl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
imaxabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
implementation-defined behavior, C language L
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 labeled elements in initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
implied #pragma implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 labels as values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
incompatibilities of GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
increment operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 LANG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 170
index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 language dialect options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
indirect calls on ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 LC_ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
init priority attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 LC_CTYPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
initializations in expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 LC_MESSAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
initializers with labeled elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 ldexp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
initializers, non-constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 ldexpf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
inline automatic for C++ member fns . . . . . . . . 220 ldexpl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
inline functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 length-zero arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
inline functions, omission of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 lgamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
inlining and C++ pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 lgammaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
installation trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 lgammal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
integrating function code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Intel 386 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 LIBRARY_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
interface and implementation headers, C++ . . . 304 link options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
intermediate C version, nonexistent . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 LL integer suffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
interrupt handler functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 llabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
interrupt handler functions on the m68k, H8/300 llrint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
and SH processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 llrintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 llrintl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
invalid assembly code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 llround . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
invalid input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 llroundf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
invoking g++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 llroundl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
ISO 9899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 load address instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
ISO C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 local labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
ISO C standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 local variables in macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
ISO C90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 local variables, specifying registers . . . . . . . . . . . 244
ISO C94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
ISO C95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 locale definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
ISO C99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
ISO C9X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 log10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
ISO support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 log10f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
ISO/IEC 9899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 log10l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
log1p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
log1pf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
J log1pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
j0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 log2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
j0f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 log2f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
j0l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 log2l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
j1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 logb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
j1f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 logbf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
j1l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 logbl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Chapter 13: Keyword Index 405
order of options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 R
other register constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 ‘r’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
output file option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ranges in case statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
overloaded virtual fn, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 read-only strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
register variable after longjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
P registers for local variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
‘p’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 registers in constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
packed attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 registers, global allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
parameter forward declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 registers, global variables in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
parameters, aliased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 regparm attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Pascal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 relocation truncated to fit (MIPS) . . . . . . . . . . . 124
PDP-11 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
remainderf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
PIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
remainderl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pmf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
remquo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pointer arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
remquof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pointer to member function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
remquol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
portions of temporary objects, pointers to . . . . 342
reordering, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
pow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 reporting bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
pow10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 rest argument (in macro) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
pow10f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 restricted pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
pow10l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 restricted references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
powf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 restricted this pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
powl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 rindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, extern prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 rint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, long calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 rintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, long calls off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 rintl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, longcall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 roundf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, no long calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 roundl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pragma, options align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 RS/6000 and PowerPC Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
pragma, reason for not using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 RTTI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
pragma, redefine extname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 run-time options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
pragma, segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
pragma, unused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 S
pragmas in C++, effect on inlining . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 ‘s’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
pragmas, interface and implementation . . . . . . . 304 S/390 and zSeries Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
pragmas, warning of unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 save all registers on the H8/300, H8/300H, and
precompiled headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 H8S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
preprocessing numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 scalb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
preprocessing tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 scalbf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
preprocessor options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 scalbl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
printf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 scalbln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
printf_unlocked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 scalblnf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
prof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 scalbn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
promotion of formal parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 scalbnf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
pure function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 scanf, and constant strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
push address instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 scanfnl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
scope of a variable length array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
putchar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
scope of declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
puts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
scope of external declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
search path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
section function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Q section variable attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
qsort, and global register variables . . . . . . . . . . 243 setjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
question mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 setjmp incompatibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Chapter 13: Keyword Index 407
U vscanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
ULL integer suffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 vsnprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Ultrix calling convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 vsprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
undefined behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 vsscanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
undefined function value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 vtable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
underscores in variables in macros. . . . . . . . . . . . 185
union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 W
union, casting to a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 warn_unused_result attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
unknown pragmas, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 warning for comparison of signed and unsigned
unresolved references and ‘-nodefaultlibs’ . . . . 87 values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
unresolved references and ‘-nostdlib’ . . . . . . . . . 87 warning for overloaded virtual fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
unused attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 warning for reordering of member initializers . . . 29
used attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 warning for unknown pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
warning messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
warnings from system headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
V warnings vs errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
weak attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
‘V’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
V850 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
vague linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
value after longjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 X
variable addressability on the IA-64 . . . . . . . . . . 204
variable addressability on the M32R/D . . . . . . . 214 ‘X’ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
variable alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 X3.159-1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
variable attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 x86-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
variable number of arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Xstormy16 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
variable-length array scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Xtensa Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
variable-length arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
variables in specified registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
variables, local, in macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Y
variadic macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 y0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
VAX calling convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 y0f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
VAX options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 y0l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
vfprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 y1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
vfscanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 y1f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
visibility attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 y1l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
VLAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 yn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
void pointers, arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 ynf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
void, size of pointer to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 ynl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
volatile access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
volatile applied to function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
volatile read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Z
volatile write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 zero-length arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
vprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 zero-size structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189