21UIP442C: Metrology and Quality Control

UNIT-I 10 Hrs.
Basic Principles of Engineering Metrology: Introduction, Metrology, Need for Inspection, Accuracy, and
Precision, Objectives of Metrology and Measurements, General Measurement Concepts, Errors in
Measurements, Methods of Measurement
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances: Introduction, Principle of Interchangeability, Tolerances, Maximum and
Minimum Metal Conditions, Fits, System of Limits and Fits, Plain Plug Gauges, Snap Gauges
Linear Measurement: Introduction, Design of Linear Measurement Instruments, Surface Plate, V-blocks,
Graduated Scales, Scaled Instruments, Vernier Instruments, Micrometer Instruments, Slip Gauges, Numerical
Examples

UNIT–II 10 Hrs.
Angular Measurement: Introduction, Protractor, Sine Bar, Angle Gauges, Spirit Level, Optical Instruments for
Angular Measurement
Comparators: Introduction, Functional Requirements, Classification of Comparators, Mechanical
Comparators, Mechanical–Optical Comparator, Electrical Comparators, Pneumatic Comparators
Metrology of Surface Finish: Introduction, Surface Metrology Concepts, Terminology, Analysis of Surface
Traces, Methods of Measuring Surface Finish, Stylus System of Measurement, Stylus Probe Instruments,
Wavelength, Frequency and Cut-off, Other Methods for Measuring Surface Roughness
 UNIT–III 10 Hrs.
Basic Concepts of Quality: The meaning of “Quality”, Quality of Design, Quality of conformance, Quality of
performance, quality function, Quality control, Quality characteristics, Cost of quality, Optimum cost of
performance, Quality control and inspection, Quality Policy, SQC.
Basic Statistical Concepts: The concept of variation, the Distinction between variables and attributes data, the
frequency distribution, graphical representation of frequency distribution, Quantitative description of
distribution, the normal curve.
Control Chart for variables: The general theory of control chart, Definition of control chart, some possible
objectives of control chart, the relationship betweenX̅, σ΄, and the values of X̅, relationship between σ΄ and σ,
relationship between σ΄ and R, choice of variables, basics of subgrouping, size and frequency of subgroups,
control limits, drawing preliminary conclusions from control charts, run sum test, control limits on σ chart,
revising the control limits, process capability analysis, why does a capable manufacturing process give defects?
UNIT–IV 10 Hrs.
Control Charts for Attributes: Practical limitations of the control chart for variables, comparison of X and R
chart with P chart, control limits on P chart, choice between ‘p’ chart and ‘np’ chart, periodic review and
revision of p’, control charts for defects, comparison between attribute charts and variable chars
Acceptance Sampling: Introduction, Sampling methods, The operating characteristics (OC) curve, producer’s
risk and consumer’s risk, quality indices for acceptance sampling plans, AOQL, Steps in the design of an
acceptance plan, types of sampling plans, Design item by item sequential sampling plans, ATI curve.
Introduction to Metrology
Introduction to Metrology:
▪ Definition and concept of metrology
▪ Need of inspection
▪ Principles of measurement
▪ Process of measurement
▪ Methods of Measurement
▪ Classification of measuring instruments
▪ Selection of measuring instruments
▪ Measuring systems and accuracy of
measurement
▪ Precision and accuracy
▪ Concept of Repeatability, Sensitivity,
Readability, and Reliability
INTRODUCTION
• The importance of metrology as a scientific discipline gained momentum during the
industrial revolution.
• Metrology is practiced almost every day, often unknowingly, in our day-to-day tasks.
• Measurement is closely associated with all the activities pertaining to scientific,
industrial, commercial, and human aspects.
• Metrology concerns itself with the study of measurements.
• It is of utmost importance to measure different types of parameters or physical
variables and quantify each of them with a specific unit.
• Measurement is an act of assigning an accurate and precise value to a physical
variable.
• The physical variable then gets transformed into a measured variable.
• Meaningful measurements require common measurement standards and must be
performed using them.
• The common methods of measurement are based on the development of international
specification standards.
• These provide appropriate definitions of parameters and protocols that enable
standard measurements to be made and also establish a common basis for comparing
measured values.
• Metrology is also concerned with the reproduction, conservation, and transfer of units
of measurement and their standards
• Measurements are inevitable in design systems
• Measurement is a significant source for acquiring very important and necessary data
about both these aspects of engineering, without which the function or analysis cannot
be performed properly.
• Measurements contribute to a great extent to the design of a product or process to be
operated with maximum efficiency at minimum cost and with desired maintainability
and reliability.
• Metrology has to be firmly integrated into the production activity in order to achieve
high product quality.
• Hence, metrology forms an inseparable key element in the process of manufacturing.
METROLOGY
• The word metrology is derived from the Greek word ‘metrologia’, which means
measure.
• Metrology is an indispensable part of modern-day infrastructure.
• Metrology not only deals with the establishment, reproduction, protection,
maintenance, and transfer or conversion of units of measurements and their
standards but is also concerned with the correctness of measurement.
• It encompasses different industrial sectors, health sciences, safety, and the
environment.
• Hence, one of the major functions of metrology is to establish international
standards for measurements used by all the countries in the world in both
science and industry.
• Modern manufacturing technology is based on precise reliable dimensional
measurements.
• The term ‘legal metrology’ applies to any application of metrology that is
subjected to national laws or regulations.
• A group of techniques employed for measuring small variations that are of a
continuous nature is termed as ‘dynamic metrology’.
• The metrology in which part measurement is substituted by process
measurement is known as ‘deterministic metrology’.
• Metrology, in its broadest definition, is the science of measurement. In the
context of modern manufacturing, metrology refers to quality assurance
methods used to calibrate the machinery used during production and to
measure the resulting parts.
• Metrology is the study of measurement and it is the key to achieving accuracy.
The aim is to provide accurate and therefore reliable measurements for trade,
health, safety and the environment. It is especially important in precision
engineering where products need to meet strict tolerances.
NEED FOR INSPECTION
• Industrial inspection has acquired significance in recent times and has a
systematic and scientific approach.
• F.W. Taylor, who has been acknowledged as the father of scientific management
of the manufacturing industry, created the modern philosophy of production and
also the philosophy of production metrology and inspection.
• Inspection is defined as a procedure in which a part or product characteristic,
such as a dimension, is examined to determine whether it conforms to the
design specification.
• Inspection is carried out to isolate and evaluate a specific design or quality
attribute of a component or product.
• Industrial inspection assumed importance because of mass production, which
involved the interchangeability of parts.
• Measurement is an integral part of the inspection.
• Many inspection methods rely on measurement techniques, that is, measuring
the actual dimension of a part, while others employ the gauging method.
• The gauging method does not provide any information about the actual value of
the characteristic but is faster when compared to the measurement technique.
• It determines only whether a particular dimension of interest is well within the
permissible limits or not.
• If the part is found to be within the permissible limits, it is accepted; otherwise,
it is rejected.
• The gauging method determines the dimensional accuracy of a feature, without
making any reference to its actual size, which saves time.
• In inspection, the part either passes or fails. Thus, industrial inspection has
become a very important aspect of quality control.
• Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
1. Ascertain that the part, material, or component conforms to the established or desired
standard.
2. Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture.
3. Sustain customer goodwill by ensuring that no defective product reaches the customers.
4. Provide the means of finding out inadequacies in manufacture. The results of the inspection
are recorded and reported to the manufacturing department for further action to ensure
production of acceptable parts and reduction in scrap.
5. Purchase good-quality raw materials, tools, and equipment that govern the quality of the
finished products.
6. Coordinate the functions of quality control, production, purchasing, and other departments of
the organizations.
7. Take the decision to perform rework on defective parts, that is, to assess the possibility of
making some of these parts acceptable after minor repairs.
8. Promote the spirit of competition, which leads to the manufacture of quality products in bulk
by eliminating bottlenecks and adopting better production techniques.
 ACCURACY AND PRECISION
• Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its true
magnitude.
• It can also be defined as the maximum amount by which the result differs from the
true value or as the nearness of the measured value to its true value, often expressed
as a percentage.
• Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process. It is the degree of
agreement of the repeated measurements of a quantity made by using the same
method, under similar conditions.
• In other words, precision is the repeatability of the measuring process.
• The ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results during the act of
measurements for the same quantity is known as repeatability.
• In most measurements, precision assumes more significance than accuracy.
 Precision Accuracy
Precision indicates quality of Accuracy gives information
measurement, without giving any regarding how far the measured
assurance that the measurement value is with respect to the true
is correct. value,
 OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

• Accuracy of measurement is very important for the production of a quality product.

• Hence the basic objective of any measurement system is to provide the required
accuracy at minimum cost.
• Metrology is an integral part of design, manufacturing, assembly, research and
development, and engineering departments.
• The objectives of metrology and measurements include the following:
▪ To ascertain(determine) that the newly developed components are
comprehensively evaluated and designed within the process, and that facilities
possessing measuring capabilities are available in the plant
▪ To ensure uniformity of measurements
▪ To carry out process capability studies to achieve better component tolerances
▪ To ensure cost-effective inspection and optimal use of available facilities
▪ To adopt quality control techniques to minimize scrap rate and rework
▪ To establish inspection procedures from the design stage itself, so that the
measuring methods are standardized
▪ To calibrate measuring instruments regularly in order to maintain accuracy in
measurement
▪ To resolve the measurement problems that might arise in the shop floor
▪ To design gauges and special fixtures required to carry out inspection
▪ To investigate and eliminate different sources of measuring errors
GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
• The primary objective of measurement in industrial inspection is to determine
the quality of the component manufactured.
• Different quality requirements, such as permissible tolerance limits, form,
surface finish, size, and flatness, have to be considered to check the conformity
of the component to the quality specifications.
• The three basic elements of measurements (schematically shown in the Figure),
which are of significance, are the following:
1. Measurand: A physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to be
measured
2. Comparator: To compare the measurand (physical quantity) with a known
standard (reference) for evaluation
3. Reference: The physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons
are to be made, which is internationally accepted

All these three elements would be considered to explain the direct measurement
using a calibrated fixed reference. In order to determine the length (a physical
quantity called measurand) of the component, measurement is carried out by
comparing it with a steel scale (a known standard).
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
• It is important to note that the measurements obtained are not completely
accurate, as they are associated with uncertainty.
• In order to analyse the measurement data, we need to understand the nature of
errors associated with the measurements.
• It is important for us to understand these errors in order to eliminate them.
• Two broad categories of errors in measurement have been identified:
• Systematic errors
• Random errors
Systematic Errors
• A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the
true value of measurement.
• These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and their
direction.
• They can be assessed and minimized, if efforts are made to analyse them.
• Examples: 1. Measurement of length using a meter scale,
2. Measurement of current with inaccurately calibrated ammeters, etc.
• When the systematic errors obtained are minimum, the measurement is said to be
extremely accurate.
• These errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same direction.
• Minimization of systematic errors increases the accuracy of measurement. The following are
the reasons for their occurrence:
1. Calibration errors
2. Ambient conditions
3. Deformation of workpiece
4. Avoidable errors
Random Errors:
• Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when measurements of a physical
quantity are carried out repeatedly.
• When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component under
similar conditions, the values or results of measurements vary.
• Specific causes for these variations cannot be determined, since these variations
are unpredictable and uncontrollable by the experimenter and are random in
nature.
• They are of variable magnitude and may be either positive or negative.
• When these repeated measurements are plotted, they follow a normal or
Gaussian distribution.
• Random errors can be statistically evaluated, and their mean value and standard
deviation can be determined.
• The following are the likely sources of random errors:
1. Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring instrument
2. Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
3. Error in operator’s judgment in reading the fractional part of engraved scale
divisions
 4. Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations during
measurement
5. Positional errors associated with the measured object and standard, arising
due to small variations in setting
• Differences between systematic and random errors:
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
• When precision measurements are made to determine the values of a physical
variable, different methods of measurement are employed.
• Measurements are performed to determine the magnitude of the value and the
unit of the quantity under consideration.
• The common methods employed for making measurements are as follows:
• Direct method: In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly
compared with the primary or secondary standard. Scales, vernier calipers,
micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are used in the direct method.
• Indirect method: In this method, the value of a quantity is obtained by
measuring other quantities that are functionally related to the required
value. Measurement of the quantity is carried out directly and then the value
is determined by using a mathematical relationship. Measurement using a
sine bar, measurement of strain induced in a bar due to the applied force,
determination of the effective diameter of a screw thread, etc.
• Fundamental or absolute method: In this case, the measurement is based on the
measurements of base quantities used to define the quantity. The quantity under
consideration is directly measured, and is then linked with the definition of that
quantity.
• Comparative method: In this method, as the name suggests, the quantity to be
measured is compared with the known value of the same quantity or any other
quantity practically related to it. The most common examples are comparators,
dial indicators, etc.
• Transposition method: This method involves making the measurement by direct
comparison, wherein the quantity to be measured (V) is initially balanced by a
known value (X) of the same quantity; next, X is replaced by the quantity to be
measured and balanced again by another known value (Y).
• Coincidence method: This is a differential method of measurement wherein a
very minute difference between the quantity to be measured and the reference is
determined by careful observation of the coincidence of certain lines and signals.
Measurements on vernier calliper and micrometer are examples of this method.
• Deflection method: This method involves the indication of the value of the
quantity to be measured directly by the deflection of a pointer on a calibrated
scale. Pressure measurement is an example of this method.
• Complementary method: The value of the quantity to be measured is combined
with a known value of the same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the
sum of these two values is equal to the predetermined comparison value. An
example of this method is the determination of the volume of a solid by liquid
displacement.
• Null measurement method: In this method, the difference between the value of
the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with
which comparison is to be made is brought to zero.
• Substitution method: It is a direct comparison method. This method involves the
replacement of the value of the quantity to be measured with a known value of
the same quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the indicating device
by these two values are the same. The Borda method of determining mass is an
example of this method.
• Contact method: In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the
sensor or measuring tip of the instrument. Examples of this method include
measurements using a micrometer, vernier caliper, and dial indicator.

• Contactless method: As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the
surface to be measured. Examples of this method include the use of optical
instruments, tool maker’s microscope, and profile projector.

• Composite method: The actual contour of a component to be checked is

compared with its maximum and minimum tolerance limits.