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DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

SEG 114: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE

SIKARARI EZIKIA NELSON (MA, MSS, BA, DIPLOM, CERTIFICATE)

FEBRAURY 2023

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DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

SEG 114: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE

Class: 1st Year – All Departments (Regular Students)

Instructor: SIKARARI EZIKIA NELSON (MA, MSS, BA, DIPLOMA, CERTIFICATE)

Phone: +211921756913 (Both Calls & Whatsap)

Email: [email protected]

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Welcome to the class of Introduction to Political Science.
This is a three credit hours course designed to the undergraduate students taking political science
as both a major and minor course meant to equip students with key concepts in political science in
order to build a brawny theoretical and empirical foundation of the discipline. We are living in
world of politics where human aspects with regards to socio-economic, religious needs are heavily
disputed and means of allocating these necessities are exceedingly competitive.

In other words, politics mainly concern itself with power and how this power is obtain, maintain
and apply as an avenue of influencing the society in terms of decision making. Mostly it (Politics)
has been perceived as a means of making personal wealth with the exception of few looking at it,
as a mechanism of developing society to create a good life for its members which is a constructive
gist of what politics is otherwise not.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of the course are to furnish the students with;

a) Knowledge on origin and development of the discipline.

b) Skills to be empirically and theoretically sophisticated.
c) Technical know-how on state formation.
d) Basic evidence on why the state exists.
e) The concept of government given its organs and their functions.

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f) Appropriate knowledge necessary for understanding how the world is governed.

g) To appreciate the importance of studying politics.

GRADING SYSTEM:
 Attendance and Active Class Participation 20%.
 Continuous Assessment Test /Essay Writing 10%.
 Final Written Examination 70%.
Total 100%

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CLASS POLICIES
a) Phones must be put either in silent or off during the duration of the class.
b) Coming late to class is punishable.
c) Students are highly encouraged to participate constructively in the class.
d) Unauthorized micro-discussion is not allowed during the class hours.
COURSE CONTENTS:
WEEK 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
(a) Meaning and definitions of Politics and Political Science
(b) Politics: an art or science / Nature of Politics
(c) Scope of Political Science
(d) Why Studying Political Science
(e) Political Science and other disciplines
WEEK 2: MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
(a) Normative Approach
(b) Historical Approach
(c) Institutional Approach
(d) Behavioral Approach
WEEK 3: STATE: DEFINITIONS AND ELEMENTS
(a) People
(b) Territory
(c) Government
(d) Sovereignty
WEEK 4: THEORIES OF STATE FORMATION
(a) Divine Theory
(b) Force Theory
(c) Social Contract Theory
(d) Evolutionary Theory
WEEK 5: PURPOSE OF STATE
(a) The state is an end in itself
(b) The greatest happiness of the greatest number
(c) Liberalist-individualist view
(d) Socialists view
(e) The concept of the welfare State and its functions
WEEK 6: CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT
(a) Monarchy – Limited or Absolute
(b) Aristocracy – Elected or Hereditary
(c) Democracy – Direct or Indirect
WEEK 7: ORGANS OF GOVERNMENT: FUNCTONS AND STRUCTURE
(a) Legislature
(b) Executive
(c) Judiciary
WEEK 8: POLITCAL SYSTEM AND ANALYSIS
(a) System Analysis
(b) Structural Functionalism

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Lecture #1: General Introduction

Meaning
Political science is one of the social sciences that deal with how the state is governed given its
various institutions of governance. Basically the term politics is derived from the Greek word
“Polis” meaning the city-state” which is the center of understanding the political organizations as
a unit of analysis in the ancient time.

The foundation of political science can be attributed on the critical analysis of the great Greek
philosophers such as Pericles, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Plato wrote a book “The Republic”
that advanced knowledge on the insights of the discipline. Aristotle was considered to be the
founding father of political science where the discipline has taken scientific steps toward an
academic arena. He wrote a book entitled “Politics”.

Science: is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world
through observation, evidence and experiment. So political science is the branch of knowledge
that deals with systematic study of the structure and behavior of the state and political institutions
through scientific analysis. Politics refers to the subject matter of our study; science denotes the
methodology or the way of studying the process of politics. The first term seeks to answer the
question “what is studied" and the second term refers to “how is it studied". Therefore, the political
phenomenon which should be studied in accordance with a definite plan or system is called
political science.

Selected Definitions of Politics and Political Science

There is no universally accepted definition of political science due to its continuous changing
nature in response to the political environment. For the purpose of getting prima facie
understanding of the discipline, we can concentrate on the below selected definitions of political
science.
a) “Political science is that part of science which treats the foundations of state and the
principles of government”- Paul Janet
b) “The study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to organized states”-
H.J Laski
c) “Political science is the study of shaping and sharing of power”- Lasswell

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d) “Political science is the study of the authoritative allocation of values for a society” - David
Easton
e) “Political Science begins and ends with the state" –Garner
f) “Political Science deals with government only” - Leacock
g) Science of polis - Aristotle
h) “Politics is the struggle for and use of power” – Morgenthau

i) Political science is the study of “who gets what, when, and how”. Harold D. Lasswell.

Nature of Political Science / Politics: An Art or Science

Political science is still growing and developing subject. So there is no uniformity among political
thinkers regarding the nature of political science, whether it should be treated as a science or not.
Aristotle, the father of political science, considered it as the master science. Political philosophers
like Bodin, Hobbes, Bluntschli, Bryce also held the view that political science is a science. But
some other political scientists reject the scientific nature of political science. It is said that in
political science there is no uniform principles on laws which are universally valid. Human
behavior is unpredictable. It, therefore, does not supply sufficient materials for scientific study.
The essence of the scientific method is that it will not accept generalizations unless they are based
on facts which can be verified. Political scientists like Buckle and Comte deny the claim of political
science as a science.

The reality is that, a social science is different from natural science or a physical science. Science
is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through
observation, evidence and experiment. It is the body of true knowledge acquired through scientific
process. But in social science we cannot expect so much accuracy and precision as we see in
science subjects. Hundred percentage predictions are not possible in social science because it deals
with the behavior of man and his political institutions. . There is only remote chance for verification
and prediction in this subject. While in the study of political phenomena, we can apply scientific
method and tools.

Scope of Political Science

The discipline of political science has undergone changes as new world problems arise and new
methods of political research are devised. Because of these changes, emphasis in the study of

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political science has been expanding from one special field to another. After world wars I and II,
for example, the number of courses in International Relations and public administration have
increased as modern government have become more complex because of expansion of their
functions and agencies. As a result, the number of the special fields of study in political science
has also increased. Generally, the areas of political science include; political theory, International
Relations, comparative politics and public administration.

Why Studying Political Science

Man is a social animal; His natural attributes develop when he lives in society. Society consists of
many institutions, for example, there is the institution of the family as well as religious, educational
and financial institutions. Amongst these is an institution called the state? The state came into
existence in order to establish peace and security in society. It’s objective is to fulfill the needs and
protect the life and property of its members and create an atmosphere congenial to the development
of the human personality, Man became an integral part of the state, In this relationship with the
state he came to be known as a citizen, As a citizen every person should know about the state and
government, Political –Science educates and enlightens the citizens about their liberties, rights and
duties, Such enlightened citizen is extremely important in a democratic set up, Mature population
tends to give best of the government.

Aristotle (father of political science) regarded political science as a master science. It means state
controls and regulates all other institutions, associations. We all come within the control of the
state. Man’s life is controlled by events that happen in the world. All important decisions about
public life are taken by government. Political science studies various governments, laws etc. All
these are very important as they influence decision making. Political decision affects the entire
human life.

Political Science and other disciplines

The relationship of political science with other branches of learning, especially the social sciences,
makes political science more meaningful and significant as it draws strength and energy from
them. Political scientists who are deeply interested in the political system show much interest in
knowing the impact of history, economics, law, sociology, psychology and the like upon political
systems and political behavior.

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Political science and Philosophy (Political Science Origin of a State)

Philosophy has contributed to the versatility of political science in the field of political philosophy.
Such political theories about the origin of the state, individualism, democracy, communism, the
separation of governmental powers, and others are but a few examples of the personal philosophies
of those who advocated them. These theories have widened the horizons of knowledge of students
in the study of political science. Indeed, political philosophy has presented to man alternative
visions of the state. The study of political science lacks substance without political philosophy
infusing certain values in political theories.

Relationship between Political Science and History

The relationship between political science and history has been very close. Whenever a political
scientist makes a study of a state and its political institutions, they depend on history in knowing
the state’s origin, its growth and development, and its institutions. An analysis of causes and factors
that influenced the state’ growth and development make it necessary for political scientist to rely
on historical facts. Thus, knowledge of historical foundations of state will help political thinkers
in analyzing and describing present political phenomenon and consequently enable them to
provide, through the lessons of past, directions to and meaning for, the future, some scholars
argued that history without political science has no fruit, and political science without history has
no root. Differences between the two must also be noted, historian usually study one particular
even or phenomenon carefully by finding out information from documents, archives and other
sources. Political scientists would try to compare and contrast various cases and try to look for
generalizations. Historians also compare and generalize, and in so doing, they resemble political
scientists.

Relationship between Political Science and Economics

Political science is also closely related to economics. Economics is a social science or a branch of
study that concern itself with the problem of allocating scarce resources so as to attain the optimum
satisfaction of society’s unlimited wants. By employing the economic approach, a student of
political science gains an insight into the economic conditions of the state. He learns how the
government shapes and determines economic policies on the use of resources in order to achieve
the best of national goals-the economic welfare of the people. Similarly, political policy makers
cannot disassociate themselves from certain economic terms like budget, income, welfare state,

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labor, unemployment, capital, monetary system, growth, zakat, taxes, finance, debts and balance
of payment. It is from this viewpoint that some students of politics assert that economics
determines politics; that economics shapes political institutions and sets the bounds within which
government must operate. Others are of the view that politics determines economics. The fact,
however, is that politics and economics complement and supplement each other.

Relationship between Political Science and Sociology

Sociology is the study of society as a whole. It is a social science course that enriches political
science by its contribution to the study of social problems which are also problems of the
government. The sociologist’s investigations and inquiries on criminal, marital relations problems,
juvenile delinquency, housing problems, etc., are data available to the political scientists to
evaluate and which may later become interesting and basic subjects of legislation. Sociology has
contributed to the study of political science. The relationship of the governors and governed is
very much emphasized. Students in the field must have a clear understanding of how the state
exercises its power and authority over its citizens, and why such an exercise is balanced by the
citizens and other groups of individuals in the enjoyment of their liberties and freedoms.

Relationship between Political Science and Psychology/ Behavior

Psychology deals with human behavior, be it individual or group, and explains the motives of
human actions. Explanations of political phenomenon with reference to the psychological
attributes of individuals or communities have always played an important part in a political
analysis. Psychology has contributed greatly to political science’s understanding of such
phenomenon as nationalism, revolutionary leadership, voting behavior and causes of war. Studies
of political personalities like Hitler, Stalin, Gandhi, Mao Zedong, are almost by definition
psychological.

Relationship between Political Science and Law

No less close and no less ancient is the connection between political science and Jurisprudence,
the science of law. If human beings are to live a life of togetherness and safeguard the existence
of the community itself, they must accept certain rules of conduct. The relations made by pubic
authorities are called laws and these are formulated, administered and enforced by the government.
Strictly speaking, jurisprudence is a sub-division of political science, as it is the state that creates

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and maintains the conditions of law. But it is now treated as a separate study because of the
vastness of its scope and its specialized study of law.

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School of Social and Economic Studies

University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #2: Approaches to the Study of Political Science

The study of Political Science can be approached in different ways from different angles and
perspectives. The origin of the study of political science can be traced to the Greek Period. Aristotle
is regarded as the founder (father) of Political Science. Through the ages, there was much
theorization on affairs of the state and government and by and large the approach was normative.
The post first world war period witnessed behavioral revolution. More emphasis was given to the
study of political processes and political forces.

Thus in the study of political – Science transition happened from traditional Political theory
(structure) to modern political analysis (political processes). In modern world “Power” is the key
issue in Politics. Hence processes of acquiring and exercising power got an important place in the
study of political-Science. Thus there is a radical transformation in the nature and content of
Political Science. The study of Politics has undergone many changes. It was due to the new
approaches and methods applied to the study of political science.

Normative Approach
In the normative or classical period, political problems were analyzed philosophically. The
Method was deductive and the approach was normative. In this period the ethical basis and moral
Purpose of the political community was analyzed in detail by the political philosophers.

The purpose of this approach is to clarify the words and terms used by the political philosophers.
They spent too much of their times on the problems of ends and means and also in describing the
ideal state.

The interpretation of normative approach in political activities evokes interests in the mind of
the students of political science. It studies the state, government, and man on political being is fully
mixed with the pursuit of certain goals, morals, truths, or high principles. The writings of Plato,

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Hobbes, Locke, Bentham and Hegel have the characteristics of the classical period. They were
very particular in finding the standards or values of life like justice, freedom and happiness.

Historical Approach
Historical approach is another traditional approach of studying political science. History serves as
a best kind of laboratory for political science. It is the store-house of the past incidents pertaining
to human life. The study of history gives us not only information about what happened in the past
but also about the utility and futility of various institutions of various times.

According to Gilchrist, the historical approach as the chief method of studying political
phenomena and says," is the historical method, properly to understand political institutions, we
must study them their religion, their growth and development. History not only explains
institutions but it helps us to make certain deduction for future guidance. ......". History tells us
how government, political parties and many other institutions worked, their successes and failures
and from these we receive lessons which guide for the future course of action.

The approach is reached on the assumption that political science emerged out of socioeconomic
crisis as well as the reactions they leave on the minds of the great thinkers. For example, conditions
of ancient Greece created Plato and Aristotle, the 17' the century England produced
Hobbes and Locke, the capitalist system created Mill and Marx etc.

Institutional Approach
In the light of the emergence of other social sciences from the second half of 19 th century,
the need for a narrower and precise definition of political science was felt. The institutional
Approach shows a shift in the scope, methods, and objective of the discipline of political science.
It gives importance to the study of formal as well as informal structure of political institutions like
executive, legislature, judiciary, political parties, pressure and interests groups etc. in political
system. It is also known as structural approach. Political science began to study formal
governmental institutions.

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The nature and structure of the legally constituted institutions became the subject matter of
political science. Political philosophers began to study the historical evolution of various political
institutions. In the words of Dyke, - the study of politics is the study of the state or of government
and related institutions. Wasby says, “The emphasis of the institutional or structural approach is
almost exclusively on the formal aspects of government and politics. Since various institutions
constitute the structure of the society it is also called structural approach."

After analyzing properly the actual functions of various institutions political philosophers
compared them with other institutions. Comparative study of the merits and demerits of the
different systems like unitary and federal , parliamentary and presidential territorial and
proportional representation was made by the political philosophers of the institutional period. The
emphasis was on the importance of the governmental institutions and practice in promoting social
conditions and realizing moral and political purposes. The advocates of institutional approach do
not consider the impact of institutions or rules upon the individuals. Without individuals the
institutions have no practical importance, thus it has been vehemently criticized.

Behavioral Approach
Behaviouralism is one of the most important developments in the study of political science
in the 20th century. It is also considered to be a new or modern approach to the study of political
science. Really, the approach started with a protest movement of American political scientists
against the traditional study of political science. They believed that the traditional approaches
totally neglected the political phenomena.

Therefore, they developed a new approach for the careful study of political phenomena, i.e.
behavior approach. They began to adopt the methods of natural sciences like observation, survey
and measurement in political science. The exponents of this method were Harold D. Lasswell,
George Catlin, Charles Merriam, David Easton etc. The behavioral approach is really based on the
assumption that political institutions and nature of political events are largely determined by the
nature and behavior of the people. The political behavior of individuals and groups may determine
the mode of operation of the state itself. So the essence of the behaviouralist approach is its central
focus on political behaviour of individuals.

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The behaviouralist attempts to understand political phenomena realistically in term of observed

and observable data. It is the explanation, formulation and hypothesisation of the observed and
observable behavior of men in respect of the governance of the country. The use of more and more
scientific means inspired several political philosophers to consider political science as a value free
science. That means they aim at the creation of a systematic casual theory and not a value theory.
Behavior approach, according to Dhal, “Is an attempt to improve our understanding of points by
seeking to explain the empirical aspects of political life by means of methods, theories and criteria
of proof, that are acceptable according to canons and assumptions of modern political science".

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Department of Political Science

School of Social and Economic Studies
University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #3: State: Definitions and Elements

The Concept of State

The term 'State' occupies the highest place and central theme in the study of political science. The
Greeks used the word 'Polis' to denote the 'city-state' and Roman. It was the Italian scholar
Machiavelli who used the term ‘state’ in political science in the modern sense. In political science
the term ‘state’ we mean an association of people who live within a geographical area under an
organized government and subject to no outside control State is an institution to ensure law and
order and maintain harmony of social relations.

It creates those conditions, which are necessary for the development of individual personality. It
create laws and rules to regulate human behavior. It stands for the welfare of society as whole and
protect the rights and life of citizen from internal and external disturbances or war. The ordinary
people usually use the word state in a wrong way. It is wrong to equate the word state with
government, nation or society. When they say ‘state aid to industries’ ‘state bus’ etc., actually they
mean ‘government aid to industries’ ‘government bus’ etc. Further, the constituent units of a
federation are called “states”, for example, various states in India and the federal states in the
U.S.A. But as far as our study is concerned the term state is used in a different ways. In the
scientific sense of the term “the state means an assemblage of human beings occupying a definite
territory, organized under a government supreme within the country and subject to no outside
control”.
Definitions
The term 'state' has been defined differently by various political thinkers. Some of the popular
definitions are given below:
To quote Mac Iver “some writers define the state as essentially a class structure, others regard it
as a one organization that transcends class and stands for the whole community. Some interpret it

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as a power system, others as welfare system. Some view entirely as a legal construction either in
the old Austinan sense which made it a relationship of the governors and governed or as a
community organized for action under legal rules. To some it is a necessary evil and to a very few,
an evil that will someday be unnecessary"

a) According to Bodin, the state is “an association of families and their common possessions,
governed by supreme power and by reason".
b) Dr. Garner- “A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory independent or nearly so of external control of
possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience".
c) Woodrow Wilson- “The state is a people organized for law within a definite territory”.
d) H.J. Laski- “State is a territorial society divided into government and subject claiming with
its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions”.
e) Bluntschli- “The state is politically organized people of a definite territory”.
f) Aristotle defined the state as “a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect
and self - sufficing life by which we mean a happy and honorable life".
The modern conception of the state, Views of Gabriel Almond and Robert Dhal: Almond used the
term “political system" instead of the state. According to him" political system is the system of
interactions to be found in all independent societies which perform the functions of integration and
adaptation (both internally and vis-a-vis other societies) by means of employment or threat of
employment, of more or less legitimate physical compulsion". “The Political System" he
explains,” is the legitimate, order maintaining or transforming system in the society". The concept
of state cannot easily be understood except through explaining its components; population,
territory, government and sovereignty.
Elements of State
Population
Since state is a human institution and highest of all human associations there can be no state
without human beings. State can exist in an uninhabited land. There is no limit for the number of
citizens in a state. According to Plato, an ideal state should consist of 5040, while Aristotle fixed
the population of state at 10.000. However, in the modern times the scholars have not ventured to

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fix any upper or lower limits of population. Their number should either be too small to be neither
self-sufficient nor too large to be well governed. The People’s Republic of China is the largest
state in respect of population and San Marino in Italy is the smallest. The modern state gives
preference to the big size population because, the bigger the population, the greater will be its man
power. They can fight for a longer period of time during the war period. This is the reason why
Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and communist Russia encouraged mothers to have more issues. Such
mothers were called “Heroine mothers”. While the problem of these countries is one of decline of
population, the problem of state like India is one of phenomenal increase in her population. The
acceptable rule, as Dr. Garner says that, population must be sufficient to provide a governing body
and number of persons to be governed and of course sufficient to support a state organization.

Territory
A modern state cannot exist without territory. Nomadic tribes and gypsies wandering from one
place to another could not form a state. But no limit can be laid down on territory as in population.
The largest state in size is the former U.S.S.R, whose area covered about one by sixth of the world,
whereas Vatican in Rome has an area of about 4square miles. The advantage of small state is that
they remain compact and well governed. But at the same time, they are at great disadvantage as in
the matters of difference and natural resources. But size is no index of greatness. Any how the
modern age is definitely of large territorial state because a large state can mobilize all its resources
for the economic and social welfare and defense.
Government
Government is an essential element of the state. It is the agency through which the will of the state
is formulated, expressed and realized. It is the duty of the government to protect the sovereignty
and integrity of the state, maintain law and order, protect citizens from external aggression, and
solve the dispute among citizen and work for the all-round development of the people. Hence
Government is indispensable because there can be no civilized existence without it.
Government may vary from state to state. Democracy is popular in India, England, America,
France, Italy etc., communist government is popular in Nepal and Military government in Pakistan,
Turkey etc.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty means supremacy of the state. It is the most important element of the state. It is
sovereignty that differentiates the state from all other social organization. The word sovereignty is

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derived from the Latin word “superamus” which means supreme or paramount. Although the term
sovereignty is modern yet the idea of sovereignty goes back to Aristotle who spoke of the "supreme
power of the state". In this technical form it was first used by the French writer Bodin in his book
'Republic'. According to Bodin “sovereignty is the supreme power of state over citizens and
subjects unrestrained by law.”
Sovereignty is the most important characteristic which distinguishes the state from all other
organizations. The state is supreme and it is above all individuals as well associations. In one word
sovereignty denotes the supremacy of the state internally and externally. Internal sovereignty- It
refers to the supreme authority exercised by the state over the people and territory that it controls.
It is absolute in authority over all individuals or associations within the state. It issues orders to all
men and all associations within that area and it receives orders from none. The will of the state is
absolute and it is subject to no legal limitations. In the words of Laski, “Sovereignty is legally over
an individual or group, he possesses Supreme Coercive Power."

External sovereignty- here, the state is independent of any compulsions or interference from the
part of other states. Each independent state reserves the authority to renounce trade treaties and to
enter into military agreements. Hence the concept of sovereignty is one of the most fundamental
concepts in the study of political science.

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Department of Political Science

School of Social and Economic Studies
University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #4: Theories of State Formation

The Divine Theory

It insists that Divine Will is the ground of political obligation. Almost all religious scriptures have
propounded this theory. The state and King is regarded by them as a divine authority. King is the
representative of God appointed to rule over the subjects. Hence to disobey a command of the king
means disobedience to the will of God and it is sin. Divine Right of Kings and Divine Will is the
main ground of political obligation. This ground of political obligation was the most popular in
the age of monarchical state. But in the modern age this theory is rejected as it is not only
unhistorical, unscientific but also undemocratic.

In brief, this theory can be summarized as follows;

a) State is established by the will of God.

b) Leaders are divinely appointed.
c) Its rulers are accountable to God but not any other authority.

“Consult ROMANS 8:1-2” or THE QURAN 3: 26

The Theory of force
This theory explained that the state originated due to physical coercion and warfare. Even after the
establishment of the state, force has to be employed for its survival. Force is essential not only for
maintaining law and order, peace within the territory of the state but also external security. It is
because the state possesses the physical power that individuals obey the state. The people are afraid
that if they disobey the laws, they would be punished hence they oblige the state.

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The Theory of Social Contract

According to this theory, people entered a contract and created a state (sovereign) that they
voluntarily obeyed. Consent of the people is the main ground of political obligation. Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau were the three distinguished exponents of this
theory. Thomas Hobbes in his works said that the state of nature in the absence of the existence of
a state would be that of disorder and anarchy. In order to escape such a terrible existence people
entered in a social contract by which they surrendered their rights to a single absolute and universal
authority. This authority i.e. states would protect the interests of all citizens and prevents
civilization from falling back to law of the jungle. He said the state is not a party to the contract
but product of it, and hence citizens owed the monarch obedience. Because the people themselves
had consented to and entered the contract. The state would be a totalitarian (all – powerful) one
wherein the monarch could demand the obedience of the people.

John Locke also believed that a contract was signed and a sovereign authority was created. But
According to him the ruler has limited constitutional authority and that the people must obey him
as long as he discharged his duties effectively. If the ruler failed to serve the masses, the people
have the right to overthrow him and bring in a new ruler.

In other words, men in the state of nature were free and equal with each other, living according to
his own wishes where there is a natural law that governs the life and behavior of men not to damage
the life and property of another.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) said that, state was the result of a contract by the people. He
vested political authority in the General Will i.e. combination of the ideal will of the people. Thus
according to Rousseau the state was created by a contract under which all people agreed to be tied
and obligated to political authority . If the ruler acted arbitrarily and misused his authority,
Rousseau gave the right of revolution to the people.

The Evolutionary theory or Historical theory

This is the most scientific theory on the origin of the state. The theory assumes that a state is a
historical growth. The state is neither the result of an artificial creation nor it originated at a
period of time. To quote Leacock “the state is a growth, an evolution, the result of a gradual

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process running through all the known history of man and reading into remote and unknown
part”. John Morley, Gettel, Garner, Burgess and Leacock are the supporters of this theory.
The Elements of the origin of the state
According to the advocates of the Evolutionary theory, Kinship, Religion, Force, War and
Conflict, Economic activities and political consciousness were some of the various factors which
contributed to the origin of the state. The part played by each of them may be stated as follows.
1. Kinship
In the primitive societies people were united on the basis of Kinship. It has been a significant factor
in the evolution of the state. It has played an important part in early civic development. R.N.
Gilchrist says that “blood relationship is an inevitable bond in society”. The closest bond of kinship
is the family composed of father, mother and children. With the expansion of the family arose new
families and by the multiplication of the families of the same stock, tribes or clans were formed.
These tribes or clans play a very important part in the organization of the state by their unification.
Henry Mane says “Kinship created a common consciousness, common interest and common
purpose". According to Mac Iver it is the Kinship which creates the society and society at length
create the state. Thus we understand that kinship played an important role in the growth and
development of the state.

2. Religion
Influence of religion over primitive society was very great. National phenomenon like floods and
thunderstorms were believed to be the will of God in ancient times. They, therefore, sought
remedies for them in the worship of god alone. Since everyone did not know the procedures of
worship they authorized a priest to worship god on their behalf. The priest in course of time turned
into a ruler, and thus, the state came into existence.

As supplementary to the religion the influence of magic may also be mentioned here. Magicians
exerted some influence on the minds of the people, who were ignorant and superstitious. We have
historical evidences in support our view. The Jehova worship was the strongest force, which united
the tribes of Israel. Prophet Mohamed united the scattered and unsettled races and tribes of Arabia.
Consequently the people of Arabia emerged into a powerful nation. Thus religion assisted in the

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formation and the development of the state by strengthening the unity of the tribe and authority of
the chief.
3. Force
Force played a dominant role in the growth of the state. The formula generally accepted in the
primitive communities was “might is right”. Huntsmen and herdsmen possessed a crude type of
organization. But they were powerful and subjugated the peasants who were compelled to pay
tribute to their victor. Big groups called tribes, having some common features, organized a joint
force. The tribe having a better organization started attacking and conquering its group.

War and conflict help in the amalgamation of families into clans, of clans into tribes and
tribe into larger units that become the state. With the weakening of kinship, the application
of forces becomes necessary for the maintenance of peace and order. The coercive force
exercised by the leader eventually developed into political sovereignty. This resulted in the
domination of the strong over the weak. According to Mac Iver conquest and domination paved
the way for the emergence of the state.
4. Economic Activities
Economic factors such as possession of wealth and property contributed much to the origin of the
state. The primitive people had three successive economic stages that brought about corresponding
changes in the social organization. They were Huntsman stage, the Herdsman stage and the
Husbandman or Agricultural stage.
In the huntsman stage people were wandering people and had no private property –there was no
distinction between the rich and the poor. Hunting was only the source of livelihood. In the
herdsman stage there was some accumulation of property in the hands of some people, so certain
laws became necessary. In this stage, private property emerged in the elementary form.
The state acquired territorial character only in the husbandman stage. With the growth and
development of agriculture, people were forced to settle down in a particular territory. Laws
became necessary to protect property and to settle disputes regarding property. Gettle says
“Differences in occupation and wealth created social classes or casts and the domination of one
class by another for the purpose of economic exploitation was an important factor in the rise of
Government".

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5. Political Consciousness
Political consciousness of the people is the last contributing factor for the development of modern
state. Political consciousness means awareness among the people of common purposes and end to
be realized through political organization, which including the security of life and property, to
protect from external attack , social ,economic, moral and intellectual development and the like.
With the rapid increase in population and the wealth, a political organization like the state was
needed for the maintaining law and order and for settling the disputes. All these led to the
emergence of political power and the conscious adaption of political institutions contributed much
to the origin of state. We can conclude by saying that the Historical or Evolutionary theory appears
to be more realistic theory than any other theory regarding the origin of the state. Mac Iver says,"
we cannot say when and where the state begins. It is implicit in the universal tendency to leadership
and subordination, but it only emerges when authority becomes government and custom is
transacted into law".

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Department of Political Science

School of Social and Economic Studies
University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #5: Purpose of State

The main function of the state here with the purpose of political organization. Political
philosophers have different views about the function of the state. For this reason, both classical
and modern views are vital to be understood as below.

Classical Philosophers are divided over the issue that, the state is a means to an end. Locke, Smith
and Spencer believe that the state is a means to achieving certain ends. Aristotle proposed that man
by nature is a political animal. He means that man can rise to the best of his life only through the
existence of a good state. for instance, when the state by its education and laws succeeds in
bringing up and maintaining noble aims and deeds, it follows that state has achieved the end for
which it exist. Such is an ideal state which adds to material advantages, the will to live with gift of
intellect, good conduct of rule and reason.

Locke unlike Aristotle who is concern with a good state proposes that, the main aim of men
merging under a government is to preserve their property. Therefore, the purpose of the state
according to Locke is to preserve the community’s properties.

Adam Smith in his book “Wealth of Nations” views the purpose of the state as follows:

a) Protecting society from violence and invasion from other independent societies.
b) Protecting every member of the society from injustice or opposition to it by any other
members.
c) Creating and maintaining certain public works and institutions which not for the interest of
any individual or a clique.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) narrowed down the purpose of the state. According to him, the state
is nothing but a natural institution for preventing one man from infringing or contravening the right
of another.

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Welfare State and its functions

Welfare state is a state that provides its citizens with a wide range of social services (T.W Kent).
The primary purpose is to give its people a complete security. Comprehensively, the function of
the state can be classified as classical and modern functions.

The original (classical) function of the state deals with the protection of the state for the sake of its
own existence. It maintains military and police department in order to secure life, liberty and the
property of its citizens as well as to defend the territorial integrity from the external or foreign
aggressions, it maintains sufficient defense personnel, keeping police force to make life of the
people safe and secure.

While the modern functions of the state could be attributed on its ability on how to develop the
human mind. In other words, concerned with the proper and healthy disseminations of knowledge
and fight against ignorant by opening up institutions such as schools, colleges and others to enable
the citizens acquire capacity of creative self-expression and fight against mass poverty and
unemployment.

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Department of Political Science

School of Social and Economic Studies
University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #6: Concept of Government

Government can be defined as the agent or machinery through which the will of the state is
formulated, expressed and realized. It is a group of organized people charged with the
responsibility of running the affairs of state. it supposed to be brought into the light through the
expression of the popular will through elections but sometimes it could be formed by smallest
group of thee individuals through a coercive means of capturing power and thus, control the
functions of the state.

Government in the western world is much likely gaining its gist in terms of performing its functions
that captured the rationale behind its existence unlike the developing countries where it is the
machine of getting oneself rich at the expenses of masses that are vulnerable.

Government basically, comprised of three levels namely legislature, executive and judiciary.
However, the term government is the total sum of the three and those engaged in the decision
making process. The legislative branch of the government formulates laws of the state, the
executive implements the laws. In the wider sense executive refers to the whole body of cabinet,
civil servants, the police and the arm forces while in the narrower sense, it refers to the supreme
head of the state as the president or Prime Minister. The third branch of government is the judiciary
that interprets the laws and decides on their application.

All the structures of the government are allocated powers and authority to undertake their tasks in
accordance with the constitutions of a given state. All the responsibilities undertaken by the
government are supposed to be implemented based on the faith of the state. Any irregularities
result in lack of confidence by the people who can dismiss their government. This works best in
the democratic government where the masses have such rights.

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Forms of the Government

The extend of freedom granted to the masses, process of getting power or coming to the throne,
accountability, tenure, the amount and frequency of the application of force and many others are
some of the aspects which aid in classifying governments. The existing governments in the modern
world could be classified either into monarchical, democratic or totalitarian government.

The above types of the government have an upper in the discussion of the most political theory.
There is an obvious tendency by the advance world to induce the other countries of the world to
adopt democracy as a meaningful form of government. Such move remains to be vindicated by the
futurity. Since they possess all the means to carry out such policy, they are much likely to let it
happen as they were successful in the USSR as the case in point.

Monarchy – Limited or Absolute

Among the existing forms of the government, monarchy is one of the earliest forms. It is the type
of the government by the individual (King, Queen, Emperor or Empress). It is hereditary. A
monarch in the ancient times is not accountable or subject to any legal institutions of governance
where he/she acts according to his/her will. But due to the continuous changing nature of political
environment, such practices were affected by the development of the democratic principles of
governance vested in its institutions, tenets and the forthcoming of new ideas and needs.

The essence of this type of government is the personification of the majesty and sovereignty of
the state in an individual. This implies an organ of absolute power and the substantial concentration
of the highest dignity and the power of the state in the monarch.

Monarch can be classified into absolute and constitutional or limited monarchy. Absolute
monarchy refers to a monarchy in which the head of state is both nominal and de facto. Under this
system, all the government authorities are vested with the monarch and he/she solely decides on
the legislations and appointments in the state and has unlimited powers. On the other hand, a
constitutional or limited monarchy refers a form of government where the head of state is only
nominal and ceremonial. His/her powers are limited or regulated by the law.

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The monarch promulgates laws agreed by the elected representatives of the masses in parliament.
The monarch accepts the advice of his advisors and the members of parliament and respects the
constitution of the state. The best example is the British monarchy.

Democracy – Direct or Indirect

The origin of the term democracy can be traced back to the ancient Greek. It was first used in the
Greek city-state. The Greek description of the term “Democratia”. “Demo” means people and
“Cratia” means system of rule. However, the term democracy can be understood as the rule of the
people. Most exponents of such system look at it as the rule of the people, by the people and for
the people (Abraham Lincoln).

A political concept concerning the collectively binding decisions about the rules and policies of a
group, association or society….embracing the related principles of popular control and political
equality (Beetham) where Popper, looks at it as a type of government in which the social
institutions provide means by which the rulers may be dismissed by the ruled. However,
democracy is the institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals
acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote (Shumpeter).

Democracy may be described as the system of governance under which the masses exercise the
governing powers either directly or indirectly through representatives periodically elected by them
for specific tenure. A state may in politics be term “democratic” if it exhibits the fundamental
characteristics of democracy and practice them fully. This includes the provision of the institutions
for expression, the supremacy of popular will, popular participation, liberty and many others.

Under this system, the state provides institutions of governance for the expression of popular will.
It also opens political liberty and rights which includes the following;

a) Universal suffrage
b) Equal opportunities for employment
c) Freedom of speech, discussion, publications, association and free elections.

These rights provide opportunities for popular political participation and are fundamental to
democracy due to the fact that, they provide a conducive environment for free discussion and the

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continuous participation of the masses in the government. Free discussion is necessary because
democracy is based on a notion of individual personality.

Conditions for successful Democracy

According to the prominent political scientist Robert Dahl, for a state to be called “democratic”
there should always be certain institutional mechanisms to be observed as follows;

a) Decision-making process in the government should be done by the elected leaders.

b) All adults’ citizens have the rights to run for any elective position in the government.
c) There should be freedom of expression without fear.
d) All adults have the right to vote regardless of been rich or poor.
e) The conduct of periodical elections, free and fair without the use of force.
f) The right of citizens to seek alternative source of information i.e. freedom of press.

Totalitarianism

This is the type of the government in which one political party runs the affairs of the state without
permitting rivalry of any form, usually headed by a despotic leader. This government is common
back in 1900’s where a leader is the only signatory of the decision making in the state with a
violent or cohesive behavior, Hitler’s regime in Germany, Stalin’s, Slazar’s and many among
others with similar traits of such system.

Since in 1918, autocratic rules especially in the shape of totalitarian dictatorship have scored great
gains. Although these gains have not generally been at the expenses of constitutional democracy,
they have casted serious doubts in the minds of many upon the ability of democracy to extend its
sphere or even to hold on its own. In the new regimes, the characteristics institutions of democracy
have frequently been eliminated or transformed so as to safe guard various issues. At least where
this system has prevailed, new political philosophies with their own distinctive political values
have been substituted for the philosophy of liberal democracy.

Totalitarian dictatorship is an autocratic regime which is authoritarian and statis both in an extreme
form. By the former, it means that, the authority of the ruling group or individual is unlimited;
despotic that is checked neither by accountability to a broad political base nor by any checks of
constitutionalism. It safe guard and maintains this power positions by methods of violence and

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terror, full exploitation of possibilities of propaganda, brain-washing and indoctrination. By the

latter, mean state control extends and pervades ton all spheres of life, the economy, social and
religious organizations, private areas of life, family etc. and thoughts of individuals are subject to
management of the state as far as possible

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Department of Political Science

School of Social and Economic Studies
University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #7: Organs of Government: Functions and Structure

a) Legislature

Generally speaking, the legislative branch of the government makes laws, it usually consists of
many members chosen by the people of the country. There are several basic models of legislature
that have been and are used in the world.

The most prevalent system is the parliamentary system. In this type of system, the nation is broken
up into small units, divided variously by geography, ethnicity, or population. Each unit elects one
or more members of parliament from a state of candidates. After election day, the party with the
majority of members becomes the majority party and chooses the Prime Minister and cabinet. If
no party has a majority, parties negotiate divisions of power and form coalitions. Once a coalition
is established, the government is formed. Coalitions are often fragile, as the majority voice in the
coalition can offend the majority (or minorities) and caused members of the coalition to abandon
the coalition. Parliamentary legislatures remain in power for a fixed term or until a vote of no
confidence is taken and the majority loses the vote.

In another type of parliamentary setup, there are no political divisions- national elections are held
and people vote for a single party. When the votes counted, seats in the parliament are given on a
percentage basis to each party. The party then decides who to appoint to each seat it is apportioned.
In this type of system, minority voices are more likely to be heard and coalition governments more
likely to be formed (in a district system, is possible for one party to win 50-percent-plus-one of all
districts and acquire 100 percent of the seats in the parliament; in a national election system, this
cannot happen).

In a system like that of the United States, members of the legislature hold their office for a certain
fixed term. After elections, a majority party is determined, but there is no such thing as a vote of

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no confidence. Though parties play a major role in the selection of legislative leaders, individual
members of the legislature are free to vote however they wish without fear of bringing down the
government as in a parliamentary system.

Another common system involves a legislature composed of one party. Such systems are common
in communist nations, so examples include USSR’s Supreme Soviet and China’s National People’s
Congress. Though dissent is generally allowed in such a system, the decisions of the party are
rubber-stamped by the legislature.

Legislatures can have one house (unicameral) or two houses (bicameral). A 1973 survey found
that nations with a legislature were nearly evenly divided between unicameral and bicameral. The
role of the two houses varies from one nation to another. In the United States, the two houses, the
House of Representatives and the Senate, have roughly equal powers, and legislation passed by
one house must be passed by the other house to become law (in many systems, the executive must
also approve of any legislation passed by the legislature). In Britain, the House of Commons is an
elected body with the majority of the power; the House of Lords can amend and delay bills passed
by the House of Commons, but may not cancel them. The House of Lords has no power over
taxation.

b) Executive
Generally speaking, the executive branch of the government executes laws created by the
legislative branch, though this overall rule is modified in some political systems. For example, in
a totalitarian dictatorship, there may be no legislature, and hence the executive also makes laws.

The executive branch is sometimes divided into two parts, a head of state and a chief executive.
The head of state is the person, or group that represents the nation to other nations. The chief
executive is responsible for all those roles of the executive that are not handled by the head of
state. The power held by these two positions is not consistent. In Britain, for example, the head of
state is the monarch, who has little actual power over the executive branch. The Prime Minister is
the chief executive and holds a great deal of power. In France, the President is the head of state
and has a great deal of power over the executive. The Prime Minister has been linked to a junior
partner in the executive.

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The Israeli President is elected by the Knesset and is largely ceremonial, much like Britain’s
monarch. The Prime Minister holds the bulk of power. In Russia, the roles are again great reversed,
with the president holding the bulk of power and the Prime Minister being a junior partner. In the
United States of America, the President is both the head of state and the chief executive.

The method of choosing the executive varies greatly. In some cases, such as in Britain, the head
of state is a hereditary monarch and the chief executive is the Prime Minister of the parliament.
The people, then, have no choice in the head of state and only a small segment of the population
have a choice of the Prime Minister (the Prime Minister is chosen from all the members of
parliament from the majority party- each MP is elected in a local election). In Israel, the President
is chosen by the Knesset and the Prime Minister is a member of the Knesset. In the United States,
the President is elected, indirectly through the Electoral College, by the people.

Terms vary, Monarchs generally hold life terms. Members of parliament hold maximum terms,
though votes of no confidence in parliament can force new elections sooner. Other executives hold
their positions for a fixed term such as in the United States. In dictatorial systems, terms are for
life.

c) Judiciary
Generally, the judicial branch of the government interprets the laws of the state. Because of the
nature of law enforcement, the judicial branch often has the largest membership. In the United
States, for example, there is one executive (two if the Vice President is counted), 535 legislators,
and thousands of federal judges.

The structure of the judiciary varies greatly from one nation to another, based on the legal tradition.
The most familiar may be that of the United States, where is Supreme Court that is the final court
of appeals in the nation. Below the Supreme Court are series of inferior courts, starting with the
federal court where most cases are heard, and several levels of appeals courts. Britain has a similar
setup, but the House of Lords is the court of final appeal.

Israel has several judicial systems- the secular system is divided into general law courts and
tribunals. The general court has a Supreme Court, district courts, and magistrates. Personal matters,

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such as marriage and divorce disputes are handled by religious courts. There are four systems of
religious court; Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Druze.

Selection of judges is another point of comparison. Generally, the selection process is divided
between appointed and elected. Appointed judges are thought to be free from political pressure,
and thus, are able to best represent the people and the law. Elected judges are thought to best
represent the will of the people. Terms vary from life to several years, in both systems of selection.

Other judicial concepts vary from nation to nation. For example, in the United States, each state
maintains its own judicial system separate, but related to the national judiciary. Concepts of
“innocent until proven guilty” or “guilty until proven innocent” vary and do the concept of the jury
trial. These concepts are highly tied to the legal tradition of each nation.

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Department of Political Science

School of Social and Economic Studies
University of Juba
SEG 114: Introduction to Political Science

Lecture #8: Political System and Analysis

Introduction
The concept of political system has assumed great importance today. Modern political scientists
used the term political system instead of state and government. The concept of political system
came to political science from biology through anthropology and sociology.

Talcott Parsons and Robert K Merton exercised great influence on the use of the concept of the
system in political analysis. They influenced political scientists like Gabriel Almond, David
Easton, Karl Deutsch and Abraham Kaplan and others.

A system is seen as an assembly of Interdependence parts (sub-systems) which interact among

them. Interdependence implies that a change in one part influences other parts, ultimately affecting
the entire system. In other words, a system is a collection of interrelated parts which receives
inputs, acts upon them in an organized or planned manner and thereby produces certain outputs.

Definitions:
a) Political System as “that system of interactions to be found in all independent societies
which perform the functions of integration and adaptation by means of the use of legitimate
physical Compulsion “ –Almond

b) “A Political System is that system of interactions in any society through which binding and
authoritative allocations of value are made and implemented” – Easton

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c) “the Political System includes not only governmental institutions such as legislatures,
courts and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspect” - Almond
and Powell

The concept of political system has assumed great importance today. Because it refers to the study
of governments in its empirical dimensions and also from a strictly inter-disciplinary stand point.
The new term political system reflects the new way of looking at the political phenomena. In the
past the focus of the study of political science was on formal institutions like state and government.
Extra political factors or conditions which affect political events and institutions were completely
ignored.

But later political scientists became aware of the fact that in all societies the formal governmental
institutions are shaped and limited by informal groups, their attitude and behavior. Since these
formal factors influence political processes the study of it is also necessary. In this context the
study of political system offers more comprehensive frameworks for political analysis.

According to Robert A. Dahl “any collection of elements that interact in some way with one
another can be considered a system”. E g, galaxy, football team, legislature, political party.
Political system is only one such a system. Model of political system was first developed by David
Easton, an American political scientist. Easton defines political system as the authoritative
allocation of values, which broadly constitutes the political process. It is, in this sense that political
system has been described as an open system. In other words, allocation of values is made because
there are corresponding demands from the society or environment.

Almond defines a political system as the system of interaction to be found in all independent
societies, which performs the functions of integration and adaptation by means of the employment
or threat of employment of more or less legitimate physical compulsion. Thus political system is
not the only system that makes rules and enforces them. But it is the only system that uses
compelling forces or coercive force.

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Almond further explains that the political system includes not only the governmental structures
such as legislatures, courts and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspect.
Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties, caste groupings; and anomic
phenomena such as demonstrations, riots, assassinations as well as formal organization like
political parties, interest groups and media of communication. Political system, according to
Robert A Dhal, any persistent pattern of human relationships that
Involves to a significant extent control, influence, power or authority can be called a political
system.

Input-Output Analysis
Systems analysis has two derivatives namely input-output analysis and structural-functional
analysis. Input- output analysis is closely associated with the name of David Easton. Easton views
the political system is basically an input- output mechanism, just as a means where by certain kinds
of inputs are converted into output. It presupposes political system as consisting of interacting
roles structures and sub systems and of the underlying psychological aspects that affect these
interactions. It involves a process that may be viewed as consisting of inputs from the environment
or from within the political system and the production of outputs into the environment. Outputs
may produce changes in the environment which in turn may affect the political system.

Inputs: inputs are in the form of demands and support each having four categories of activity.
Demands: demands are of four types. David Easton defines demands as the raw materials out of
which finished products called decisions are manufactured.
a) Demands for allocation of governments and services such as wage and hour laws,
educational opportunities, housing and medical facilities.
b) Demands for regulation of behavior such as control over markets, provisions for public
safety, rules relating to marriage, health and sanitations etc.
c) Demands for participation in political system such as right to vote, to seek election, to hold
office, to organize procession, to petition against public officials etc. and

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d) Demands for communication and information such as communication of policy intent from
the political elites or display of the power of political system in periods of threats or
ceremonial occasions.
Support: - supports are divided into four types.
a) Material support such as payment of taxes.
b) Obedience to law, rules and regulations.
c) Participatory support such as voting, political discussion, and other forms of political
activity and
d) Attention paid to government communication and giving respect to public authority,
symbols and ceremonials.

Outputs
As demands is processed outputs flow out of the system into environment. The outputs of the
political system –decisions and policies –fall into four categories and they are
a) Extractions such as taxes or personal services.
b) Regulations of behavior.
c) Allocations or distributions of goods and services, opportunities and honor, and
d) Symbolic outputs such as policies statement, affirmations of values, display of political
symbols.

Feedback
Central to Easton’s model of political system is his concept of feedback, which were basically a
communication process. The feedback is a dynamic process through which information about the
performance of the system is communicated back to it in such a way as to affect the subsequent
behavior of the system. Outputs are not the terminal points. They feed back in to the system and
thereby influence its subsequent behavior. The system model and its derivative input-output
analysis mark an improvement on earlier approaches to political analysis. It has great explanatory
value when applied to the analysis of functioning political systems. But at the same time critics
points out that like structural –functional analysis, input-output analysis also tries to maintain
status quo. It seeks solutions to the problems concerning persistence, adaptation and regulation of
a political system.

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Structural-Functional Analysis
As a derivative of the systems analysis, the structural-functional analysis is a means of explaining
what political structures perform what basic functions in the political system and it is a tool of
investigation. Structural-functional approach was first developed in disciplines like anthropology
and sociology. In anthropology Radcliff Brown and Malinowski employed this approach in their
investigation. In sociology Merton and Talcott Parsons did the same and with much more telling
effect. Structural-Functional approach seeks to discover the functions which an organism or a
system must perform in order to exist or remain in operation. It then sets to find the structure but
strictly in light of the function.

To put it in a simple form, a student of the structural-functional approach frames a question about
the particular function to be performed and would then seek the answer about the structure
performing that function. He, for instance would not ask what does the human mouth (structure)
do? His question instead would be how is the human organism fed? The answer would be through
mouth. His way of asking question would be how is the function of seeing perform? In short he
frames functional questions and then seeks structural answers. This is structural-functional
approach; through it would have been even more apt to call it structural-functional approach.

In political science, the structural-functional theory was first applied in 1960 by Gabriel Almond
and James Coleman to the study of non-western politics .The primary interest of Almond lay in
studying how political system changes from the traditional to the modern. He regards the western
political system especially that of the USA and Britain as the norm and all traditional societies are
seen by him as moving towards that model. In short, traditional societies have the opposite
properties to the modern political system. It may also be said that they recognized a midpoint in
the process of development which is called transitional.

Thus political development is regarded as a change from the traditional system through a
transitional stage to the modern system. The western political system is regarded as the model and
all traditional societies are moving towards it.

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REFERENCES

Adam and Jessica, K (eds.) (1985) The Social Science Encyclopedia: London, Routledge and
Kegan Paul.

Ball, A (1985) Modern Politics and Governments: Hong Kong, McMillian.

Barry, N (1981) An Introduction to Modern Political Theory: London, Macmillan

Colin, (2007) An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

Farrelly, C (2003) An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory: London, Sage

Hobbes, T (1651) The Leviathan: (Everyman’s’ Library (ed.), London.

Kumar, S (2011) Political Science (Part I): India, University of Calicut

Lasswell, H (1951) Politics who Gets What, When, How? London, Glencoe

Ojo, O and Utete (1990) African International Relations: Singapore, Longman

Plant, R. (1991) Modern Political Thought: Blackwell, Oxford

Rodee, A and Christol, G (1985) Introduction to Political Science: Singapore, McGraw-Hill

FURTHER READINGS

Students are encouraged to read critically and analytically around the subject area in any text,
paper or online resources. It is strongly recommended that students support their learning by
reading as widely as possible.

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