Calculus Notes

Axioms
1. Commutative Law
x+y =y+x

2. Associative Law
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z

3. Distributive Law
x · (x + y) = xy + xz

4. Existence of Identities

x+0=0+x
x·0=0

5. Existence of Inverses

x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0
x · (x−1 ) = (x−1 ) · x = 1

6. Completeness

Any nonempty subset of the real numbers that is bounded above has a least upper bound (or greater
lower bound).

Epsilon Delta Limit

Definition
lim f (x) = L (1)
x→c

if and only if, given any number ε > 0, we can find a number δ > 0 which will depend on ε, for which

|f (x) − L| < ε (2)

whenever
0 < |x − c| < δ. (3)
Variations
For a left-handed limit, replace equation 3 with

−δ < x − c < 0. (4)

For a right-handed limit, replace equation 3 with

0 < x − c < δ. (5)

For a positive infinite limit, instead of trying to satisfy equation 2 for all ε, we will try to find a value of delta
such that for every positive number M ,
f (x) > M. (6)
Similarly, for a negative infinite limit, a value of delta must be found such that for every negative number N ,

f (x) < N. (7)

1
 Example
Prove that
lim x3 = 8 (8)
x→2

It is required that

| f(x) −L| < ε (9)

3
|x − 8 − L| < ε (10)

when
|x − 2| < δ (11)

|x − 2||x2 + 2x + 4| < ε (12)

2 2
δ|x + 2x + 4| > |x − 2||x + 2x + 4| (13)

Suppose δ < 1, then

−1 < x − 2 < 1 (14)

1<x<3 (15)
2
7 < x + 2x + 4 < 19 (16)

Thus,

|x2 + 2x + 4| < 19 (17)

2
|x − 2||x + 2x + 4| < 19δ (18)
ε = 19δ (19)

If ε > 19, let δ = 1. Then,

|x − 2| < 1 (20)
2
7 < x + 2x + 4 < 19 (21)
2
|x − 2||x + 2x + 4| < 19 < ε (22)
ε
∴ given ε > 0, let δ = min{1, 19 }. Then, if |x − 2| < δ, |x3 − 8 − L| < ε where L = 0, proving that
3
limx→2 x = 8, as required.

Limit Laws
1. Sum and Difference Law
lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) (23)
x→c x→c x→c

2. Constant Multiple Law

lim cf (x) = c lim f (x) (24)
x→c x→c

3. Product Law
lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x) (25)
x→c x→c x→c

4. Quotient Law
f (x) limx→c f (x)
lim = , where lim g(x) ̸= 0 (26)
x→c g(x) limx→c g(x) x→c

5. Power Law h in
n
lim [f (x)] = lim f (x) (27)
x→c x→c

6. Substitution Law
lim f (x) = f (x) (28)
x→c

2
 7. Cancel Common Factor Law
f (x)(x − c) f (x)
lim = lim (29)
x→c g(x)(x − c) x→c g(x)

8. Sin Trig Limit

sin x
lim =1 (30)
x→0 x

9. Cos Trig Limit

1 − cos x
lim =0 (31)
x→0 x
10. Squeeze Theorem
Let f (x), g(x), and h(x) be defined for all x ̸= c in an open interval containing c such that:

f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x). (32)

If
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x), (33)
x→c x→c

Then,
lim g(x) = L. (34)
x→c

Continuity
q(x) is continuous at x = c if
lim q(x) = q(c). (35)
x→c

A function is continuous if it is differentiable everywhere.

 
f (x) − f (c)
lim f (x) − f (c) = lim · (x − c) (36)
x→c x→c x−c
= f ′ (c) lim (x − c) (37)
x→c
=0 (38)

Thus,
lim f (x) = f (c). (39)
x→c

Intermediate Value Theorem

If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], and L is a number that lies in between f (a) and f (b), the there
exists a number c such that a < c < b and f (c) = L.

Extreme Value Theorem

If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then f (x) has both a maximum and minimum value on [a, b].

Mean Value Theorem

If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and f (x) is differentiable on the open interval (a, b), there exists
a number c such that a < c < b and
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = (40)
b−a

Differentiation Laws
1. Definition
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim (41)
h→0 h
2. Constant Rule
d
c=0 (42)
dx

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 3. Constant Multiple Rule
d d
(cf (x)) = c f (x) (43)
dx dx
4. Power Rule
d
(xn ) = nxn−1 (44)
dx
5. Sum and Difference Rule
d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x) (45)
dx
6. Product Rule
d
(f (x)g(x)) = f ′ (x)g(x) + g ′ (x)f (x) (46)
dx
7. Quotient Rule
g(x)f ′ (x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
 
d f (x)
= (47)
dx g(x) g(x)2

8. Chain Rule
d
f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x) (48)
dx
9. Basic Trig Rules
d
sin(x) = cos(x) (49)
dx
d
cos(x) = − sin(x) (50)
dx
d
tan(x) = sec2 (x) (51)
dx
d
sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x) (52)
dx
d
csc(x) = − csc(x) cot(x) (53)
dx
d
cot(x) = − csc2 (x) (54)
dx

Curve Sketching Steps

1. Find the domain and endpoints of the function.
2. Find x and y intercepts.

3. Determine if there is any symmetry.

4. Find all horizontal, vertical or oblique asymptotes.
5. Determine where the function is increasing or decreasing.
6. Find local maximums and minimums.

7. Determine concavity and points of inflection.

8. Find absolute maximum and minimum.
9. Figure out range of the function.

10. Do sketch.