MATHEMATICAL MONOGRAPHS. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN axp ROBERT S. WOODWARD. No. 4. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. By JAMES McMAHON, PRorEsion oF MATHEMATICS I Const UNTMERSITY, FOURTH EDITION, ENLARGED. FIRST THOUSAND. NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. TLoxpow: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limrrep, 1906,Corvnscie, 1896, MANSFIELD MFRRIMAN sxo ROBERT 5, WOODWARD, HIGHER MATHEMATICS. Fin Baition, September, 3856 Second Haition, January, 2898, ‘Thied Baition, ANgust, 900 Fourth Baition, January, 1906EDITORS’ PREFACE. ‘Tae volume called Higher Mathematics, the first edition of which was published in 1896, contained eleven chapters by eleven authors, cach chapter being independent of the others, but all supposing the reader to have at least a mathematical training equivalent to that given in classical and colleges. The publication of that volume is now discontinued and the chapters are issued in separate form. In these reissues it will generally be found that the monographs are enlarged by additional articles or appendices which cither amplify the former presentation or record recent advances. This plan of publication has been arranged in order to meet the demand of teachers and the convenience of classes, but it is also thought that it may prove advantageous to readers in special lines of mathematical Literature, Tt is the intention of the publishers and editors to add other monographs to the seties from time to time, if the call for the same seems to warrant it. Among the topics which are under consideration are those of elliptic functions, the theory of num- bers, the group theory, the calculus of variations, and non- Euclidean geometry; possibly also monographs on branches of astronomy, mechanics, and mathematical physics may be included. It is the hope of the editors that this form of publication may tend to promote mathematical study and research over a wider field than that which the former volume has occupied, December, 1905.AUTHOR'S PREFACE, This compendium of hyperbolic trigonometry was first published asa chapter in Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics, ‘There is reason to believe that it supplies a need, being adapted to two or three different types of readers. College students who have had clementary courses in trigonometry, analytic geometry, and differ. ential and integral calculus, and who wish to know something of the hyperbolic trigonometry on account of its important and historic rela. tons to each of those branches, will, it 1s hoped, find these relations presented ina simple and comprehensive way in the first half of the work. Readers who have some interest in imaginaries are then intro: duced to the more general trigonometry of the complex plane, where the circular and hyperbolic functions merge into one class of transcend. ents, the singly periodic functions, having either a real or a pure imag. inary period. For those who also wish to view the subject in some of its practical relations, numerous applications have been selected so a5 to illustrate the various parts of the theory, and to show its use to the physicist and engineer, appropriate numerical tables being supplied for these purposes. With all these things in mind, much thought has been given to the mode of approaching the subject, and to the presentation of funda: mental notions. and it is hoped that some improvements are discerni- ble. For instance, it has been customary to define the hyperbolic functions in relation to a sector of the rectangular hyperbola, and to take the initial radius of the sector coincident with the prineipal radius of the curve; in the present work, these and similar restrict discarded in the interest of analogy and generality, with a ga y metry and simplicity, and the functions are defined as certain charac nging to any sector of any hyperbola. Such defini- tions, m connection with the fruitful notion of correspondence of points on comcs, lead to simple and general proofs of the addition-theorems, from which easily follow the conversion-formulas, the derivatives, the Maclaurin expansions, and the exponential expressions. ‘The proofs are so arranged as to apply equally to the circular functions, regarded. as the characteristic ratios belonging to any elliptic sector. For those, however, who may wish to start with the exponential expressions as the definitions of the hyperbolic functions, the appropriate order of Procedure is indicated on page 25, and a direct mode of bringing such exponential definitions into geometrical relation with the hyperbolic sector as shown in the Appendix. December, 1903.CONTENTS. 1. CORRESPONDENCE OF Ports oN Comics. 2... +. Page 7 2. ARTAS OF CORRESPONDING TRIANGLES a) 3. AREAS OF CORKESFONDING SECTORS Dg | Cuaracrenisti¢ RATIOS OF SECTORIAL MEASURES 10 5. Ratios EXPnessem as TRIANOLE-MEASURES © 20.0.0. 5+ 10 6 FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS FOR ELUPSE 4 ee ee ee 7. Fusctionat Retavions FoR HYPERBOEA DE 8, REtATIONS BETWEEN HyPeRmouic Functions 2.0.0. 0+ 12 0. VARIATIONS OF THE HYPERROLIC FUNCTIONS. 5. 6 0 0 + 14 xo, ANTEYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS ce 16 a1, FUNCTIONS OF SUMS AND DIFFERENCES. . 0; 0, +) = 16 Convensios FoRMULAs - co Lauro Ratios : rr) Denivatters oF HPeKBoLIc Fuscrioss. . 5 6 5 ee 28 \Denivarivrs op ANTETYPeRBoLIC FUNCTIONS... 0. +. 22 |. EXPANSION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS © 5 5 yy 6 + + 83 EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSIONS © 0. 2 ee ee ee Od EXPANSION OF ANTE-FUNCTIONS Fee as Locanrriwic EXPREssion oF ANIETUNCTIONS |e ss + + a7 ‘Tue Guprrwantan FuseTION eB a1. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF GUDERMANIAN, © 52 2 2 2 ee 8 a2. GUDERMANTAN ANGLE cD 23. DERIVATIVES OF GUDERMANIAN AND INVERSE. ~ 3 24, SERTES FOR GUDERMANIAN AND 11S INVERSE 5 6 yy 4 4 I as. Gxaras or Hyrrenouie FUNCTIONS Se 26, ELEMENTARY INTECRALS. = Ds ap. FUNCFIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS =. ee we 3B 28, Anprriox Tironeas ror ComPLexes Se 2g, FUNCTIONS OF PURE TMAGINARIES . :- to gt ge. FeNerions oF #44y in Tue Fou X+i¥ we AB jr. THe CATENARY a 32. Tue Carewany oF UNIFORM STRENGT |. Fee es 49 ga Tue Erastic Carewany 2 te se ja THE TRACTORY ve eee - ot gs. Tue LOXODROME. Fe SR6 ‘CONTENTS. ARE, 30 COMBINED FLEXURE AND TENSION. by. Atremsarina Cumrewrs. 2... 1 38 MIscELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS «5. 39 Expiavamon or Tames.) |) Taste L Hyrresouc Fuxcrions . 5... Ui, Vavves oF cosit (3-+49) ano smi (+i) TIL Vawwes o gdu ann 0° - TV. VALUES oF gdu, Loo sim u, 106 ensue Avrexpix, Histomica aNp EIBLIOGRAFMICAL EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSIONS AS DEFINITIONS IE, ee eeHYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, ART. 1.. CORRESPONDENCE OF POINTS ON Conic. To prepare the way for a general treatment of the hyper- bolic functions preliminary discussion is given on the relations between hyperbolic sectors. The method adopted is such as to apply at the same time to sectors of the ellipse, including the circle; and the analogy of the hyperbolic and circular functions will be obvious at every step, since the same set of equations can be read in connection with either the hyperbola or the ellipse.* It is convenient to begin with the theory of correspondence of points on two central conics of like species, ie. either both ellipses or both hyperbolas. To obtain a definition of corresponding points, let 0,4, O,B, be conjugate radii of * central conic, and 0,4, O,B, conjugate radii of any other central conic of the same speci let P,P, be two points on the curves; and let their coordi« nates referred to the respective pairs of conjugate directions de (x19) (#41 79) then, by analytic geometry, @ “The hyperbotic functions are not so named on account of any analogy swith what are termed Elliptic Functions. "The elliptic integrals, and thence the ellipie functions, derive their name from the early attempts of mathemat at the rectifcation of the ellipse... . To a certaln extent thi rantage; . . » because we employ the name hyperbolie function to de- note cosh 1, sinh w, etc., by analogy with which the ell merely the circular functions cos g, sin @, etc. . Functions, p. 175.) functions would be (Greenbill, Elliptic8 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, Now if the points 7,, P, be so situated that 4 x a, a é @) the equalities referring to sign as well as magnitude, then P,, P, are called corresponding points in the two systems. If Q,, Q, be another pair of correspondents, then the sector and tri- angle P,0,Q, are said to correspond respectively with the sector and triangle 2.0,Q, These definitions will apply also when the conics coincide, the points 2, , P, being then referred to any two pairs of conjugate diameters of the same conic. In discussing the relations between corresponding areas it is convenient to adopt the following use of the word “ measure": ‘The measure of any area connected with a given central conic is the ratio which it bears to the constant area of the triangle formed by two conjugate diameters of the same conic, Vor example, the measure of the sector 4,0,P, is the ratio sector A, triangle 4,0,8,AREAS OF CORRESPONDING SECTORS, 8 and is to be regarded as positive or negative according as A,O,P, and A,O,B, are at the same or opposite sides of their common initial line. Art. 2, AREAS OF CORRESPONDING TRIANGLES. ‘The areas of corresponding triangles have equal measures. For, let the coordinates of Py, Q, be (x, ¥,), (4, 9/), and let those of their correspondents P,, Q, be (x4, 94), (#y', 94); let the triangles P,0,0,, P,0,0, be T,, T,, and let the measuring tri- angles 4,0,B,, 4,0,B, be K,, K,, and their angles @,, ,; then, by analytic geometry, taking account of both magnitude and direction of angles, areas, and lines, ary, .) si 440, sin @, at 9) da, Therefore, by (2), (3) Art. 8. AREAS OF CORRESPONDING SECTORS. The areas of corresponding sectors have equal measures. For conceive the sectors S,, 5, divided up into infinitesimal corresponding sectors; then the respective infinitesimal corre. sponding triangles have equal measures (Art, 2); but the given sectors are the limits of the sums of these infinitesimal triangles, hence Ss KE (4) In particular, the sectors 4,0,P,, 4,0,P, have equal meas. ures; for the initial points 4,, 4, are corresponding points. It may be proved conversely by an obvious reductio ad absurdum that if the initial points of two equal-measured sectors correspond, then their terminal points correspond, Thus if any radii 0,4,, 0,4, be the initial lines of two equal-measured sectors whose terminal radii are O,P,, O,P,,10 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, then P,, P, are corresponding points referred respectively to the pairs of conjugate directions 0,4,, 0,B,, and OA, O,B,: that is, wn Prob. x. Prove that the sector P,0,Q, is bisected by the line joining Q, to the mid-point of P,Q, (Refer the paints P,, Q,, re- spectively, to the median as common axis of x, and to the two opposite conjugate directions as axis of y, and show that P,, Q, are then corresponding points.) Prob. 2. Prove that the measure of a circular sector is equal to the radian measure of its angle. Prob. 3. Find the measure of an elliptic quadrant, and of the sector included by conjugate radii, Art. 4, CHARACTERISTIC RATIOS OF SECTORIAL MEASURES. Let 4,0,P, = 5S, be any sector of a central conic; draw P.M, ordinate to O,A,, i.e. parallel to the tangent at 4, let OM, = 2, M,P, = y,, 0,4, =a,,and the conjugate radius OB, =6,; then the ratios x,/2,, 9,/0, are called the charac teristic ratios of the given sectorial measure S,/K,. These ratios are constant both in magnitude and sign for all sectors. of the same measure and species wherever these may be situ- ated (Art. 3). Hence there exists a functional relation be- tween the sectorial measure and each of its characteristic ratios. Arr, 8. Ratios EXPRESSED AS TRIANGLE-MEASURES, ‘The triangle of a sector and its complementary triangle are measured by the two characteristic ratios. For, let the triangle A,Q,P, and its complementary triangle P,0,B, be denoted by Ty T iy then (s)FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS FOR ELLIPSE, o¥e ART. 6 FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS FOR ELLIPSE. The functional relations that exist between the sectorial measure and each of its characteristic ratios are the same for all elliptic, in m cluding circular, sec- B tors (Art.4). Let P,, ~R P, be corresponding ( points on an ellipse and a circle, referred igs to the conjugate die oO rections Q,4,, OB, and OQ, A,,O,By the latter pair being at right angles; let the angle 4,0,P, = @ in radian measure; then we 4s (6) (7) Prob, 4. Given x; = Ja; find the measure of the elliptic sector A,O.P.. Also find its area when a, = 4,6, = 3, @ = 60". Prob. 5, Find the characteristic ratios of an elliptic sector whose measure is }t. Prob. 6, Write down the relation between an elliptic sector and its triangle. (See Art. 5.) ART. 7, FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS FOR HYPERBOLA. ‘The functional relations between a sectorial measure and its characteristic ratios in the case of the hyperbola may be written in the form x s #1 = cosh sinh, a OR! B x and these express that the ratio of the two lines on the left is acertain definite function of the ratio of the two areas on the right. These functions are called by analogy the hyperbolic1 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. cosine and the hyperbolic sine, Thus, writing # for S,/K,, the two equations t: =cosha, = sinh w 8) serve to define the hyperbolic cosine and sine of a given secto- rial measure ; and the hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant are then defined as follows: sinh w cosh # tanh w= S27 *, coth w= SF" =| ' (9) 1 1 : sechu = ory Sh = Saw J The names of these functions may be read “h-cosine,” “hsine,” “h-tangent,” ete., or “hyper-cosine,” etc. ArT. 8, RELATIONS AMONG HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, Among the six functions there are five independent rela~ tions, so that when the numerical value of one of the functions is given, the values of the other five can be found. Four of these relations consist of the four defining equations (9). The fifth is derived from the equation of the hyperbola giving cosh’ w — sinh*w = 1, (roy By a combination of some of these equations other subsidi« ary relations may be obtained; thus, dividing (10) successively by cosh? x, sinh”, and applying (9), give I = tanh’ # = sech* “1 my coth? w — 1 = esch" w. i Equations (9), (10), (11) will readily serve to express the value of any function in terms of any other. For example, when tanh is given, 1 coth x= ———, sech w= 1 —tanh’w, tanh « vRELATIONS BETWEEN HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, 13 tanhw cosh w sinh « = eschu = 9 ‘The ambiguity in the sign of the square root may usually be removed by the following considerations: The functions cosh x, sechw are always positive, because the primary char- acteristic ratio #,/a, is positive, since the initial line 0,4, and the abscissa O,M, are similarly directed from O,, on which- ever branch of the hyperbola P, may be situated; but the func- tions sinh #, tanh x, coth w, esch x involve the other charac- teristic ratio 7,/8, which is positive or negative according as y,and 4, have the same or opposite signs, i. as the measure 'v is positive or negative; hence these four functions are either all positive or all negative. Thus when any one of the func- tions sinha, tanh a, csch, coth x, is given in magnitude and », there is no ambiguity in the value of any of the six si hyperbolic functions; but when her cosh w or sech xe is given, there is ambiguity as to whether the other four functions shall be all positive or all negative. ‘The hyperbolic tangent may be expressed as the ratio of two lines. For draw the tangent line AC = 4; then fe ow ye hus? :* tanh wat 22 até (12) & or The hyperbolic tangent is the measure of the triangle 0.4 For OAC _at GAB ab 3 Thus the sector AOP, and the triangles AOP, POB, AOC, are proportional to #, sinh #, cosh, tanh w (eqs. 5, 13) i hence sinh «> «> tanhy. (14) = tanh w. (3)ary HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, Prob. 7. Express all the hyperbolic functions in terms of sinh », Given cosh «= 2, find the values of the other functions. Prob. 8 Prove from eqs. 10, 11, that coshw> sinh w, coshu>1, tanh <1, sechw <1. Prob. 9. In the figure of Art. x, let O4=2, OB=1, AOB = 60°, and area of sector 40P = 3; find the sectorial measure, and the two characteristic ratios, in the elliptic sector, and also in the hyper- bolic sector; and find the area of the triangle AOP. (Use tables of os, sin, cosh, sinh.) Prob, ro. Show that coth #, sech #, csch # may cach be ex- pressed as the ratio of ‘two lines, as follows: Let the tangent at P make on the conjugate axes O4, OZ, intercepts OS = m, OT =n; let the tangent at B, to the conjugate hyperbola, meet OP in R, making BR = é; then cothu = //a, sechu = m/a, eschu = n/5. Prob. 11, The measure of segment 4J£P is sinh w cosh u — u. Modify this for the ellipse. Modify also eqs. 1-14, and probs. 8, 10. ART. 9, VARIATIONS OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Since the values of the hyperbolic functions depend only on the sectorial measure, it is convenient, in tracing their vari- ations, to consider only sectors of one half of a rectangular hyperbola, whose conjugate radii are equal, and to take the principal axis 4 as the common initial line of all the sectors, The sectorial measure # assumes every value from — 0, through 0, to -} o, as the terminal point P comes in from infinity on the lower branch, and passes to infinity on the upper branch; that is, as the terminal line OP swings from the lower asymptotic posi- tion y= — a, to the upper one, y=. It is here assumed, but is proved in Art. 17, that the sector AOP becomes infinite as P passes to infinity. ince the functions cosh w, sinh x, tanh w, for any positionVARIATIONS OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, 15 of CP, are equal to the ratios of #, y, t, ta the principal radius is evident from the figure that cosho=1, sinho=o, tanho=o, (15) and that as a increases towards positive infinity, cosh «, sinh are positive and become infinite, but tanh # approaches unity asa limit; thus tanh eo = cosh 0 = 20, sinh o =e + (16) Again, as « changes from zero towards the negative side, cosh 1 is positive and increases from unity to infinity, but sinh « is negative and increases numerically from zero to a negative infinite, and tanh « is also negative and increases numerically from zero to negative unity ; hence cosh (— 2 =, sinh(—o)=—, tanh(—w) 1.17) For intermediate values of » the numerical values of these functions can be found from the formulas of Arts. 16, 17, and are tabulated at the end of this chapter. A general idea of their manner of variation can be obtained from the curves in Art. 28, in which the sectorial measure w is represented by the abseissa, and the values of the functions cosh % sinh 2, etc are represented by the otdinate, The relations between the functions of — u and of w are evident from the definitions, as indicated above, and in Art. 8 Thus cosh (— x) =f cosh «sinh (— 1) = — sinh w, sech (— 4) = 4 sech #, esch (— x) = —esch u, | (18) tanh (— x) = —tanh #, coth (— x) = — coth u. Prob. 12. Trace the changes in sech u, coth w, esch was u passes from — © to +e. Show that sinh x, cosh w ate infinites of the same order when # is infinite. (It will ‘appear in Art. 17 that sinh 1 cosh w are infinites of an order infinitely higher than the order of 1) Prob. 13. Applying eq. (12) to figure, page 14, prove tanh, = tan 40P,16 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Art, 10, ANTI-HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. The equations % = cosh m5 tanh , etc. -osh"!=, a t w= sinh", «= tanh-"5, etc, which may be read: wis may also be expressed by the inverse notation ~ the seetorial measure whose hyperbolic cosine is the ratio # to a,” etc.; or “mis the antih-cosine of #/a,” cte. Since there are two values of #, with opposite signs, that correspond to a given value of cosh 1, it follows that if « be determined from the equation cosh # = #, where m is a given umber greater than unity, # is a two.valued function of ». The symbol cosh"' will be used to denote the positive value of u that satisfies the equation cosh w= m. Similarly the symbol sech-"s will stand for the positive value of w that satisfies the equation sech w=, The signs of the other functions sinh-'zn, tanh“, coth #, esch" my, are the as the sign of m. Hence all of the anti-hyperbolic functions of real numbers are one-valued. Prob. 14. Prove the following relations : cosh“! m= sinh"! Wi® =, sinh“tn = & cosh"! Val X, the upper or lower sign being used according as m is positive or negative, Modify these relations for sin", cos" Prob. 1g. In figure, Art.1,let 04 = 2,08 = 1, AGB = 60% find the area of the hyperbolic sector 4OP, and of the segment AMP, if the abscissa of P is 3, (Find cosh“ from the tables for cosh.) Art, 11. Functions or SuMs AND DIFFERENCES. (a) To prove the difference-formulas sinh (i — 0) = sinh « cosh» — cosh w sinh 2 1 cosh (wv — 0) = cosh 4 cosh 7 — sinh # sinh (3) Let OA be any radius ofa hyperbola, and let the sectors AOP, AOO have the measures n, v; then w — v is the measure of the sector QOP. Let OB, OQ" be the radii conjugate to 04, 00; and let the codrdinates of P,Q, Q' be (Fy (rh (257) with reference to the axes Q4, OB; thenFUNCTIONS OF SUMS AND DIFFERENCES. 17 inh Sector GOP _ triangle GOP sinh (w — 2) e ie [Art 5. sector QOP _ triangle POQ" cosh (¥ — 7) = cos ‘e (Art. 5. = Ho's 74) sin ae, ~ ta6, sin @ b,a, voy but ane (20) since Q, Q’ are extremities of conjugate radii ; hence cosh (w — v) = cosh x cosh » — sinh w sinh 1, > In the figures w is positive and v is positive or negative. Other figures may be drawn with # negative, and the language n the text will apply to all, In the case of elliptic sectors, similar figures may be drawn, and the same language will apply, except that the second equation of (20) will be ¥’/a, = —y/bj therefore sin (w — v) =sin u cos 7 — cos «sin % cos(u — 7) = cos w cos v + sin wsin a {b) To prove the sum-formulas sinh (1-2 cosh (w+ 0) = cosh # cosh » + sinh w sinh z, sinh z cosh » + cosh # sinh 2, a) ‘These equations follow from (19) by changing 2 into — »,18 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. and then for sinh(—2), cosh(—2), writing — sinh, cosho (Art. 9, eqs. (18). rove that tanh (i tanh « + tanh ¢ (6) To prove that tanh (« st 2) = ah wtanhe” (22) sinh (w+ 2) Writing tanh (wd) = SESS expanding and dividing numerator and denominator by cosh « cosh 2, eq. (22) is ob- tained. Prob. 16. Given cosh « = 2, cosh 2 = 3, find cosh (x +0). Prob. 17. Prove the following identities: 2. sinh 2v = 2 sinh w cosh 2, 2. cosh 24 = cosh'a + sinh" = 1+ 2 sinh™« 3 1 -tcoshw =2cosh'du, cosh #— x sinh « cosh? — 4 tanh de 1 tanh? a Tan 6. sinh 34 =3 sinh # +4 sinh? x, cosh gu = 4 cosh! w —3 cosh % ye cosh w$ sinh w= TEAR ie 8. (cosh w+ sinh u)(cosh 9+ sinh 1) =cosh (u + 2) + sinh (w+ 2). 9. Generalize (8); and show also what it becomes when : xo. sinh cos'y + cosh'# sin'y = sinh'x + sin’y cosh"! yz cosh-t = cosh! [men f(a nmi tat tm) Prob. 18. What modifications of signs are required in (21), (22), in order to pass to circlar functions? Prob. 19. Modify the identittes of Prob. 17 for the same purpose. sinh & sinh" = Art. 12. CONVERSION ForMULAS. To prove that cosh w, cosh 1, = 2 cosh $2, 2%) cosh 4(4,— %4), cosh it,— cosh #, = 2 sinh Hx, + ,) sinh 4(x,— 1%), 3) 2 cosh He, + m,) sind Hu, — 0). sinh x, — sinh x, sinh #, sinh u, = 2 sinh 40, + 1,) cosh #1,— 1), |LIMITING RATIOS. 1s From the addition formulas it follows that cosh (w+ 2) + cosh (vw — 2) = 2 cosh w cosh 2, cosh (w+ 2) — cosh (v — 2) = 2 sinh x sinh », sinh («+ 2) 4 sinh (w — 2) = 2 sinh # cosh 2 + sinh (w +0) — sinh (w — 9) = 2 cosh w sinh», and then by writing wos, ues my w= He, +), 2 =H, —w,), these equations take the form required. Prob, 20. In passing to circular functions, show that the only modification to be made in the conversion formulas is in the alge- braic sign of the right-hand member of the second formula, cosh 2u-+ cosh 47 cosh 24 + cosh 4 Prob. 21. Simplify caw sinh gz’ cash aw — cosh gv" Prob. 22. Prove sinh’ — sinh" y = sinh (a +3) sinh (x — 3). Prob. 23. Simplify cosh*x cosh’ y + sinh’x sinh’y. Prob. 24. Simplify cosh'x cos® y + sinh’x sin’y. Arr. 18. Luwrrine Ratios. To find the limit, as v approaches zero, of sinh tanh « u? ue which are then indeterminate in form. By eq, (14), sinh «> w> tanh «; and if sinh w and tanh be successively divided by each term of these inequalities, it follows that 1 < ane cosh ay sech wc AH Cy but when #20, cosh # = 1, sech wr, hence Tim. sinh wy im, tanh _ GayHYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Arr. 14. DERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. To prove that (a) dsinh 4) he = cosh x, @) Aces) *) = sinh w, (REN x echt, . 2 (a) Me) = sock w tanh °° 4 ca Ww dees =~ esch uw coth x hs (e+ And) — sinh w =2 cosh Haw du) sinh 44ue, th tu 2 = cosh (w+ dang Take the limit of both sides, as Ju +0, and put Ay _ dy _ sinh ) lim. Fn = da = an lim, cosh (w 4 4du) = cosh 1, sinh 44x tau alsinh x) du lim, =1; (see Art, 13) cosh w. then (6) Similar to dank a Ou =i cosh _cosht — sinhtwDERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, * 21 (@) Similar to (0). avechu)_ dt sinh. w ae = ae’ Cosa =~ cosh = Sec # tanh (A) Similar to). It thus appears that the functions sinh w, cosh « reproduce themselves in two differentiations; and, similarly, that the circular functions sin #, cost produce their opposites in two differentiations, In this conncetion it may be noted that the frequent appearance of the hyperbclic (and circular) functions in the solution of physical problems is chicfly due to the fact that they answer the question: What function has its second derivative equal to a positive (or negative) constant multiple of the function itself? (See Probs. 28-30.) An answer sucl as y= nex is an actual sectorial measure and ytits characteristic ratio; but only that the relation between the numbers mx and y is the same as the known relation between the measure of a hyper- bolic sector and its characteristic ratio; and that the numerical value of y could be found from a table of hyperbolic cosines. cosh wrx is not, however, to be understood as asserting that Prob. 25. Show that for circular functions the only modifica~ tions required are in the algebraic signs of (4), (¢). Prob. 26. Show from their derivatives which of the hyperbolic and circular functions diminish as w increases. Prob. 27. Find the derivative of tanh # independently of the derivatives of sinh , cosh #. Prob. 28, Eliminate the constants by differentiation from the equation y= 4 cosh mx + B sinh mx, and prove that @y/ita* = m'y. Prob. 2g. Eliminate the constants from the equation y= A cos me + B sin ma, and prove that d*y/ds* = — my, Prob. 30. Write down the most general solutions of the differen- tial equationsa2 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Arr. 15. DERIVATIVES OF ANTI-HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. @ aint “2 cosh! ( Aeoshs) tanh =) (26) © dx cy tescho' 2) : ae VE (2) Let w= sinh", then 2 = sinh u, dx = cosh x de =v1+ sinh? ude = YI # du, du =ax/ VTP aR () Similar to (a). (9 Let «= tanh, then x= tanh u, de = sech" ude = (1 tanh! w)au = (1 — adn de = ef — 2, (@) Similar to (2). (a Hest D4 (cosh ast /(S (A) Similar to (¢). Prob. 31. Prove Hcos'z)_ dx vr atantx)_ or Moots) dz 14a" ox tatEXPANSION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, 28 Prob. 32. Prove Prob. 33- Find d(sech-' 2) independently of cosh7' a Prob, 34. When tanh“ x is real, prove that coth~* = is imagi- nary, and conversely; except when x = 1 cosh" x Prob. 35. Evaluate “Tog? YER = oe. Art. 16. EXPANSION OF HYPERBOLIC FuNcTIONs. For this purpose take Maclaurin's Theorem, Le) = PO) + Hf O)+ 3 #00) + 3H) oo and put fv) =sinha, /(u) =cosh x, f(a) = sinh, ..., then floy=sinho=o, /(0)=cosho=1,..45 1 wees (27) hence sinh wht and similarly, or by differentiation, cosh wrt Fath hath see (28) By means of these series the numerical values of sinh 1», cosh #, can be computed and tabulated for successive values of the independent variable «, They are convergent for all values of , because the ratio of the wth term to the preceding is in the first case w/(2n — 12 — 2), and in the second case wf/(2n — 2)(2m — 3), both of which ratios can be made less than unity by taking » large enough, no matter what value « has. Lagrange’s remainder shows equivalence of function and series.24 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, ‘From these series the following can be obtained by division : tanh w= — fut yn ahha foes sech ¢= 1 — du? gat — Ae toes u coth «= 1 gut = gyi’ + phew’... Web slat! — ratte These four developments are seldom used, as there is no observable law in the coefficients, and as the functions tanh x, sech %, coth w, esch w, can be found directly from the previously (29) wesch u computed values of cosh #, sinh a Prob. 36. Show that these six developments can be adapted to the circular functions by changing the alternate signs. Art. 17. EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSIONS, Adding and subtracting (27), (28) give the identities cosh #-+ sinh « cosh # — sinh sinh w= Her =e ene 2 | (30) sech w= ————., ete. a J hence cosh «= tanh v= ‘The analogous exponential expressions for sin #, cos # are G=¥ yn : 1 cosu = (A fe sin w = (ot — et af! where the symbol e stands for the result of substituting si for x in the exponential development This will be more fully explained in treating of complex numbers, Arts. 28, 29.EXPANSION OF ANTI-FUNCTIONS, a5 Prob. 37. Show that the properties of the hyperbolie functions could be placed on a purely algebraic basis by starting with equa- tions (30) as their definitions ; for example, verify the identities : sinh (— 2) = — sinh w, cosh (— 2) = cosh w, cosh* w sinh’ w=1, sinh (v-+2) =sinh 2 cosh v + cosh # sinh 2, (cosh mu) Tu) = mi cosh mu, aie me 7 Prob. 38. Prove (cosh w+ sinh w)* = Prob, 39. Assuming from Art. ag that cosh w, sinh w satisfy the differential equation d¥y/du" = y, whose general solution may be written y= de"+ Be", where 4, # are arbitrary constants; show how to determine 4, Bin order to derive the expressions for cosh #, sinh w, respectively. [Use eq. (15).] Prob, 40. Show how to construct a table of exponential func- tions from a table of hyperbolic sines and cosines, and ove eesa, Prob. 41. Prove « = log, (cosh # + sinh w). Prob. 42, Show that the area of any hyperbolic sector is infinite when its terminal line is one of the asymptotes. Prob. 43. From the relation 2 cosh « = e+ ¢™ prove at-H(cosh w)"=cosh m+n cosh (n—2)u+4nkn—x) cosh (ng). and examine the last term when # is odd or even. Find also the corresponding expression for 2*-' (sinh w)". Art. 18. EXPANSION OF ANTI-FUNCTIONS. alsinh 2) Since de the integration-constant being zero, since sinh-+ x vanishes with x. This series is convergent, and can be used in compu-26 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, tation, only when 2 <1, Another series, convergent when + > 1, is obtained by writing the above derivative in the form sabe! ra 1 os sink! 2 = CHlog 25 2-1 te vy 2y where C is the integration.constant, which will be shown in Art. 19 to be equal to log, 2. A development of similar form is obtained for cosh~' x; for aco: hence cosh"! # = Clog 2—5 7,234,135 4 s+ 33) in which C is again equal to log, 2 [Art. 19, Prob. 46]. In order that the function cosh! may be real,.x must not be less than unity; but when x exceeds unity, this series is con- vergent, hence it is always available for computation. Again, and hence From (32), (33), (34) are derived: 1 at sech™ x = cosh” — = z secs (35)‘LOGARITHMIC EXPRESSION OF ANTI-FUNCTIONS, ar coth~* #= tanh 4 oa G” Prob. 44. Show that the series for tanh~'x, coth'x, seh", are always available for computation. Prob. 45. Show that one or other af the two developments of the inverse hyperbolic cosecant is available. ART. 19. LOGARITHMIC EXPRESSION OF ANTI-FUNCTIONS. Let 2 =cosh x, then 37 —1 = sinh uy; therefore 4 VPS = cosh wtsinhu =e, and” us, = cosh"tx, = log (a + Va*— 1). (38) Similarly, sinh4x = log (x + #2" $1). (390) — Also sech-tr = cosh! = tog EYE = (40) (1) Again, let therefore (42) and (43) Prob. 46. Show from (38), (39) that, when sinh“tr — log x log 2, cosh~* ~ log and hence show that the integration-constants in (32), (33) are each equal to log 2.28 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Prob. 47. Derive from (42) the series for tanh“! given Prob. 48. Prove the identities: (34). log. x=2 tanh“ sinh Yea s =cosh"* h(x Pat -cosh™* H+x7"); arr log sec x = 2 tanh“ tan? 4x; log cse x = atanh’ ' tan"(d + 4a); log tan x = — tanh“ cos ax = — sinh“! cot 2x = cosh“! esc 2x ART. 20, THE GUDERMANIAN FUNCTION. The correspondence of sectors of the same species was dis. cussed in Arts. 1-4. It is now convenient to treat of the correspondence that may exist between sectors of different species. Two points P,,P,,.0n any hyperbola and ellipse, are said to correspond with reference to two pairs of conjugates O,4,, O.B,, and 0,4, 0,8, respectively, when 4a, = 4/2, (44) and when y,,j have the same sign, The sectors 4,0,P., A,Q,P, are then also said to correspond. Thus corresponding sectors of central conics of different species are of the same sign and have their primary characteristic ratios reciprocal, Hence there is a fixed functional relation between their ve~ spective measures, The elliptic sectorial measure is called the gudermanian of the corresponding hyperbolic sectorial measure, and the latter the anti-gudermanian of the former, This relation is expressed by SUK, = gd S/K, or v=gdu, and wa gd, (as) ART. 21. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF GUDERMANIAN, The six hyperbolic functions of w are expressible in terms of the six circular functions of its gudermanian ; for since Fs cosh, “= cost (sce Arts. 6, 7) a ‘a in which #, 7 are the measures of corresponding hyperbolic and elliptic sectors,GUDERMANIAN ANGLE. 29 hence coshu=secv, — [eq (44)] ) sinh u =A/seC— i = tan v, tanh w= tan v/sec v = sin v, 46) coth « = ose x sech « = cose, esch u = cot 2 J ‘The gudermanian i sometimes useful in computation ; for instance, if sinhw be given,» can be found from a table of natural tangents, and the other circylar functions of » will give the remaining hyperbolic functions of u. Other uses of this function are given in Arts. 22-26, 32-36. Prob. 49. Prove that gd w= see~"(cosh #) = tan-(sinh «) os" (sech u) = sin-tanh 2), Prob. 50. Prove gd~'2 = cosh” Msec 2) = sinh“ (tan 0) tanh7 (sin 0 gi(— 0) =— In, N2brob. 51. Prove gdo goto = 0 -gd-"br Prob 52. Show that gd « and gd! # are odd functions of 1, 2. ©, gd-'(—}r)=— 0. Prob. 53. From the first identity in 4, Prob, x7, derive the rela- tion tanh du = tan do. Prob. 54. Prove tanh" "(tan 2) = 4 gd au, and tan" tanh x) = 4 gd“tax, Art. 22. GUDERMANIAN ANGLE If a circle be used instead of the ellipse of Art. 20, the be equal to the radian measure of the angle of the corresponding circular sector (see eq. (6), and Art. 3, Prob. 2). This angle will be called the gudermanian angle ; but the gudermanian function 7, as above defined, is merely a number, or ratio; and this number is equal to the radian measure of the gudermanian angle 6, gudermanian of the hyperbolic seetorial measure w: which is itself usually tabulated in degree measure; thus Os 1Bo'e/m 2 ee ee Kz)30 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTTONS. Prob. 3g. Show that the gudermanian angle of u may be construet- ed as follows: ‘Take the principal radius OA of an equilateral hyperbola, as the initial tine, and OP as the terminal line, of the sector whose measure is #; from A, the foot of the ordinate of 2, draw MT tangent to the circle whose diameter is the transverse axis: Zz then AQT is the angle required." Prob. 6. Show that the angle # never excecds go*. Prob. 57. The bisector of angle 407" e WW” bisects the sector AOP (see Prob. 13, Art, g and Prob, 53, Art. 21); and the line AP. (See Prob. 1, Art.3.) Prob. 58. This bisector is parallel to 7'P, and the points 7,P. are in line with the point diametrically opposite to 4. Prob. s9. The tangent at P passes through the foot of the ordinate of 7, and intersects TM on the tangent at A. Prob. 60. The angle AP. is half the gudermanian angle, Ant, 23, DERIVATIVES OF GUDERMANIAN AND INVERSE. Let vogdu, w= giv, then sec» = cosh see # tan ty = sinh udu, sec ede = du, therefore dgd-* v) = see ode. Gs) Again, de = cos vdu = sech u du, therefore algd 1) = sech u du. 9) Prob. Gr. Differentiate: y = sinh w= gd, gasing + gd, tanh w sech w y du, y= tanmseco + ga, * This angle was called by Gudermann the longitude of 1, and denoted by fe His iaverse symbol was Hy thus w= (lw). (Crelle’s Journal, vol. 6, 1830.) Lambert, who introduced the angle 9, named it the transcendent angle, (Hist. de Vacad. roy de Berlin, 761). Hotel (Nouvelles Annales, vol. 3, 1864) called it the hyperbolic amplitude of w, and wrote it amh 1, in analogy with the amplicude of an elliptic function, as shown in Prob. 62. Cayley (Elliptic Functions, 1876) made the usage uniform by ettaching to the angle the name of the mathematician who had used it extensively in tabulation and in the theory of elliptic functions nf modulus unity.SERIES FOR GUDERMANIAN AND 1T'3 INVERSE, aL Prob. 62. Writing the “elliptic integral of the first kind” in the form a * Vi-w sin @ & being called the modulus, and @ the amplitudes that is, = am 4, (mod. x), show that, in the special case when « w= gd oy am # = gdm, sin amu = tanh x, cosamw = sechw tan amw = sinh w; and that thus the elliptic functions sin am «, etc., degenerate into the hyperbolic functions, when the modulus is unity.* 1 ART. 24 SERIE Substitute for sech x, sec « in (49), (48) their expansions, Art. 16, and integrate, then gdusu— pt dat — yt +... (50) se +e take tht +. Gr) No constants of iittegration appear, since gd « vanishes with 44, and gd‘ with 7. These series are seldom used in compu- tation, as gd w is best found and tabulated by means of tables ‘of natural tangents and hyperbolic sines, from the equation gd w= tan~(sinh 2), and a table of the direct function can be used to furnish the numerical values of the inverse function ; or the latter can be obtained from the equation, gd“'y = sinh“Ytan 2} FOR GUDERMANIAN AND ITS INVERSE. ) = cosh(sec &), To obtain a logarithmic expression for gd-"z, let gd'y gdm, # The relation gd w = am «, (mod. 1), ed Holle! to name the function gi ts the hyperbatic amplitude of wand to write itamh u (eeenote, Art. 22). Tn this connection Cayley expressed the functions tanh 4, sech a, sinks in the form sin gd.u, cos gd, tan ed 1, and wrote them sf 1, cy 4 tg 1, {0 correspond with the abbreviations sm 1, cn my dna for sia am #, cos ama, tan am a. Thus tanh w= sg a= sn a, (mod. 1); ete 1 is well 10 note that neither the ellipte nor the hyperbole functions received their names on account of the relation existing between them ia a special case, (See foot-nete, p. 7)32 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, therefore secv cosh, tan v= sinh w, seco -}tane = cosh w+ sinh w =e, Lt sing _ 1 — 008 b+ 9) = tan Gap de, cos @ sin G2 4) uy = gd’ *, = log. tan (Ea + 40). o (32) Prob, 63, Evaluate 4 =#] , eR! ‘| Prob. 64. Prove that gd # — sin # is an infinitesimal of the fifth order, when w= 0. Prob. 65. Prove the relations de fdostan et, de —dos tan, ART. 25, GRAPHS OF HyPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. Drawing two rectangular axes, and laying down a series of points whose abscissas represent, on any convenient scale, suc- cessive values of the sectorial measure, and whose ordinates represent, preferably on the same scale, the corre- sponding values of the function to be plotted, the locus traced out by this series of points will be a graphical representation of the variation of the func tion as the sectorial meas-GRAPHS OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, 33 ure varies. The equations of the curves in the ordinary cartes sian notation are : Fig, Full Lines, Dotied Lines, A y=coshx, y= sech x; Booyssivha, y= escha; C ystanhs, y=cothz; D y=gdx. Here x is written for the sectorial measure 1, and y for the numerical value of cosh u, etc. It is thus to be noted that the variables 2, 9 are numbers, or ratios, and that the equation ¥ = cosh merely expresses that the relation between the numbers # and y is taken to be the same as the relation be- tween a scctorial measure and its characteristic ratio, The numerical values of cosh #, sinh #, tanh are given in the tables at the end of this chapter for values of w between o and 4. For greater values they may be computed from the devel- opments of Art. 16. The curves exhibit graphically the relations: 1 I 1 sech # = > esch w » cothu = ———; cosh a’ sinh a! tanh w’ cosh «£1, seche%t, tanh 1, gda d; a positive, ac<é; ar4b . Pe 7 eaative. ax+é _ CEE ac SB arth > VB ae: Thus, St a —coth-"(e—2) ) coth='2—coth='3 s)—tanh="(.3333)=-5404—.3466=.2028." =—tanh-(e— 2] =tanh-'o—tanh™(3) = = $494. (By interpreting these two integrals as areas, show graph- ically that the first is positive, and the second negative.) dx a Sas Ve Bar tnh1(.s) interpolate between tanh ($4 (see tables, pp. 65, 65)5 and similarly for tilt | 4930, tanh (.56) = a3)ELEMENTARY INTEGRALS, at é tan—'4/ Go) oF coth~ a ¢, Prob. 73. Prove /f sinh a tanh w du = sinh w— gd uy J cosh u coth w die = cosh w + log tanh 2 Prob. 74. Integrate (paw 5) hie, (paw sae, (x + ax t slate, Prob. 75. In the parabola y= aft, if s be the length of are measured from the vertex, and @ the angle which she tangent line makes with the vertical tangent, prove that the intrinsic equation of the curve is ds/dp = 2p sec’ @, P sce Htan P+ peda, Prob, 76. The polar equation of a parabola being r = @ sec! J4, referred to its focus as pole, express 5 in terms of 6 Prob. 77. Find the intrinsic equation of the curve y/a = cosh x/a, and of the curve y/a= log secx/a,* Prob. 78. Investigate a formula of reduction for, cosh* x ds also integrate by parts cosh~!.x dx, tanh“! dx, (sinh"!a)'de; and show that the ordinary methods of seduction for f cos" xsin*adx ean be applied to,f cosh 2 sinht x ds, ART. 27, FUNCTIONS OF CoMPLEX NuMBERS. As vector quantities are of frequent occurence in Mathe- matical Physics; and as the numerical measure of a vector in terms of a standard vector is a complex number of the form x 4 iy, in which x, y are real, and i stands for #—1; it becomes. necessary in treating of any class of functional oper ations to consider the meaning of these operations when per- formed on such generalized numbers." The geometrical defini. tions of cosh, sinh x, given in Art. 7, being then no longer applicable, it is necessary to assign to each of the symbols * The use of vectors im electrical theory is shown in Bedell and Crehore's Alternating Currents, Chaps, xivxx (first published in 1892). The advantage of introducing the complex measures of such vectors into the differential equ tions is shown by Steinmetz, Proc. Elec. Congress, 1893; while the additianal convenience of expressing the solution ia hyperbolic fanetions of these complex swumbers is exemplified by Kennelly, Proc, American Institute Electrical Engineers, April 1895. (See below, Art. 37.)FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS. 39 cosh (x + i), sinh (x 4 4), a suitable algebraic meaning, which should be consistent with the known algebraic values of cosh x, sinh x, and include these values as a particular case when y=0. The meanings assigned should also, if possible, t. 11 to be made general, with all the consequences that flow from them. be such as to permit the addition-formulas o| Such definitions are furnished by the algebraic develop- ments in Art. 16, which are convergent for all values of x, real orcomplex, Thus the definitions of cosh (x 4), sinh (x +) are to be cosh (x + iy) = t+ she FH)= +B) E FETE From these series the numerical values of cosh (r+ iy), sinh (x - ip) could be computed to any degree of approxima. tion, when # and y are given, In general the results will come out if the complex form* cosh (x + iy) = a+ 8, sinh («+ ty) = ¢+ id. The other functions are defined as in Art. 7, ea. (0)- Prob. 79. Prove from these definitions that, whatever w may be, cosh (—#)= cosh w, sinh (—#) = —sinh @ - a. Fycosh w= sinh, Jesinh = cosh 4 . ‘ # =~ Ecos mi = m* cosh mae iy sinh me = mt sinks mat * Iris to be borne in mind that the symbols cosh, sinh, here stand for alge- braic operators which convert one number into another; or which, in the lan~ guage of vector-analysis, change One vector into another, by stretching and turning, 4} The generalized hyperbolic functions usually present themselves in Mathe- matical Physics as the solution of the differential equation b/d = mid, sehere dom, we ate complex numbers, the measures of vector quantities. (See AMG 37)40 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS, Art. 28. ADDITION-THEOREMS FOR COMPLEXES. The addition-theorems for cosh (w+ 7), etc, where %, are complex numbers, may be derived as follows, First take #,@ as real numbers, then, by Art. 11, cosh (w +0) = cosh w cosh #-+ sinh w sinh a hence 1 + het vy =(1 + ie + oli thet. ) +beiernlortes.) 3 This equation is true when w, 7 are any real numbers. It must, then, be an algebraic identity. For, compare the terms of the rth degree in the letters #, v on each side. Those on I the left are ("+ 2) and those on the right, when collected, form an rth-degree function which is numerically equal to the former for more than r values of # when @ is constant, and for more than values of » when # is constant. Hence the terms of the rth degree on each side are algebraically identical func. tions of wand v* Similarly for the terms of any other degree. Thus the equation above written is an algebraic identity, and is true for ail values of # 2, whether real or complex. Then writing for each side its symbol, it follows that cosh (v7) = cosh «cosh v-sinh «sinh v; (53) and by changing » into — », cosh (¥— 1) = cosh # cosh y—sinh w sinh. (54) In a similar manner is found sinh (« + v) = sinh « cosh » + cosh x sinh v. (53) In particular, for a complex argument, cosh (x + dy) = cosh x cosh iy + sinh x sinh ip, , p (56) sinh (x + ix) = sinh x cosh iy cosh x sinh ip. FT two rih-degree functions of a single variable be equal for more than falues of the variable, then they are equal for all values of the variable, and are algebraically identical.”FUNCTIONS OF PURE IMAGINARIES. 41 Prob. 79, Show, by a similar process of generalization,* that if sin u, cos u, exp wt be defined by their developments in powers of 4, then, whatever w may be, sin (uw +2) = sin «cosy cos # sin a cos (v +2) = cos w cos 7 — sin w sin vy exp (u-+2) = exp au exp Prob. 80. Prove that the following are identi cosh’ wv — sinh? # = 1 cosh w+ sinh «= exp, cosh w— sinh # = exp (—), cosh «= jlexp # + exp(—«)}, sinh « = $fexp «—exp(—«)] ArT. 29, FUNCTIONS OF PURE IMAGINARIES. In the defining identities cosh 2 1 sinh w = «+ +5 put for the pure imaginary 1y, the cosh iy = 1 — 9+ sinh iy ion, tanh iy = #tan y. G9) and, by di + This method of generatization is sometimes called the principle of the © permanence of equivalence of forms.” It is not, however, strictly speaking, a “principle,” but a method; for, the validity of the generalization has 10 be demonstrated, for any particular form, by meses of the principle of the alge- ‘braic identity of polynomials enunciated in the preceding footnote, (See Annals of Mathematics, Vel. 6 p. 81.) { The symbol exp # stands for " exponential function of w,"" which is identi- seal with e= when wis real.