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Lec 4

The document discusses various performance characteristics of measurement instruments, including static characteristics like accuracy and hysteresis, as well as dynamic characteristics that describe an instrument's response over time like measuring lag, speed of response, and fidelity. Common types of instrument behavior are also defined, such as zero-order, first-order, and second-order responses based on mathematical models of the instrument output in relation to changes in the measured input quantity over time. Factors that can influence hysteresis, dead space, and response time are also outlined.

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15 views17 pages

Lec 4

The document discusses various performance characteristics of measurement instruments, including static characteristics like accuracy and hysteresis, as well as dynamic characteristics that describe an instrument's response over time like measuring lag, speed of response, and fidelity. Common types of instrument behavior are also defined, such as zero-order, first-order, and second-order responses based on mathematical models of the instrument output in relation to changes in the measured input quantity over time. Factors that can influence hysteresis, dead space, and response time are also outlined.

Uploaded by

mgeneralwork
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Performance Characteristics of Measurement:

• Static and Dynamic Characteristics


Static the steady-state reading that the instrument settles down to,
such as accuracy of the reading. (brush up the memory)

 Hysteresis Effects “The non-coincidence between the loading


and unloading curves is known as Hysteresis.”

For example, a pointer not


returning completely to
zero when load is removed.

If the input measured quantity


to the instrument is steadily
increased from negative value,
the output reading varies in the
manner as shown in curve (a).
Fig. L3.1 Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.
If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the
manner shown in curve (b).

• From the Fig. L3.1, Max. Input Hysteresis and Max. Output Hysteresis are
normally expressed as a % − 𝑎𝑔𝑒 of the full-scale input or output reading,
respectively.

• Hysteresis is mostly found in instruments that contain springs, such


as a Passive Pressure Gauge.

• It is also evident when friction forces in a system have different


magnitudes depending on the direction of movement, hysteresis
occurs.
such as: the mechanical fly ball (a device for measuring rotational
velocity) because it has friction in moving parts and also contain a
spring.
• Hysteresis can also occur in instruments that contain electrical
windings formed round an iron core, due to magnetic hysteresis in
the iron, such as rotary differential transformer.
 Dead Space
“defined as the range of different input values over which there is no
change in output value.” It is shown in Fig. L3.1
• Backlash in gears, an undesirable phenomenon, is a typical cause of dead
space. Backlash is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which
any part of a mechanical system can be moved in one direction without
causing any motion of the attached part. It is important in the precision
design of gear trains.
• The amount of play or clearance between
two parts. In case of gears it refers to how
much one gear can be moved back and forth
without moving the gear into which it is
meshed.
Dynamic Characteristics:

“The characteristics which indicate the response of instruments that


measure time-varying quantities in which the input varies with time &
so does the output are known as dynamic characteristics.”
such as:
• Measuring Lag,
• Speed of Response,
• Dynamic Error, and
• Fidelity

• These characteristics represent the dynamic behavior of instruments.


So, they describe the behavior of instrument’s between the time a
measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument
output attains a steady value in response.

• The time-varying input could be a Step, Ramp or Sinusoidal input.


• Various factors such as mass, fluid capacitance, thermal capacitance
or electric capacitance cause slowness which results in delay of the
response of instruments with respect to the change in measured
variables.

 Measuring Lag
“The delayed response of an instrument due to a change in the
measured quantity is known measuring Lag”
• It can be categorized as:
retardation type: instrument respond immediately to change.

time delay type: instrument respond after a dead time after


the input is applied. It is usually very small and can be ignored.

• Dead time causes dynamic error by simply shifting the system


response along the time scale.
 Speed of Response
“The quickness with which an instrument responds to changes in the
measured quantity is known as speed of response.”

 Dynamic error
Dynamic error, also called measurement error, is defined as “the
difference between the true value of a time-varying quantity and the
value indicated by the measurement system in the absence of static
error.”

 Fidelity
“The quality of reproducing faithful values is known as fidelity. It is
defined as the ability of an instrument to indicate the changes in
measured quantity without the dynamic error.”
• Like static characteristics, the manufacturer describe them in data
sheet under specified environmental conditions.

• Dynamic Calibration is used to obtain static characteristics

For a linear, time-invariant Measuring System, the general relation


between input and output can be written for time (t) > 0 as:

𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑚 𝑞𝑖 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑞𝑖 𝑑𝑞𝑖


𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 +… 𝑎1 𝑜 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑚−1 +… +𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Where: (E1)
𝑞𝑖 is the measured quantity

𝑞𝑜 is the output reading

𝑎𝑜 … 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑜 …𝑏𝑛 are constants


• If step changes are only considered in measured quantity, then E1
becomes:
𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 +… 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖 (E2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Further simplification can be done by taking certain special cases of


(E2) which would be applied to all measuring systems.

 Zero-Order Instrument
When all the coefficients 𝑎1 . . . 𝑎𝑛 are assumed zero except 𝑎𝑜 in (E2)

𝑏𝑜
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾 𝑞𝑖 (E3) where
𝑎𝑜

The constant K is known as the instrument sensitivity.

• The dynamic behavior of any instrument according to (E3) is said to


be of a zero-order type.
• Following a step change in the measured quantity at time instant t,
the instrument output moves immediately to a new value at the
same time, as shown in Fig. L3.2

e.g. A Potentiometer, which


measures motion, is zero order
instrument.
• the output voltage of the
potentiometer changes
instantaneously as the slider is
displaced along the potentiometer
track

Fig. L3.2
 First-Order Instrument

When all the coefficients 𝑎2 . . . 𝑎𝑛 are assumed to be zero except 𝑎𝑜


𝑎1 in (E2)

𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖 (E3)
𝑑𝑡

𝒅
The is replaced by the operator D in (E3), then we have:
𝒅𝒕

𝑎1 𝐷𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖 (E4)

• The dynamic behavior of any instrument that follows (E3 or E4);


then, the instrument is said to be of a first-order instrument.

Rearranging E(4) as: 𝑏𝑜


𝑎𝑜
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑎1 𝑞𝑖 (E5)
1+ 𝑎𝑜 𝐷
• Let 𝐾 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑎𝑜 is known as the static sensitivity and 𝜏 = 𝑎1 𝑎𝑜 the
time constant of the system, then (E5) becomes:
𝐾
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞
1 + 𝜏𝐷 𝑖
(E6)

• If ( E6) is solved analytically, the shape of the step response is given


in Fig. L3.3
• The time constant 𝜏 of the step response is “time taken for the
output quantity 𝑞𝑜
to reach 63% of its
final value.”

Fig. L3.3 First-order


instrument characteristic
e.g. The Thermocouple is first-order instrument.
• if a Thermocouple at room temperature is plunged into boiling
water, the output e.m.f. approaches a reading indicating 100 𝐶 ° in a
manner similar to that shown in Fig. L3.3

This type of dynamic characteristic is very importance in control


systems where it is necessary to take account of the time lag.
• the time constant of many first-order instruments is small relative to
the dynamics of the process being measured, so no serious problems
are come up.

 Second-Order Instrument

When all the coefficients 𝑎3 . . . 𝑎𝑛 are assumed to be zero except 𝑎𝑜 ,


𝑎1 , and 𝑎2 in (E2), then:
𝑑 2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎2 2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖 (E7)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

By applying the operator D to (E7) and re-arranging it, then we


have:
𝑎2 𝐷 2 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖 (E8)
𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎2 𝐷 2 (E9)

If (E9) is divided by 𝑎𝑜 , then


𝑏𝑜
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑖 (E10)
𝑎 𝑎
1 + 1 𝑎𝑜 𝐷 + 2 𝑎𝑜 𝐷 2

where
𝑏𝑜
𝐾= is static sensitivity
𝑎𝑜
𝑎𝑜
𝜔= is un-damped natural frequency
𝑎2

𝑎1 𝑎1 𝜔
𝜉= = is damping ratio
2 𝑎𝑜 𝑎2 2𝑎𝑜

Dividing (E10) through by 𝑞𝑖 and write it in terms of 𝐾, 𝜔, and 𝜉 as:

𝑞𝑜 𝐾
= (E11)
𝑞𝑖 𝐷2 2𝜉𝐷
+ 𝜔+1
𝜔2

• This is standard equation for a Second-order System. So, if the


response of an instrument is described by (E11), then that instrument
is called Second-order Instrument

• If ( E11) is solved analytically, the shape of the step response obtained


depends on the value of the damping ratio 𝜉 as in Fig. L3.4
• If an instrument were
to be only ever subjected
to step inputs, then the
design strategy would be
to aim toward a damping
ratio of 0.707, which
gives the critically
damped response (C) as
shown in Fig. L3.4

Fig. L3.4: Response characteristics of the second-


order instruments.
• Commercial second-order instruments, such as Accelerometer, are
generally designed to have a damping ratio 𝜉 somewhere in the
range of 0.6–0.8.

Numerical Problem:
A balloon is equipped with temperature- and altitude-measuring instruments
and has radio equipment that can transmit the output readings of these
instruments back to the ground. The balloon is initially anchored to the ground
with the instrument output readings in steady state. The altitude-measuring
instrument is approximately zero order, and the temperature transducer is
first order with a time constant of 15 seconds. The temperature on the
ground, 𝑇0 , is 10℃ and the temperature 𝑇𝑥 at an altitude of x meters is given
by the relation: 𝑻𝒙 = 𝑻𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒙
(a) If the balloon is released at time zero, and thereafter rises upward at a
velocity of 5 m/s, draw a table showing the temperature and altitude
measurements reported at intervals of 10 seconds over the first 50 seconds of
travel.
(b) What temperature does the balloon report at an altitude of 5000 meters?
✔ Solution is done in class.
Quiz 1

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