Introduction of Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high quality system that
meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost evaluations, and works
effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology infrastructure.
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and
procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the following activities
−

 requirements
 design
 implementation
 testing
 deployment
 operations
 maintenance

Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks down the work
into phases that are required to implement either new or modified Information System.

Feasibility Study or Planning

 Define the problem and scope of existing system.
 Overview the new system and determine its objectives.
 Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.
 During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are also
considered.
 A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.
Analysis and Specification
 Gather, analyze, and validate the information.
 Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.
 Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.
 Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.
 A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the software,
hardware, functional, and network requirements of the system is prepared at the end of this
phase.

System Design
 Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and system
interfaces.
 Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed and complete
set of specifications that can be implemented in a programming language.
 Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.
 Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the requirements
stated in SRS document.
 Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation
 Implement the design into source code through coding.
 Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects errors and defects.
 A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes test related
tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource allocation for testing.
 Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new system.

Maintenance/Support
 Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for users that is
required once the system is installing.
 Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or implement any
new requirements after the software is deployed at the customer location.
 It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may exist in the
system even after the testing phase.
 Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems and for a short
time for smaller systems.
Role of System Analyst
The system analyst is a person who is thoroughly aware of the system and guides the system
development project by giving proper directions. He is an expert having technical and interpersonal
skills to carry out development tasks required at each phase.
He pursues to match the objectives of information system with the organization goal.

Main Roles
 Defining and understanding the requirement of user through various Fact finding techniques.
 Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user consensus.
 Gathering the facts or information and acquires the opinions of users.
 Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at appropriate system which is more user
friendly.
 Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the best solution, and quantify cost and
benefits.
 Draw certain specifications which are easily understood by users and programmer in precise
and detailed form.
 Implemented the logical design of system which must be modular.
 Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been used for some time, and modify the
system as needed.
Attributes of a Systems Analyst
The following figure shows the attributes a systems analyst should possess −

Interpersonal Skills
 Interface with users and programmer.
 Facilitate groups and lead smaller teams.
 Managing expectations.
 Good understanding, communication, selling and teaching abilities.
 Motivator having the confidence to solve queries.
Analytical Skills
 System study and organizational knowledge
 Problem identification, problem analysis, and problem solving
 Sound commonsense
 Ability to access trade-off
 Curiosity to learn about new organization
Management Skills
 Understand users jargon and practices.
 Resource & project management.
 Change & risk management.
 Understand the management functions thoroughly.
Technical Skills
 Knowledge of computers and software.
 Keep abreast of modern development.
 Know of system design tools.
 Breadth knowledge about new technologies.
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by the software industry to design,
develop and test high quality softwares. The SDLC aims to produce a high-quality software that
meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within times and cost estimates.
 SDLC is the acronym of Software Development Life Cycle.
 It is also called as Software Development Process.
 SDLC is a framework defining tasks performed at each step in the software development
process.
 ISO/IEC 12207 is an international standard for software life-cycle processes. It aims to be
the standard that defines all the tasks required for developing and maintaining software.
What is SDLC?
SDLC is a process followed for a software project, within a software organization. It consists of a
detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain, replace and alter or enhance specific software.
The life cycle defines a methodology for improving the quality of software and the overall
development process.
The following figure is a graphical representation of the various stages of a typical SDLC.

A typical Software Development Life Cycle consists of the following stages −

Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis
Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in SDLC. It is performed by the
senior members of the team with inputs from the customer, the sales department, market surveys
and domain experts in the industry. This information is then used to plan the basic project
approach and to conduct product feasibility study in the economical, operational and technical
areas.
Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of the risks associated with the
project is also done in the planning stage. The outcome of the technical feasibility study is to define
the various technical approaches that can be followed to implement the project successfully with
minimum risks.
Stage 2: Defining Requirements
Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is to clearly define and document the product
requirements and get them approved from the customer or the market analysts. This is done
through an SRS (Software Requirement Specification) document which consists of all the
product requirements to be designed and developed during the project life cycle.
Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture
SRS is the reference for product architects to come out with the best architecture for the product to
be developed. Based on the requirements specified in SRS, usually more than one design
approach for the product architecture is proposed and documented in a DDS - Design Document
Specification.
This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders and based on various parameters as risk
assessment, product robustness, design modularity, budget and time constraints, the best design
approach is selected for the product.
A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the product along with its
communication and data flow representation with the external and third party modules (if any). The
internal design of all the modules of the proposed architecture should be clearly defined with the
minutest of the details in DDS.
Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product
In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is built. The programming
code is generated as per DDS during this stage. If the design is performed in a detailed and
organized manner, code generation can be accomplished without much hassle.
Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their organization and programming tools
like compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are used to generate the code. Different high level
programming languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Java and PHP are used for coding. The
programming language is chosen with respect to the type of software being developed.
Stage 5: Testing the Product
This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC models, the testing
activities are mostly involved in all the stages of SDLC. However, this stage refers to the testing
only stage of the product where product defects are reported, tracked, fixed and retested, until the
product reaches the quality standards defined in the SRS.
Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance
Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released formally in the appropriate
market. Sometimes product deployment happens in stages as per the business strategy of that
organization. The product may first be released in a limited segment and tested in the real
business environment (UAT- User acceptance testing).
Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancements in the targeting market segment. After the product is released in the market, its
maintenance is done for the existing customer base.
SDLC Models
There are various software development life cycle models defined and designed which are
followed during the software development process. These models are also referred as Software
Development Process Models". Each process model follows a Series of steps unique to its type to
ensure success in the process of software development.
Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in the industry −

 Waterfall Model
 Iterative Model
 Spiral Model
 V-Model
 Big Bang Model
Other related methodologies are Agile Model, RAD Model, Rapid Application Development and
Prototyping Models.
SDLC - Waterfall Model
The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a linear-
sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each
phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no overlapping in the
phases.
The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow. This
means that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is complete.
In this waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.
Waterfall Model - Design
Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software Engineering to ensure
success of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development is
divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts as
the input for the next phase sequentially.
The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the Waterfall Model.

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −

 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the system to be
developed are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement specification
document.
 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this phase
and the system design is prepared. This system design helps in specifying hardware and
system requirements and helps in defining the overall system architecture.
 Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first developed in
small programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is developed
and tested for its functionality, which is referred to as Unit Testing.
 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase are
integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is
tested for any faults and failures.
  Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is done; the
product is deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.
 Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To fix
those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better versions are
released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer environment.
All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing steadily
downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases. The next phase is started only after the defined
set of goals are achieved for previous phase and it is signed off, so the name "Waterfall Model". In
this model, phases do not overlap.
Waterfall Model - Application
Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to be followed based
on the internal and external factors. Some situations where the use of Waterfall model is most
appropriate are −
 Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
 There are no ambiguous requirements.
 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.
 The project is short.

Waterfall Model - Advantages

The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for departmentalization and control. A
schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of development and a product can proceed
through the development process model phases one by one.
Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing, installation,
troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development
proceeds in strict order.
Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 Simple and easy to understand and use
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables and a
review process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
 Clearly defined stages.
 Well understood milestones.
 Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results are well documented.

Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much reflection or revision.
Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that
was not well-documented or thought upon in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing.
So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
  Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow identifying any
technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.


SDLC - Iterative Model

In the Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a small set of the
software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system is
implemented and ready to be deployed.
An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements.
Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is
then reviewed to identify further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a new
version of the software at the end of each iteration of the model.
Iterative Model - Design
Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements and
iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration,
design modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added. The basic idea behind
this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a
time (incremental).
The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental model −

Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or iterative method
and incremental build model for development. "During software development, more than one
iteration of the software development cycle may be in progress at the same time." This process
may be described as an "evolutionary acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."
In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During each
iteration, the development module goes through the requirements, design, implementation and
testing phases. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The
process continues till the complete system is ready as per the requirement.
The key to a successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is rigorous validation of
requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software against those requirements
within each cycle of the model. As the software evolves through successive cycles, tests must be
repeated and extended to verify each version of the software.
Iterative Model - Application
Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some specific applications in
the software industry. This model is most often used in the following scenarios −
 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested
enhancements may evolve with time.
 There is a time to the market constraint.
 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while working
on the project.
 Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used on contract
basis for specific iterations.
 There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.

Iterative Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of this model is that there is a working model of the system at a very early stage of
development, which makes it easier to find functional or design flaws. Finding issues at an early
stage of development enables to take corrective measures in a limited budget.
The disadvantage with this SDLC model is that it is applicable only to large and bulky software
development projects. This is because it is hard to break a small software system into further small
serviceable increments/modules.
The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.
 Results are obtained early and periodically.
 Parallel development can be planned.
 Progress can be measured.
 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an easily managed
milestone.
 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.
 With every increment, operational product is delivered.
 Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be utilized/applied to the
next increment.
 Risk analysis is better.
 It supports changing requirements.
 Initial Operating time is less.
 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
 During the life cycle, software is produced early which facilitates customer evaluation and
feedback.
The disadvantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
 More resources may be required.
 Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing requirements.
 More management attention is required.
 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are gathered
in the beginning of the entire life cycle.
 Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
 Not suitable for smaller projects.
 Management complexity is more.
 End of project may not be known which is a risk.
 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.
 SDLC - Spiral Model
The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic, controlled
aspects of the waterfall model. This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development process
model and sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall model with a very high emphasis
on risk analysis. It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental refinement through
each iteration around the spiral.

Spiral Model – Design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in
iterations called Spirals.
Identification
This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral. In the
subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system requirements, subsystem
requirements and unit requirements are all done in this phase.
This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous communication
between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the spiral, the product is deployed in
the identified market.
Design
The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and involves
architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design and the final design in the
subsequent spirals.
Construct or Build
The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every spiral. In the
baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design is being developed a POC
(Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a working
model of the software called build is produced with a version number. These builds are sent to the
customer for feedback.
Evaluation and Risk Analysis
Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical feasibility and
management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun. After testing the build, at the end
of first iteration, the customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.
The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing the activities in each phase.
Based on the customer evaluation, the software development process enters the next iteration and
subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the feedback suggested by the customer.
The process of iterations along the spiral continues throughout the life of the software.
Spiral Model Application
The Spiral Model is widely used in the software industry as it is in sync with the natural
development process of any product, i.e. learning with maturity which involves minimum risk for
the customer as well as the development firms.
The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −
 When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.
 For medium to high-risk projects.
 Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities as the
requirements change with time.
 Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
 Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
 New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer feedback.
 Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.

Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of spiral lifecycle model is that it allows elements of the product to be added in,
when they become available or known. This assures that there is no conflict with previous
requirements and design.
This method is consistent with approaches that have multiple software builds and releases which
allows making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity. Another positive aspect of this
method is that the spiral model forces an early user involvement in the system development effort.
On the other side, it takes a very strict management to complete such products and there is a risk
of running the spiral in an indefinite loop. So, the discipline of change and the extent of taking
change requests is very important to develop and deploy the product successfully.
The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Changing requirements can be accommodated.
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured more accurately.
 Users see the system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be developed earlier
which helps in better risk management.

The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.
What is RAD Model? Phases, Advantages and Disadvantages

RAD Model or Rapid Application Development model is a software development process based
on prototyping without any specific planning. In RAD model, there is less attention paid to the
planning and more priority is given to the development tasks. It targets at developing software in a
short span of time.

SDLC RAD modeling has following phases

 Business Modeling
 Data Modeling
 Process Modeling
 Application Generation
 Testing and Turnover

RAD Model Diagram

It focuses on input-output source and destination of the information. It emphasizes on delivering

projects in small pieces; the larger projects are divided into a series of smaller projects. The main
features of RAD modeling are that it focuses on the reuse of templates, tools, processes, and
code.
 Different Phases of RAD Model
There are following five major phases of Rapid Application Development Model

RAD Model
Activities performed in RAD Modeling
Phases
 On basis of the flow of information and distribution between various business
Business
channels, the product is designed
Modeling
 The information collected from business modeling is refined into a set of data
Data Modeling objects that are significant for the business

 The data object that is declared in the data modeling phase is transformed to
Process
achieve the information flow necessary to implement a business function
Modeling
 Automated tools are used for the construction of the software, to convert
Application
process and data models into prototypes
Generation
 As prototypes are individually tested during every iteration, the overall testing
Testing and
time is reduced in RAD.
Turnover

When to use RAD Methodology?

 When a system needs to be produced in a short span of time (2-3 months)

 When the requirements are known
 When the user will be involved all through the life cycle
 When technical risk is less
 When there is a necessity to create a system that can be modularized in 2-3 months of time
 When a budget is high enough to afford designers for modeling along with the cost of
automated tools for code generation
 Rapid Application Development Advantages and Disadvantages

Disadvantages of RAD Model

Advantages of RAD Model
 Flexible and adaptable to changes  It can’t be used for smaller projects

 It is useful when you have to reduce the

 Not all application is compatible with RAD
overall project risk

 It is adaptable and flexible to changes  When technical risk is high, it is not suitable

 It is easier to transfer deliverables as

 If developers are not committed to delivering
scripts, high-level abstractions and
software on time, RAD projects can fail
intermediate codes are used

 Reduced features due to time boxing, where

 Due to code generators and code reuse,
features are pushed to a later version to finish a
there is a reduction of manual coding
release in short period

 Reduced scalability occurs because a RAD

 Due to prototyping in nature, there is a
developed application begins as a prototype and
possibility of lesser defects
evolves into a finished application

 Progress and problems accustomed are hard to

 Each phase in RAD delivers highest
track as such there is no documentation to
priority functionality to client
demonstrate what has been done

 With less people, productivity can be

 Requires highly skilled designers or developers
increased in short time

What is Prototyping Model?

Prototyping Model is a software development model in which prototype is built, tested, and
reworked until an acceptable prototype is achieved. It also creates base to produce the final
system or software. It works best in scenarios where the project’s requirements are not known in
detail. It is an iterative, trial and error method which takes place between developer and client.
Prototyping Model Phases

Prototyping Model has following six SDLC phases as follow:

Step 1: Requirements gathering and analysis

A prototyping model starts with requirement analysis. In this phase, the requirements of the system
are defined in detail. During the process, the users of the system are interviewed to know what is
their expectation from the system.

Step 2: Quick design

The second phase is a preliminary design or a quick design. In this stage, a simple design of the
system is created. However, it is not a complete design. It gives a brief idea of the system to the
user. The quick design helps in developing the prototype.

Step 3: Build a Prototype

In this phase, an actual prototype is designed based on the information gathered from quick
design. It is a small working model of the required system.

Step 4: Initial user evaluation

In this stage, the proposed system is presented to the client for an initial evaluation. It helps to find
out the strength and weakness of the working model. Comment and suggestion are collected from
the customer and provided to the developer.

Step 5: Refining prototype

If the user is not happy with the current prototype, you need to refine the prototype according to
the user’s feedback and suggestions.

This phase will not over until all the requirements specified by the user are met. Once the user is
satisfied with the developed prototype, a final system is developed based on the approved final
prototype.

Step 6: Implement Product and Maintain

Once the final system is developed based on the final prototype, it is thoroughly tested and
deployed to production. The system undergoes routine maintenance for minimizing downtime and
prevent large-scale failures.
Types of Prototyping Models
Four types of Prototyping models are:

1. Rapid Throwaway prototypes

2. Evolutionary prototype
3. Incremental prototype
4. Extreme prototype

Advantages of the Prototyping Model

 Users are actively involved in development. Therefore, errors can be detected in the initial
stage of the software development process.
 Missing functionality can be identified, which helps to reduce the risk of failure as
Prototyping is also considered as a risk reduction activity.
 Helps team member to communicate effectively
 Customer satisfaction exists because the customer can feel the product at a very early
stage.
 There will be hardly any chance of software rejection.
 Quicker user feedback helps you to achieve better software development solutions.
 Allows the client to compare if the software code matches the software specification.
 It helps you to find out the missing functionality in the system.
 It also identifies the complex or difficult functions.
 Encourages innovation and flexible designing.
 It is a straightforward model, so it is easy to understand.
 No need for specialized experts to build the model
 The prototype serves as a basis for deriving a system specification.
 The prototype helps to gain a better understanding of the customer’s needs.
 Prototypes can be changed and even discarded.
 A prototype also serves as the basis for operational specifications.
 Prototypes may offer early training for future users of the software system.

Disadvantages of the Prototyping Model

 Prototyping is a slow and time taking process.

 The cost of developing a prototype is a total waste as the prototype is ultimately thrown
away.
 Prototyping may encourage excessive change requests.
 Sometimes customers may not be willing to participate in the iteration cycle for the longer
time duration.
 There may be far too many variations in software requirements when each time the
prototype is evaluated by the customer.
 Poor documentation because the requirements of the customers are changing.
 It is very difficult for software developers to accommodate all the changes demanded by the
clients.
 After seeing an early prototype model, the customers may think that the actual product will
be delivered to him soon.
 The client may lose interest in the final product when he or she is not happy with the initial
prototype.
 Developers who want to build prototypes quickly may end up building sub-standard
development solutions.
Factors Affecting System Development SuccessSuccessful

systems development means delivering a system that meets user and organisational needs–
on time andwithin budget. There is no formula for achieving this, but the following factors are known
to have impact on success:

Involvement–getting users and other stakeholders involved in systems development is critical for
most systems development projects. Having the support of top-level managers is also important.
The involvement of users throughout the development will mean they are less likely to resist the
software when it is delivered.

Degree of Change–a major factor that affects-

the quality of systems development is the degree of change associated with the project. The scope
can vary from implementing minor enhancements to an existing system, up to major reengineering.
The project team needs to recognise where they are on this spectrum of change

Managing Change–the ability to manage change is critical to the success of systems development.
New systems inevitably cause change. Unfortunately, not everyone adopts easily, and the
increasing complexity of systems can multiply the problems. Managing change requires the ability to
recognise existing or potential problems and deal with them before they become a serious threat to
the success of the new or modified system.

Here are some of the most common problems:

 Fear that the employee will lose his or her job, power or influence within the organisation
 Belief that the proposed system will create more work than it eliminates
 Reluctance to work with “computer people
 Anxiety that the proposed system will negatively alter the structure of the organisation
 Belief that other problems are more pressing than those solved by the proposed system or
that thesystem is being developed by people unfamiliar with“the way things need to get done”
 Unwillingness to learn new procedures or approaches.

Preventing or dealing with these types of problems requires a coordinated effort from
stakeholders and users, managers and IS personnel